Professional Documents
Culture Documents
CORE COURSE
Paper-VI : Perspectives on Public Administration
Study Material : Unit 1–4
Graduate Course
Paper-VI : Perspectives on Public Administration
Contents Pg. No.
Unit-1 : Public Administration as a Discipline
(a) : Meaning, Dimension and Significance Dr. Shradhanvita Singh/ Dr. Rinki 01
(b) : Public and Private Administration Dr. Shradhanvita Singh 10
(c) : Evolution of Public Administration Dr. Rinki 17
Unit-2 : Theoretical Perspectives
(a) : Classical Theories
i. Scientific Management Approach Dr. Shradhanvita Singh / Dr. Rinki 26
ii. Administrative Management Mhadeno Jungi 32
iii. Ideal-Type Bureaucracy (Max Weber) Anchal 42
(b) : Neo-Classical Theories
i. Human Relations Theory (Elton Mayo) Dr. Neelam Jain 52
ii. Rational Decision-Making (Herbert Simon)
Dr. Devarati Roy Chowdhury 60
(c) : Contemporary Theories
i. Ecological Approach (Fred Riggs) Bijendra Jha 77
ii. Innovation and Entreperneurship (Peter Drucker) Dr. Vaishali Narula 87
Unit-3 : Public Policy
(a) : Concept, Relevance and Approaches Dr. Devarati Roy Chowdhury 96
(b) : Public Policy: Formulation, Implementation and Evaluation
Dr. Devarati Roy Chowdhury 111
Unit-4 : Major Approaches in Public Administration
(a) : Development Administration: An Analysis Bijendra Jha 125
(b) : New Public Administration Dr. Devarati Roy Chowdhury 136
(c) : New Public Management Dr. Devarati Roy Chowdhury 144
(d) : New Public Service Dr. Devarati Roy Chowdhury 150
(e) : Good Governance: Concept and Context Bijendra Jha 153
(f) : Feminist Perspective in Public Administration Dr. Rinki and
Dr. Devarati Roy Chowdhury 159
Edited by:
Prof. Tapan Biswal
Dr. Mangal Deo
Structure
Introduction
What is Administration?
Administration, Organisation and Management
Defining Public Administration
Dimension of Public Administration
Significance of Public Administration
Importance of Public Administration as an Activity
Conclusion
References and Further Reading
Introduction
Administration is as old as civilization as a movement. Be that as it may, as control of Study
it began, with the distribution of Wilson’s exposition an investigation of administration in
1887. As a cycle, an organization happens in both government and private associations. It
happens in such assorted establishment like business organization worker’s guilds, strict or
beneficent associations, instructive organizations, and so forth. The organization is usually
segregated into public and private administration. As a part of government movement, it has
exist since the rise of the political system(s). While policy implementation identifies with the
exercises completed by the government, private organization alludes to the administration of
personal business endeavours which has nothing to do with the legislature. It is essential to
comprehend the idea of an organization its measurements and criticalness in the
contemporary situation. In this section, an attempt has been made to bring the concept of
administration specifically, closer to you. This comprehension will go through the course of
Public Administration. It emphasizes on the importance, measurement and criticalness of
public administration.
Meaning of Public Administration
The phrase ‘administration’ is imitative from the Latin word administer, which intends to
think about or to take care of individuals, to care for the issues of individual. An organization
can be characterized as a “group action which includes joint effort and synchronization to
1
Assistant Professor, Amity School of Liberal Arts and Foreign languages, Amity University Haryana and
**
Assistant Professor, Department of Political Science, University of Delhi
Administration is the vigour, which states the objectives and on the other hand management
to endeavour issues and circumstances under which they operate.
Administration is a combination of the necessary human supplies tools, apparatus and
space, accessories, at a common platform to fulfil the desired objectives. Management helps
you to, guide and directs an organisation for the execution of desired objectives as stated by
the organization. To put together in an effortless way, the administration sets an objective
management by trying to achieve it and the organisation is the device of the government for
the accomplishment of the objectives dogged by the administration. There is a different view
about the administration and management by the Scholars. The view is that administration is
entrenched with performing programme activities in following specific measures rules, and
set of laws. The management is simultaneous concerned with the functions which are not
programmed. Management is the function that is concerned with carrying out the broad
policies laid down by the administration. The organisation is the mechanism through which
harmonization is recognized between administration and management.
Defining Public Administration
The public administration can be related to the fact that sort of association which works
within the confine boundaries of the system. It is a way to make the service delivery more
efficient and effective. ‘Public’ can be seen as synonymous to ‘government’. Thus, public
administration is about the activities of the government and the actions of the government in
all the sphere the attention being particularly on open administration. Highlights from
Britannica characterizes public administration as ‘the operation of an arrangement of a state
through its administration.’ Policy implementation, hence, alludes to that part of the
organization that relates to the regulatory exercises of the administration. Presently, we will
attempt to investigate the meanings of Public Administration given by different researchers.
Woodrow Wilson
The public administration is definite and orderly use of law. Each specific utilization of the
law is a demonstration of its activities.
L.D. White
“Public administration comprises of each one of those activities having for their motivation
the satisfaction or requirement of public arrangement”. According to White, this definition
engulfs a large number of specific activities in numerous fields the conveyance of a letter, the
offer of public land, the exchange of a deal, the honour of remuneration to a harmed worker,
the isolate of a debilitated youngster, the expulsion of litter from a recreation centre,
fabricating uranium, and authorizing the utilization of nuclear vitality. It incorporates military
just as common issues, a significant part of crafted by courts, and all the unique fields of
government action police, instruction, wellbeing, development of public creation,
preservation, federal retirement aide, and numerous others. The direct of public undertakings
in cutting edge civilisations requires the work of pretty much every calling and ability
building, law, medication, and educating; the artworks, the specialized fortes, the workplace
aptitudes, and numerous others.
J.M Pfiffner
“Administration comprises of completing crafted by the government by planning the
endeavours of individuals with the goal that they can cooperate to achieve their set
undertakings”.
M. Ruthanaswami
“At the point when an administration has to do with the illegitimate relationships of a state or
political establishments like the civil, state or nation gathering (region board), it is called
public administration. All the demonstrations of the authorities of a legislature, from the peon
in a distant office to the top of a state in the capital, establish public administration.” The
meaning public administration is like deployment, the exercises of the chief parts of people,
state-owned and managements, enterprises and individual different offices of a meticulous
eccentric.
“Public administration… is the activity part of the government, the methods by which
the reasons and objectives of government are figured out.”
Dwight Waldo
“Public administration is the cram of the executives as applied to the issues of State.”
M.E. Dimock
“Public administration is worried about the functioning of the government. The ‘what’ is the
topic, the specialized information on a field, which empowers the chairman to play out his
undertakings. The ‘how’ is the method of the executives, the standards as indicated by which
co-employable projects are brought through to progress. Each is imperative, together they
structure the combination called administration “.
Nicholas Henry
“Public administration is a broad going and tenuous mix of hypothesis and practice; its
motivation is to advance an unrivaled understanding of government and its relationship with
the common man, it oversees, just as to empower public strategies more receptive to social
needs and to establish administrative practices sensitive to adequacy, proficiency and the
more profound human essentials of the populace”.
The connotation of public administration is just engaged with completing the approaches
and projects of the legislature. It mirror that it has no part in strategy making and finds the
organization in the presidential branch however today the term policy management is utilized
from a more extensive perspective that it isn’t just engaged with completing the projects of
the legislature. Yet it likewise assumes a significant function in strategy definition and
spreads the three parts of the administration.
Once more, for this reason, the state should utilize more people. The entire issue isn’t
just a major one, it is all the while a more unpredictable one. Besides, with the spread of
majority rule government or acknowledgment of ideal, the capacities and responsibilities are
being increased. In the event that the legislature is truly true at its own duty just as
responsibility it must play out specific obligations to fulfill individuals’ requests.
Once more, there is an away from of globalization upon the managerial locale of
government. The truth of the matter is that as the globalization is quickly growing its wings
of impacts upon all over locales individuals of various nations are coming in close contact
with one another. This outcomes in the adjustment in way of life, conduct, standpoint and so
forth. Individuals, through deliberate endeavors, pressurize the legislature to meet their new
and expanding requests which powers the administration to receive new arrangements, take
exceptional measures. All these interest for new arrangements which the administration is
compelled to take. The appropriation of strategy isn’t all, its usage is vital which again falls
inside the territory of public administration. In the sixties or seventies of the only remaining
century the almighty man of China embraced an abhorrent arrangement known as
Xenophobia (unreasonable aversion or dread of individuals from different nations). He didn’t
permit the Chinese public to blend in with the individuals of different nations.
Because he thought that it would contaminate the character and behaviour of the people
of China. Today there is no such possibility. Naturally, free mixing among the various people
of nation-states will bring about a change in everything. Before the Second World War
(1939-1945) there were few- nation-states and international relations were at rudimentary
levels. The governments (particularly of the Third World countries) were not under mounting
pressures of masses of men. Today the situation is different. Now-a-days common people are
extremely conscious, political parties are highly active. The rise and fall of governments are
not trifling matters. The spread of democracy has forced governments of nation states to take
measures to meet the growing demands which has enhanced scope of public administration.
In recent years the concept of political science has changed enormously. It is not only a
science of society. It is also “policy science” which means that political science not only
discusses political arena of human society, it also suggests policies for the proper or
meaningful functions of society. This modification in idea about political science has a
affirmative impact upon public administration. Peter Self in his piece Administrative
Theories and Politics has thrown new light on the political aspect and functional aspect of
government. Peter Self says that in earlier decades government was primarily concerned with
the political aspect or approach. This means that authorities mainly thinks about politics. This
means to maintain law’ and order, conduct elections or the management of day-to-day affairs.
Yet, in late many years this standpoint about administration has changed. Diminish Self
states “Capacities must be fitted into the administrative prerequisites of the overall
authoritative framework.” The administrative angle or approach expresses that the running or
the executives of everyday capacities will never be the sole motivation behind a state.
The state must play out certain significant capacities and the policy implementation plays
out the obligations in the interest of the state. Dwindle Self again expresses that practical
methodology implies that the administration will take or embrace thorough approach to
satisfy the regularly expanding needs of individuals. Once more, the reception and usage of
arrangements require co-appointment among all or the greater part of the branches of
government. Self-further says that the utilitarian association is turning out to be increasingly
convoluted.
John Rawls in his A Theory of Justice has re-imagined and reformulated the hypothesis
of Justice. The way where he has carried out this responsibility has unmistakably changed the
extent of policy implementation in a significant manner. Let us quickly state what Rawls says
about equity. Rawls recommends that rights and freedoms are to be appropriated based on
correspondence. Rawls in addition suggests that financial and different imbalances are to be
organized in such way that no one will be in inconvenience.
This plan of Rawls, it is proposed forces extra weight on government especially the
policy implementation. Rawls’ plan is a significant piece of liberal vote based system. The
administrations, of such popular governments can’t reject their obligations to the individuals.
The outcome is the elements of the policy implementation division are bound to duplicate.
This part of policy implementation has been named as the regularizing measurement. It is
additionally called a moral measurement. It has been proposed by numerous that it is the
obligation of state to see that equity isn’t denied to a specific part of the network.
So as to accomplish this elevated ideal of liberal vote based system the legislature must
take uncommon consideration. The issue is who will carry out the responsibility? The
appropriate response is it is the essential obligation of a liberal government to see that the
ideal of equity has been converted into the real world and the weight of activity falls upon the
division of policy implementation. The policy management of prior period didn’t think the
make a difference in this light.
Max Weber, the father of regulatory organization, restricted his investigation on the idea
of administration and its function in an industrialized entrepreneur society. Be that as it may,
during the most recent eighty years both the industrialist states and individuals’ disposition’
towards government have impressively changed and this change has constrained public
administration to assume more prominent and urgent job.
Significance of the Discipline
In the next section we will be discussing the importance administration as an activity and
discipline.
Importance of the Discipline
The administration has assumed greater importance and scope according to Woodrow
Wilson, all these are consequences of growing problems of society, pro active role of the
state and its welfare activities which has stretched in recent years. The pro active role of the
government has resulted in involvement in so many activities which again cannot limit the
work of the administration. In today’s scenario administration has following role to play
1. Base of the government
2. It is the instrument of progress in the general public.
3. It assumes indispensable function in the life of the individuals.
4. It is an instrument for executing laws, strategies, projects of the state.
5. It is a balancing out power in the general public as it gives coherence.
6. It is instrument of public joining in the agricultural nations which are confronting class
wars.
Significance of Administration
The rise of public administration is accredited to the public maneuver. The most important
goal of policy implementation is to proficiently convey public administrations. In some
scenario, Wilsonian highlighted as productivity advancing and realistic field was the primary
unequivocally expressed proclamation on public administration. During the primary portion
of the previous century, many countries had delegated councils to investigate the issues of
organization and prescribed appropriate machinery to counter to various public needs.
Few government report which talks about the changes in administration aftermath of the
administrative reforms. During the most recent forty years likewise, various reports, created
by panels/commissions designated in different nations or multilateral offices, distributed by
researchers.Various reports have been published the few important ones are Fulton committee
report, Reinventing government and other associated reports which talks about the
importance of reforms.
Significance of Public Administration as an Activity
The contemporary time have seen the rise of the Welfare State and how public admin
istartion has transformed into an essential component of the society thus shaping up for the
further reforms. Thus, the enlarged functions calls upon a more proactive role of public
administration and also for outperform in number of spheres.
Views of Scholars
“Administration is action part of government and touches individual lives.
“Administration is a momentous human workforce since its capacity is to hearten social
change and to pad the load of social turmoil”.
“If our progress is not up to the mark then it is the result of the administrative failure.”
The importance of public administration can be listed as follows:
A Government can exist without other organs but it cannot function without the a good
administration.
An equipment for providing services: “The real core of administration is the services
which are carried out for the general public”. It is the utmost responsibility of the
administration to see that the work is done and public is benefitted.
An tool for implementing policies: All the policies formulated by the government are
implemented by the administration and thus is is the administration with the help of
which all policies take practical shape.
Maintenance of balance is very essential for any society and with the help of public
administration such status quo is maintained.
All the policies of the government whether social or economic are implemented by the
administrative agencies. The main objective of these policies is to bring change and
escalate the standard of the public.
Technical Character: The present day government and its services have become more
technical in character. Earlier most of the activities of the government were less complex
but the changing time we can see that the change in the character of the government too.
Conclusion
Administration, over the years has become one of the most essential components of society
for implementing the policies of the government. With each passing day the work of the
government is continuously increasing and is thus benefitting the public at large. The
POSDCORB activities of the administration paves way forward for the policies of the
government and thus helps the government in maintaining its balance.
Text:
Chakrabarty, Bidyut and Mohit Bhattacharaya.2003. Public Administration: A Reader.
New Delhi: Oxford University Press.
Sapru, R.K.2009.Administrative Theories and Management Thought. New Delhi:
Prentice-Hall India.
Stevenoff, Jand E.W. Russell (ed.). 2000. Defining Public Administration. New York:
Longman.
References:
Simon, Herbert A., Donald W. Smithburg, and Victor A Thompson.1950. Public
Administration. New York: Alfred A Knopf.
Fry, Brian R.1989. Mastering Public Administration: From Max Weber to Dwight
Waldo. Chatham NJ: Chatham House.
Cox, Raymondand Susan Buck.2009. Public Administration in Theoryand Practice.
Pearson Education.
Introduction
Differences among public and private organization
Conclusion
References
Introduction
The significant issue of management is to appropriately arrange resources for efficient
function of society. As a co-usable gathering movement, organization is really general and
works in a wide range of public and private associations. Public administration is legislative
organization worried about accomplishing stated purposes, controlled by the state. Private
organization, then again is, worried about organization of personal business association and is
particular from policy management. Let us expand this from here
A consensus has reached in the matter that contrasts among public and private area
workers exist and is becoming deeper and deeper. Researchers on contrasts and similitudes
among people in general and private areas have got a lot of consideration from the experts
and researchers in this field before, yet it shows blended outcomes. Perry (2000) highlights
requirement for more exact examinations in the area to incorporate more extensive organized
setting to get inspiration and authoritative conduct in open private area associations. Auditing
of writing uncovers tasks inspiration among the elected representatives, administration is
totally different from that of their private area partners. The essential point of task inspiration
is to figure out in what manner to stimulate representatives to play out obligations and duties
inside an association. The essentials of writings shows five essential component which are
inescapable in various standardisation of the work culture. To start with, monetary and
economic incentives is one of the most essential component of public and private
administration. Secondly, job content is directly related condition of the work that has best
predisposition, demeanor and captivating work. Thirdly, vocation improvement leads to
promising circumstances for advancement and improvement inside the association or field of
work. Fourthly, strong and social air alludes to the friendly and helpful working climate and,
fifthly, regard to the public and private life alludes to the business’ regard and comprehension
of representative’s very own circumstance.
A few researchers have engaged the substances zones for looking at difference between
public and private area representatives’ as they have strongly identify with the components of
2
Assistant Professor, Amity School of Liberal Arts and Foreign languages, Amity University
10
motivations for which disparities among both the units were reported. It is strongly said that
there is enough proofs that public workers are less stimulated by monetary awards than
private area representatives
There are many researchers who have argued that money is the not only sole motivating
factor but many other facilities and advantages that makes an employee feel better in the
governmental setup than the private sector. Awards, advantages and incentives that an
employee gets from the their associations whether it is a public or private unit make the most
difference between the two units.
Past exploration has revealed that private area worker, infact esteem significant
compensations essentially more than the public area workers. Public associations are
constantly seen as offering lower pay rates and less salary increases than the private area.
Jurkiewicz reports that public officials enjoy a good and stable position at the top, while
private area individuals put significant compensation/remuneration on the top of the position
request as far as inspirational things are associated.
Differences among Public and Private Organization
Many prominent scholars have made differences among public and private organization. As
indicated by Simon, the qualification among public and private organization transmits
fundamentally to three focuses:
Administration is governmental whereas private organization is efficient;
Public organization is politically aware where as private organization is not so much
politically aware.
Public organization is portrayed by formality where as private organization is
liberated from it.
As indicated by Sir Josiah Stamp, the four standards, which separate public from private
organization, are:
Equal Access for all: In Public administration everyone has an equal access but in
private the access is not for all.
Budgetary Control: Governmental body undergoes budgetary control while private
does not.
Responsibility and Accountability: Public organization is responsible to its political
experts and through them to the individuals.
Principle of Return: The principle target of an undertaking is benefit, anyway little it
might be. Notwithstanding, the vast majority of the targets of policy management can
nor be estimated in cash terms nor checked by bookkeeping strategies.
As indicated by Paul H. Appleby public administration is unique in relation to private
organization. He commented, “In expansive terms the administrative capacity and demeanor
11
have in any event three reciprocal perspectives that go to separate government from every
single other organization and exercises: expansiveness of extension, effect and thought;
public responsibility; political character. No non-legislative establishment has the broadness
of government.
“Organization is governmental issues since it must be receptive to the public intrigue. It
is important to underline the way that mainstream political cycles, which are the quintessence
of majority rules system, can just work through legislative association, and that all
administrative associations are not simply regulatory substances, they are and should be
political creatures.”
Private organization can’t guarantee the broadness of degree, effect and thought of the
policy implementation. He watches, “The composed government encroaches and influenced
by essentially. This includes arrangements and activities of colossal intricacy.
The more significant distinctive highlights are:
● Administration is political, while private organization is non-political, policy
implementation happens in a political setting.
● Nonappearance of benefit thought process: The nonattendance of benefit intention
from the Public organization is another element, which recognizes it from the private
organization. The main role of legislative association is to offer types of assistance to
individuals and advance social great.
● Esteem: Public organizations are high in esteem while Private organization are low in
esteem.
● Public Gaze: Activities of policy implementation are presented to wide open look in
light of the fact that people in general intently watches it.
● Maintenance: In governmental organizations the maintenance is more but in private
organization it’s less
● Legitimate structure: Public administration works under certain set of rules while
Private organization works on their whims and fancies.
● Public accountability: Public responsibility is the sign of Public organization in a
vote based system. Policy implementation is dependable to people in general,
however not straightforwardly yet by implication through political chief, assembly,
legal executive, and so on
● Enormous scope organization: Public organization is huge scope organization. It is
said that nearly anything under the sun is legitimately or in a roundabout way under
the space of policy implementation. It is by all methods bigger than any large private
worry regarding size, multifaceted nature and variety of exercises.
12
● Services : Both public and private organization are service oriented but for
government it is a part of welfare activity.
● Authorities: Policy management, even higher level stay unknown and their character
isn’t uncovered. This is so in light of the fact that whatever they do, they do for the
sake of the legislature and not in their own name.
● Monetary carefulness: Public organization must be exceptionally cautious in
budgetary issues since it is filling in as caretaker of individuals’ cash.
● Functional Efficiency: Efficiency is supposed to be the foundation of any
association. In any case, because of fluctuated obligations, absence of compelling
control, less responsibility, inclusion of countless levels and professional stability of
workers, proficiency has not been there in open associations with the impact wanted.
Private organization is considered to be more efficient.
Public and private administration is often paralleled and differentiated There is much in
common between public and private administration and the difference between the two is
only of degree, not of kind. First of all let us see the similarity between public and private
administration. Both public and private administrations have noticeable common features at
several points. Many of managerial practices in administration and its methods are common
to both. The activities like account keeping, planning, organizing staffing, directing, reporting
budgeting and staffing etc. are essential common features of both the administration. The
development of public corporation a halfway house between its commercial type and the
form of department- is a current trend in administration. Thus, there is a great deal of
similarity between public and private administration. Despite these similarities, both function
in different environment and performing different set of functions functions and is affected
by different set of externalities. The environment in which public administration functions
promotes protective attitude of mind in the officials, and it works in the favour and the
benefit of masses at large so that the accountability and responsibility can be fixed. In the
words of Paul H. Appleby, “Government administration differ from all other administrative
works to a degree not even distantly realised outside, by virtue of its public nature, the way in
which it is subject to public examination and commotion. An administrator coming into
government is struck at once, and continually thereafter, by the press and public interests in
every detail of his life, personality and conduct. The detail often runs to details of
administrative action that in private business would never be of concern other than inside the
organization”.
13
Fig 2: Difference between Public and Private Administration as per Paul H Appleby
14
Followings are the main differences between public and private administration
1. Public administration: The first and foremost difference between public and private
administration is that of profit orientation. The former works on non-profit basis and
the latter works on profit basis.
2. Public Administration is based on legal rational system which means that it has to run
the show on the basis of legality. On the contrary, private administration is not so
much on rule based. Private businesses are not so much of rule bound but they work
in a flexible environment which enables them to adapt to the changing scenario.
3. The actions of the public administration are open for criticism and wide publicity. An
achievement is rarely acknowledged, but a little problem creates a huge problem
within the society.
4. Public administration is impartial in dealing with the public and no preferential
treatment is met to the general public it is observed that there is principle of
consistency of treatment whereas in private administration discrimination is freely
practiced due to demands and supply needs of the people.
5. Public administration is much complex and is known for programme decision of the
government. There are many push and political pressures in the setup. Many minds
have to meet and discuss before decisions are taken. By contrast private
administration is more well-knit and single minded in operation
6. Public Administration has many responsibilities in terms of nation building and
shaping the future of the society. It is therefore much more value oriented.
7. There is inevitably more of redtape(thus delay) in public administration than private
administration
8. Activities of public administration are mandated by constitutional, statutory or executive
authority. Private administration enjoys a much larger measure of freedom of action
and behaviour
9. Public administration is slow to adapt itself to quick changes in the environment
because of the operation of checks and balances within itself as well as the complexity
of environmental factors. Private administration is quicker to change.
10. Public administration is subject to budgeting
Conclusion
The public administration and private administration is a kind of blended concept where both
have few similarities and differences at the same time. The concept of administration is
universal and has more practical significance in the times to come. The private sector is more
adaptive and supports innovation and change. Private administration is more flexible in
approach when compared with the Public administration. The private sector is also subjected
to constant change in order to meet the circumstances or situation like for tackling the current
15
financial obligations, political or social changes and thus underlining the need to rethink the
processes to adopt, thus make change inclusive.
References
Perry, J. L. (2000). Bringing society in: Towards a theory of public-service
motivation. Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory, 10(2), 471-488.
Hansen, S.B., Huggins, L., & Ban, C. (2003). Explaining employee recruitment and
retention by non-profit organizations: A survey of Pittsburgh Area University
graduates. Report to the Forbes Fund, December. Retrieved 10/9/08 at
http://www.forbesfunds.org/docs/PittsburghAreaGraduates.pdf.
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Introduction
Different Phases of Evolution of Public Administration
The first Phase - Politics Administration Dichotomy (1887–1926)
Second Phase - Principles of Administration (1927–1937)
Third Phase - Era of Challenges (1938–1947)
The fourth phase- Crises of Identity (1948-1970)
Fifth Phase - Public Policy Perspective (Since 1970)
New Trends in the Field of Public Administration
Conclusion
References
Introduction
Administration is connected with daily activities of our life and is considered as an important
aspect in which it can be seen that how the government can work better with efficiency and
lower cost. Public administration is playing an important role in modern society. It can be
said that public administration is a means of providing services to the people. It protects the
life and property of the people by maintaining law and order. Public administration as an
activity is as old as human civilization. It can also be said that public administration has been
as old as the government. Administration and government are interlinked. Scholars of politics
have systematically written on the subject of functions of government and its constitution, the
nature, sovereignty and power of the state. The beginning of the development of public
administration as a systematic study or academic discipline has been started from the late
nineteenth century, when Woodrow Wilson article ‘The Study of Administration’ was
published in Political Science Quarterly in 1887. But by this time public administration was
not considered as a branch of science.
Different Phases of Evolution of Public Administration
Public administration need to be understood in the context in which it has been originated.
The actions of the state have been changing with the passage of time and at the same time the
nature of public administration running the state has also changed. In modern times, the
nature of public administration can be understood in the changing socio-economic context of
the state. It can be said that public administration is the act of achieving a particular objective
in a socio-economic context. Public administration includes both theory and practice. Both its
17
theory and practice can be studied at various stages of evolution of public administration.
Thus, the evolution of public administration can be analyzed in five Phases.
First Phase- Politics Administration Dichotomy (1887-1926)
Second Phase- Principles of Administration (1927-1937)
Third Phase- Era of Challenges (1938-1947)
Fourth Phase- Crisis of Identity (1948-1970)
Fifth Phase- Public Policy Perspective (1970 Onwards)
The first Phase - Politics Administration Dichotomy (1887–1926)
During the last decades of the nineteenth century, role of the state was minimal; importance
was given to free competition and free market and the state was seen as a necessary evil.
Under these circumstances public services were provided by the private sector. Fundamental
principles of public administration emerged in these early days and it can be said that this was
the first stage of evolution of public administration. At the same time, in 1887, Woodrow
Wilson’s article ‘The Study of Administration’ was published in Political Science Quarterly
which is accepted as the first article of public administration. This article was written at a
time when there was a need to eradicate corruption and increase efficiency in order to provide
services in the public interest. He believed that there should be a scientific study of
administration. By scientific study of administration, he meant a branch of systematic
knowledge that could improve the field of administration and reduce the shortcomings in this
field.
With the publication of Wilson’s article, a new era actually began, in which the study of
public administration gradually developed. Wilson made a distinction between politics and
administration, arguing that administration is only concerned with the implementation of
policies. That is why this phase is also known as the division of politics and administration;
where the work of politics was to formulate policies and the work of administration was to
execute policies.
Although, Wilson’s work is believed to be the first step in the evolution of public
administration; but this development was further accelerated and acknowledged with the
publication of Frank J. Goodnow’s article ‘Politics and Administration’ in 1900. In this
article he talked about separating politics and administration; and considered it as a two
distinct functions of government. Where, politics is related to the expression of state policies
while administration is concerned with the implementation of these policies. Under this, the
function of public administration was to maintain law and order and collect taxes. Public
administration received attention in the early twentieth century. Public service movements
took place in world universities in the United States that contributed to the development of
public administration.
In 1914, Committee on Instruction in Government of the American Political Science
Association gave its report on training to prepare specialists for the government positions. In
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1912, Committee on Practical Training for Public Service was established. In 1914 it
submitted its report in which special vocational school was recommended to train public
administrators.
In 1920s, public administration began to gain educational legitimacy with the publication
of L.D. White’s ‘Introduction to the Study of Public Administration’ in 1926. This book was
recognized as the first book in this field. During this time, the main concern of public
administration was to emphasize on value-free science as well as to reduce the cost of
production with increased efficiency. In this phase political and administrative functions were
divided. In this phase of political administrative division, administration was given a
conceptual basis. During this phase, two functional areas of government were seen, one
administrative and the other political.
Second Phase - Principles of Administration (1927–1937)
In the beginning of the twentieth century, there was an ideological change in the form of
public administration and the state. Emphasis was on Social reformism and not on traditional
conservatism. During this time partnership between the public and the private administration
was visible. It was considered necessary to find out the universal principles of administration
which could be applied to all nations. Under this phase also the division of politics and
administration was emphasized and an attempt was made to develop a ‘value free science of
management’. No doubt, the division of politics and administration was made in the first
phase which was taken in the second phase also but the technique of study in the first phase
was scientific rather than legal.
W.H. Willoughby’s book on ‘Principles of Public Administration’ emerged as a second
book in the field of public administration in which the scientific principles of administration
were given more emphasis. It was said that if administrators learn how to apply these
principles, they can perform their tasks better. Frederick Taylor’s work and his theory of
scientific management made a significant impact in the field of public administration. Taylor
believed that his scientific theory of management is universal.
This phase was marked with certain other principles of public administration. Henry
Fayol’s book ‘Industrial and General Management’ (1930) discussed about fourteen
principles regarding organization. Mary Parker Follet’s ‘Creative Experience’ (1924),
Mooney and Reiley, ‘Principles of Organization’, Chester Barnard’s ‘Administrative
Management’, Gulick and Urwick, ‘Papers on the science of Administration’ (1937)
elaborated about seven principles of the organization and coined the term ‘POSDCORB’.
All the thinkers of public administration in this phase laid stress on scientific principles.
The idea of the division of politics-administration was retained and the value-free science of
management was emphasized. In this phase it was stated that the principles of administration
are present which need to be discovered and extended. Economy and Efficiency was included
as the main objectives and principles of the administrative system so that better services can
be provided in administration at a lower cost.
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21
that public administration is not scientific but fundamental, not universal but linked to the
culture of the nation. Thus, these problems mentioned by Dahl create obstacles in the
development of the science of administration.
Fifth Phase - Public Policy Perspective (Since 1970)
After World War II, new nations have been created in Asia, Africa and Latin America, and
new trends have been introduced in the study of public administration. During this time it was
necessary to understand the administrative nature of newly independent nations in a new
environment. Western scholars, especially the scholars from United States expressed greater
interest in studying the administrative nature of the newly independent nations. It can be said
that the relevance of ecological elements was being accepted at this time. It was in this
perspective that emphasis was given to study the effects of various administrative systems of
nations. During this time, the study of administration put stress on comparative, ecological
and development administration, in which Dwight Waldo, W. Riggs, and Edward Wiedner
majorly contributed and all of them stressed on expanding the field of public administration.
Along with this, the emergence of new public administration perspective in public
administration can also be seen during this phase; where the contemporary nature of public
administration was questioned in late 1960’s. The beginning of the new public administration
dates back to the 1968 Minnowbrook Conference. The Minnowbrook Conference marked the
beginning of a new era in the field of public administration, so that the study and behavior of
public administration can be made social, contextual and responsible. Under this, it was said
that politics should be given priority in administration. It can be said that a new movement
started in the field of American public administration by a new generation of American
scholars. These scholars demanded the protection of public objectives and values. Four main
elements were emphasized under the new public administration, including relevance, value,
parity, and change.
It was during this phase that school of policy choice emerged as another important
discipline in the evolution of public administration in which attempts have been made to
eliminate the evils arising out of bureaucratic monopoly. It was said that the bureaucracy
should be controlled. It emphasized competition and privatization. The school of policy
choice recognizes that there should be options available in providing services to citizens.
Under this, the dominance of the state was challenged by the role of the market.
Simultaneously, it opened up with the possibilities of alternatives to non-bureaucratic civil
partner organizations and to reduce the power of bureaucracy.
After Twenty years, in 1988 Minnowbrook Conference II was another landmark in the
evolution of public administration and the emphasis was on new public management
approach. The purpose of this conference was to change the nature of administration in
changing times. It reflected the changes taking place in the Western nations. The state, which
until now was seen as the main agent of social justice, in 1970’s the role of the state, was
questioned. Attempts were made to reduce the role of the state in every field. Change in the
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necessary for the smooth functioning of the market. Second, if the market fails then to
intervene for reforms.
In late 1990s Janet Denhardt and Robert Denhardt introduced the new public service
model in which democratic principles were emphasized. Denhardt & Denhardt in their
publication ‘The New Public Service: Serving Rather Than Steering’ emphasized on serving
the citizens by the government.
In this publication it has been said that the government cannot run as a business but the
government should run like a democracy. Emphasis has been laid on officers’ responsibility
towards citizens where officers provide services to citizens. Officers should have an
association with citizens. They should have a sense of service towards the community. Under
this, the emphasis was laid on the establishment of a new culture of co-governance by
citizens’ participation in the process of governance.
Under globalization, social, economic and political changes emerged which brought
flexibility in the traditional form of governance. There was hierarchy and emphasis was on
networks and participation which was away from bureaucracy. There was also a change in
the distribution of public services and goods. Public services and distribution of goods had
been important functions of public administration. In the time of globalization, a cooperative
form of public administration emerged in reducing the role of the welfare state. Various
methods were used to increase the privatization of welfare distribution; it also includes the
promotion of private provisions and voluntary sectors. This does not mean that it had made
public administration unnecessary. Public administration still remains important. The
centrality of public administration can neither be denied by the state nor by the market.
Conclusion
Public administration as a discipline developed in late nineteenth century. In the present time
also, the continuous process of development of public administration can be seen. In this time
interval, along with the changing nature of the state, at different stages of development of
public administration the changing nature of public administration can be seen. It can be said
that with the time, along with social, economic and political changes, the form of public
administration, its principles and behavior has also been changing. The emphasis which was
on development of public administration; and its traditional principles in the beginning
including the traditional bureaucratic and structural aspects of public administration has been
replaced presently by the participative form of public administration.
References
Bhattacharya, M. (2011). New Horizons of Public Administration. New Delhi: Jawahar
Publishers.
Chakrabarty, B & Chand, P. (2012). Public Administration in a Globalizing World: Theories
and Practices. New Delhi: Sage Publications.
24
Demir, T. (2009) .Politics and administration: Three schools, three approaches and three
suggestions. Administrative Theory and Praxis, 31(4): 503-532.
Henry N. (2012). Public Administration and Public Affairs. New Jersey: Pearson Education.
Pani, N. (2010). Research in public administration in through ages. The Indian Journal of
Political Science, 71(4):1293-1309.
25
Introduction
F.W. Taylor: His books and Methods
Scientific Management Approach
Principles of Scientific Management: F. W. Taylor
1. Science of Work and its Development
2. Scientific Selection and Development of Workmen
3. Combining Science of Work and scientifically selected Workers
4. Workers and Management: Division of Responsibility
Scientific Management Movement
Criticism
Conclusion
References
Introduction
Scientific Management Approach is of vital significance in administrative management. This
approach evolved during the later nineteenth century. Scientific management approach takes
care of complex situation emerging due to mechanical advancements. Frederick Winslow
Taylor is viewed as one of the forerunner of the scientific management, who cleared path for
further research. F.W. Taylor was brought into the world in a German town on March 20,
1856. He got his experience in two European states. As an architect he was involved in the
improvement of many innovations, he concocted a few devices to build the creation. A
portion of the significant instruments he created were cutting apparatus, a warmth treating
device, a steel hammer, water driven force stacking hardware, exhausting and turning
factories and so forth. He was constantly keen on enhancing the methods of the board. He
underscored on the logical method of building up the apparatuses just as logical method of
3
Assistant Professor, Amity School of Liberal Arts and Foreign languages, Amity University Haryana and
*
Assistant Professor, Department of Political Science, University of Delhi
26
playing out the work. He has energy for proficiency and logical method of work in the
associations. From USA, it spread to other countries including former USSR, where it took
shape as Stakhanovite Movement during 1920-1940.
According to Taylor, “the same principles can be applied with equal force to all social
activities: to the management of our home: the management of our farms: the management of
the business of our tradesmen, large and small of our churches, our philanthropic institutions
our universities and our governmental departments.”
F.W. Taylor: His Books and Methods
Taylor’s theory of Scientific Management is first of its kind where he has highlighted the
issues of economy, efficiency and effectiveness. His major thrust was at improving the
productivity in the organization. Some of the significant works of Taylor reflects in his earlier
writing and other issues which he has highlighted.
The vital observation of Taylor on Scientific Administration methodology are included
in his major works in which he has specified following assumptions.
1. There should be standard time to finish any particular work.
2. Differential piece wage rate system.
3. Right men at right place.
Taylor also made certain assumption in his theory of Scientific Management which are as
follows:
1. Taylor laid emphasis that the functioning of any organization can be improved with
the application of Science;
2. A good worker accepts the directive from the management;
3. Man is motivated by monetary factors.
Taylor's stay in an organization, his perception and investigation of various tasks in various
manufacturing plants brought into his notice the imperfections in their administration. These
were: absence of lucidity of obligations by laborers and administrations, absence of norms of
work, limited yield due to welding of work, absence of occupation clearness which advances
fastening of work, absence of logical base for choices, absence of division of work, and
arrangement of laborers at various positions without thinking about their capacity, abilities
and inclination.
Taylor depends on broad examination of investigations spread over long 26 years. He
examined instruments for cutting of steel, contemplated movement and observed how
workers handle materials, machines and apparatuses while on work. Taylor found out the
most ideal approach in accomplishing various tasks. He came to the conclusion that right
persons should be selected for various tasks. During his experiments in the industrial
organizations, Taylor came across a soldiering phenomenon, which is a tendency on the part
27
of workers to restrict the output. He classified this phenomenon into two kinds; natural
soldiering and systematic soldiering. The former is the result of personal factors like habit to
take it easy, not to over exert and so on, while the latter is the result of organizational and
social factors. He observed that workers practice systematic soldiering to meet the
expectation of supervisor at lower levels. He felt hat the fundamental way of increasing
efficiency of organization lies in the reduction of soldering through scientific techniques.
Scientific Management Approach
As referenced over the scientific administration approach created in the beginning stages of
mechanical transformation. It attempted to address a portion of the issues of modern culture.
The fundamental worries of mechanical community were to mend productivity, lessen
expenses of creation to reap the benefits. This can be done by two long methods. So, it is
identified with humanizing the innovation thus leading to effective administration of laborers.
The other is with development of new market. Taylor, though this Scientific Management
method attempted to link it with contemporary culture. Henceforth, it is stressed on scientific
methods on getting things done and overseeing associations.
Principles of Scientific Management: F. W. Taylor
Taylor in his theory of Scientific Management laid four principles which he regarded as
crucial for increasing the productivity within any organization. These are as follows
1. Develop scientific approach in various management tasks.
2. The rigorous assortment of workforce and their continuous training.
3. Combination of scientific approach and rationally chosen workforce.
4. Fixing the obligations of the employer and employees.
1. Science of Work and Its Development
Taylor observed that scientific approach is a must in dealing with workforce. He believed that
systematic observation is helpful in finding out the most appropriate way of doing a job. He
attempted to replace the old thumb rule method. This need gathering, recording and
tabulating various work experiences and finally formulating rules based on them. These rules
are to be applied in actual work situation. This will ensure diminishing unnecessary criticism
of the supervisor.
2. Scientific Selection and Development of Workmen
There should be scientific approach in selection of work force and continuous development
of work culture. Taylor believed that each worker his or her potential for growth. There must
be systematic training. Scientific approach implies that right person should be selected for
right job. Proper environment should be created so that workers accept the new methods,
tools and conditions enthusiastically. Opportunities should be created for workers to develop
their new capabilities to the fullest extent.
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29
organization. Thus, this approach neglects one set of factors in an organization which is
important for its functioning.
2. The Scientific Theory of Management neglects the human side of the organization. It
focuses too much on the formal structure of the organization and neglected the informal
side of it which is also an important aspect of organization setup. It tends to treat
workers as machines. Social and psychological factors also play their own roles in work
management. The Scientific Management Theory does not focus on these vital aspects.
3. Many scholars have criticized Scientific Management as it has simplified the concept of
human motivation. Taylor has laid more emphasis on the monetary factors than the
social and psychological factors. The Hawthorne experiments revealed that set of factors
that are responsible for the healthy functioning of the organization can be different from
the monetary factors.
4. Taylorism received great opposition from trade unions as the concept of mental
revolution calls out for a cooperative relation between the two which makes the role of
trade unions as irrelevant but this was not entirely true.
5. It was opposed by managerial group as managers were losing out on their discretion and
they were being asked to share their responsibilities. Professor Robert Hoxie put forward
his strong opposition to Taylor by arguing that Scientific Management only focused of
mechanistic facts and neglected the social and psychological facts and orientation.
Conclusion
Taylor’s theory of Scientific Management apart from being the first coherent theory, also
offered solutions to the problems of industrial organizations. The benefits received from the
Taylorism are huge and it also helped many organizations to overcome its issues of
productivity. Taylor was the first administrative thinker to firmly rely on the principle of
science and one best way of doing things. Taylor believed that these principles have universal
application and can be applied to all organization irrespective of its nature. His theory of
Scientific Management focused on the problems of workers. Taylor’s concept of differential
piece wage rate system, mental revolution, propagation of science of work, economy,
effectiveness and efficiency makes his theory of Scientific Management different from other
classical theories.
References
Ali, Shun Sun Nisa, 1977, Eminent Administrative Thinkers, Associated Publishing House,
New Delhi.
Bertram, M. Gross, 1964, The Managing of Organisations, The Administrative Struggle, The
Free Press of Glencoe, Collier-Macmillan., London.
Bhattacharya, Mohit, 1981, Public Administration: Structure, Process and Behaviour, The
World Press Pvt. Ltd., Kolkata.
30
Braverman, Harry, 1979, Labour and Monopoly Capital, The Degradation of Work in the
Twentieth Century, Social Scientist Press, Trivendrum.
Clegg, Steward & David Dunkerley, 1980, Organisation, Class and Control, Routledge &
Kegan Paul, London.
Prasad, D. Ravindra, V.S. Prasad and P. Satyanarayan, 2004, Administrative Thinkers (Ed),
Sterling Publishers, New Delhi. Pugh, D.S., 1985, Organisation Theory: Selected Readings
(Ed), Penguin Books,Middlesex, England.
31
ii : Administrative Management
Mhadeno Jungi
Learning Outcomes
Become familiar with the administrative management approach and its importance
Know the important principles given by contributors of this approach
Understand how these principles can be used to bring better outcomes through better
management.
Introduction
Administrative management is one of the important approaches dealing with the science and
principles on how management ought to be carried out in an organisation. Organisations have
become increasingly complex with modernisation so the proponents of this approach
envisioned that if a set of universal principles are developed that are scientific in nature, then
it can help in more efficient working of the organisation.
In modern day functioning Administrative management has become integral in the
functioning of an organisation. Information management is one of the important process
undertaken by management. The administrative function “is responsible for the orderly
collection, processing, storage and distribution of information to those within an
organisation”. This enables decisions makers and managers at all levels to execute their tasks
and take meaningful decisions (cited from E. J Ferreira et.al.). A large number of roles within
organisations both public and private involve administrative management and an
‘Administrative manager’ manages the planning, coordination, and directs the business.
Background
By 19th C, industrialization was occurring rapidly in the western world especially United
States. This led to the development of search for objective principles that would improve the
efficiency in manufacturing units. Economy and efficiency were the two watchwords as
industries strived to organise itself better based on objective principles that would increase its
productivity and competitiveness.
In the meantime, modern state had increased the nature and scope of public
administration in every aspect of life and there was an increased demand of public services.
At the same time limited resources for the same required formulations of certain postulates
for more efficient and economical operations in the Government. This led to the development
or quest for finding objective principles that could be applicable in bureaucratic and
administrative management as well. Thus, there occurred a synthesis between the two in
which principles postulated to improve efficiency and economy in industries was now
imported in governmental reforms in the US and this had a resounding impact on
governmental reforms.
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This led to the development of classical organisation theory with inherent structural bias.
The current understanding of management functions is based in large part to the contribution
of a classical management theorist, Henri Fayol. The proponents of this theory captured the
essence of economy and efficiency and developed a set of principles that would become the
basis for the form and substance of organisation. Thus, Administrative Management theory
developed as an attempt to find a rational way to design an organization as a whole.
The major proponents of this theory are Henry Fayol, Gulick and Urwick, Mooney, A.C.
Reiley, M.P. Follett and R. Shelton.
Key Premises of this Approach
These thinkers have certain basic premises on which they all agree:
Firstly, this approach emphasizes on the structure of the administration/organisation.
According to the theorists who contributed to this approach, without structure an organisation
cannot function and it is the structure that moulds human nature to the needs of the
organisation. Thus, the proponents of this approach are called structuralists and they envision
a structural theory of organisation.
Secondly this approach deals with the formulation of certain universal principles for
structuring formal organisation. Many of these principles are based on the experiences of the
proponents in the industrial organisation.
Thirdly, these principles are also deemed to be scientifically valid as they have been
derived through rigorous empirical observation of industries and military.
Finally, this approach treats organisation as a closed system that functions autonomously
of the external environment. This approach believed that following an objective scientific
principle would ensure the success of the organisation. Thus, it was not concerned with
human behaviour in the functioning of the organisation. Instead organisation was seen as the
machine and human beings as mere cogs in the machine.
Based on these observations, proponents of this approach truly believed that such
scientific principles would lead to greater efficiency and economy in the organisation.
Contributions of this Approach
Henry Fayol Fayol was a French mining engineer turned leading industrialist and successful
manager whose contribution to management process is significant and he is one of the early
pioneers of the “Management Process School”. He lamented that management was a
neglected activity due to the absence of a theory. So, His work ‘General and Industrial
Management’ (1916) was an attempt to address the lacuna and since then has become a
classic and foundation of classic management theory. His most prominent contribution to
public administration is his paper on ‘The theory of Administration in the State’ (1923).
Besides these, his work ‘General Principles of Administration’ (1908) also deserves a special
mention.
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Based on his long experiences as a manager, Fayol identified five elements of duties of
management which are as follows: planning, organisation, command, coordination and
control. This classification is one of his most significant contribution to the field of
management theory that over time, has been subsequently modified by later theorists.
He has further laid down fourteen principles which are as follows
i. Division of work creates specialisation and results in more efficient output of work
ii. Co-existence of Authority and responsibility. For a person to discharge his
responsibility effectively, he must also be designated with certain authority.
iii. Discipline entails carrying out work in good faith and showing diligence in carrying
out commands from superiors.
iv. Unity of Command entails being accountable to a single head in charge.
v. Unity of Direction means that one leader should lead the group following one plan.
The purpose is to bring unity and uniformity for attaining a common goal.
vi. Subordinating private interest of the individual to general interest of the organisation
so that the wellbeing of all is not compromised to serve the private interest or pleasure
of few.
vii. Fair remuneration to personnel which is satisfactory to both employers and employees
and results in conducive work environment.
viii. Centralisation entails that managers to be provided freedom to take initiatives. The
degree of initiative that can be taken will depend on case-to-case basis.
ix. Scalar chain (hierarchy) provides for the arrangement of supervisors in an
organisation from highest to lowest.
x. Order means that placement of each factors in their right place according to its
functions and purpose will enhance its effectiveness. Thus, a scientific selection and
placement of personnel will ensure that they are able to deliver their services
effectively.
xi. Following principle of equity in the treatment of personnel. This will contribute to
employee's allegiance and fidelity towards the organisation.
xii. Creating Stability of tenure for employees to encourage productivity.
xiii. Providing initiative for employees' participation in suggesting fresh ideas and
innovations.
xiv. Promotion of Co-operation/ harmony among personnel to strengthen the organisation.
He was also of the opinion that good administration required efficient managers and laid
down some traits that a good manager should have: physical qualities, mental qualities, moral
qualities, general education, special knowledge, and experience.
Fayol emphasized on the importance of administration for organizing all aspects of life
from home to workplace and thus suggested that a structured, methodical training in
administration begin from school level itself. While he promoted formal organisation, he was
also aware of the danger that lay in conformity to hierarchy and formalism. Therefore, he
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suggested that that with proper caution, gangplank (level jumping in a hierarchical
organisation) can help in overcoming issues with hierarchy.
These principles have encompassed a description of managerial activity and also laid
down what a manager ought to do. Inspite of its limitations, this approach has laid down the
foundation for the development of principles of administration. Both F.W.Taylor and Fayol
had contributed much to the development of scientific management, but while Taylor’s
scientific management principles was targeted specifically towards only production process
or ‘workshop management’, Fayol gave a universal set of principles that was applicable in
any kind of organisation in all setting.
Apart from this, Fayol by identifying administration as a form of management also called
into question the hitherto existing notion of separating administration and management. He
notes that irrespective of whether it is public or private undertaking, they all require
observance of the same general principles such as planning, organisation, command,
coordination and control. Thus the word administration is limited not just to public service
but also encompasses every enterprise.
Luther Gulick and Urwick
The works of Taylor and Henry Fayol contributed to classical organisation and management
theory. Subsequently the success of these principles in organisations led to these principles
being synthesised and integrated to public organisations. The works of Gulick and Urwick
have contributed immensely in the development of science of administration and their work
‘The Papers on the Science of Administration’ (1937) was notable in this regard.
Both Gulick and Urwick’s thought process have been richly informed by their
experiences of working in the civil service, military and industrial organisations and this went
on to form their perspectives on the working of public administration. References of
discipline and efficiency as well as line and staff reflect their association with the military.
Inspired by the works of F.W Taylor and Fayol, they synthesized ‘universal’ principles of
organisation which is popularly called as ‘classical theory’ of organisation or ‘Administrative
Management Theory’. According to them, it was possible to develop a science of
administration by application of methods that sciences use such as “empirical observation,
analysis and systematized findings”. Thus, if one could process the experience of
administrations similarly, it was possible to develop scientific principles of administration.
This was a big shift as till then, administration seen only as an art.
For Gulick and Urwick, while designing an organisation, the structure of administration
is more important than the role of men in the organisation. According to Urwick, faulty
structures is responsible for the friction and confusion in the society. Thus, in the designing
of organisations, identifying the task as well as the nature of the job and its profile is
prioritised while the role of individuals is relegated to a later function. According to Urwick
lack of design is “illogical, cruel, wasteful and inefficient”.
Firstly, in the absence of design, the nature of job and the qualifications required for it
become ambiguous. And giving wages to an appointed person who has no idea of the
35
functions of his position is illogical. Secondly, it is also cruel and wasteful to have an
appointed person unfamiliar with the qualifications required for the job as well as his duties.
Thirdly, if functions of jobs are not well designed, development of functional specialisation
among the workers is hampered. Therefore in the case of any vacancy arising, finding a
competent replacement becomes difficult. And finally, an ill designed structure promotes
inefficiency when the supervisor is guided not by principles but only by the personalities of
his personnel.
Thus, this approach is also known as structural approach as Gulick and Urwick paid
more attention to development of structure of administration. They accordingly formulated
principles for designing of the administrative structures. Gulick enumerated ten principles of
administration which are as follows:-
i. Division of work or specialisation
ii. Bases of departmental organisation
iii. Coordination through hierarchy
iv. Deliberate coordination
v. Coordination through committees
vi. Decentralisation
vii. Unity of Command
viii. Staff and Line
ix. Delegation
x. Span of control.
Among these ten principles, Gulick held the principle of division of labour as especially
important to Gulick and he said that for him division of work is the basis and reason of
organisation.
Gulick was also influenced by the five elements of administration introduced by Fayol.
Furthering it more, he coined the acronym POSDCORB, each letter signifying one of the
seven functions of an administrator.
Planning ‘P’ is concerned with identification of all human and material resources as
well as activities required to reach the goals of the organisation in an economic and
efficient manner.
Organisation ‘O’ is concerned with establishing a formal structure of authority through
which division of work is arranged, defined and coordinated for achieving objective.
Staffing ‘S’ deals with every aspect of administration such as promotion, recruitment,
training, appointment, discipline, retirement etc required to maintain favourable
working condition.
Directing ‘D’ is concerned with directing the activities of the administration through
general orders and instructions given by the manager to the subordinates.
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Coordinating ‘Co’ is concerned with securing coordination and cooperation among the
team members in the working of an organisation. It also addresses issues of conflict and
overlapping by ensuring proper coordination among the members.
R stands for Reporting and it is concerned with creating an up flow of information for
executives to be informed on the working of the organisation. Through the process of
records, research and inspection, the information would enable the executives to address
issues and bring improvement in the organisation.
Budgeting ‘B’ covers the entire field of financial administration in the form of fiscal
planning, accounting and control.
Some principles identified by Urwick are as follows–
1) Objective- He believed that every organisation must have a clear purpose/goal.
2) Correspondence- There should be a correspondence of equality between responsibility
and authority.
3) Responsibility- A superior is accountable for the work of his subordinates.
4) Span of Control- A supervisor can only effectively supervise limited number of people
(5–6) if their work is interconnected. With more workers, responsibility for the
supervisor increases dramatically.
5) Scalar principle- Organising hierarchy in a pyramid structure.
6) Specialisation
7) Coordination
8) Definition- The principle of prescribing duties of each personnel.
Administrative organisation was still a relatively new field and there were many factors that
needed to be understood so Urwick suggested that his principles be used more as a
framework through which one could collect and arrange ideas from one’s own experience.
General Principles of Administration
Some of the important principles that have been enumerated by the thinkers can be explained
briefly as
Theory of Departmentalisation- This theory identifies four bases for division of work and
creation of department. It is generally viewed that departments are often in conflict over the
issue of assignment of duties. They gave the bases of the four ‘Ps’: Purpose (function),
process, persons (clientele) and place to address the problem of assignment of duties in an
organisation. This theory recognises division of labour, a key structural feature of an
organization. Each department will be responsible for the work delegated for achieving
organizational goals.
Purpose– Purpose can mean identifying the major functions and goals of an organisation and
accordingly creating departments on the basis of goods and services being offered.
37
Process– Secondly grouping together work whose completion requires similar process in
terms of skill requirement or technology used such as software skills or stenography.
Thirdly work can be grouped according to the clientele served such as farmers, war veterans,
pensioners, industries etc. Gulick observes that the department members develop specialized
skills when their work profile caters to a particular group.
Finally work can also be categorised according to the Territory/base. Workers can be
categorised according to the area they serve such as Noida, Gurgaon and accordingly
departments can be created. This will promote the members to become area specialists and
with their expertise and knowledge it will also promote development of that area.
Formalized administrative structure– According to this theory, organisation should be
designed using a formalized structure having a top-down approach. This is a hierarchical
structure.
Single Executive- Gulick and Urwick insisted on single top executives instead of an
organisation headed by committees. While insisting on a single line of command that flowed
hierarchically, they were aware that this was not a principle that could be applied universally.
But this functional supervision increases efficiency and Gulick argued that the advantages of
this principle outweighs the negatives like confusion, inefficiency and irresponsibility which
would follow if this principle is violated.
Staff Principle- The objective of this principle is to lay down certain activities for the staff
which will provide support to the executive in the functioning of the organisation.
Delegation- This principle stressed on the importance of learning to delegate while the
administrators still retained the requisite authority with them. For more efficient functioning,
Urwick emphasised on the need for executives to have the initiative to delegate as well as
recognise when to delegate. Subordinates cannot fulfil their responsibility nor carry out their
entrusted function efficiently without clear delegation. Urwick emphasized that the authority
of executives to delegate is absolute and they should be held accountable for the action of
their subordinates. Thus, authority and responsibility must be “coterminous, co-equal and
defined”. They also emphasized the principle of “correspondence of responsibility and
authority”.
Span of Control- We have earlier looked at the meaning of span of control as given by
Urwick. Adding on to it, Gulick identifies three factors that determine the span of control.
a. Certain qualities possessed by an individual can determine the extent of his span of
control. Someone with superior intellect and personality with a commitment to invest
time and energy may possibly control more subordinates.
b. The extent of control also depends on the nature of work being performed by the
subordinates. It will be possible to supervise more workers if the work is routine,
monotonous, singular. Diversification of work will require more supervision.
c. The span will also depend on whether it is a new organisation or an old one. In an
established and stable organisation there is less need for intervention however in a
38
new organisation, constant supervision is required so that a good model can be set and
proper procedures adopted.
In later writings, Gulick revised his opinion on the role of human beings in an organisation
and opined that the human factor is a major and essential variable in the understanding of
Public administration. He emphasized that the goal of public administration is human welfare
and to this endeavour administration should be reoriented to become more decentralized.
Besides this, he also emphasized on timing as a crucial in a democracy and ‘a hallmark of
statecraft’ where all policy innovations are rooted in timing.
Mooney and Riley in their work ‘Onward Industry’ (1931) provided a central framework
for principles of management. They proposed four principles of organisation: • Coordinating
Principle • Scalar Principle • The Functional Principle • Staff and Line.
They have highlighted the importance of leadership, authority and coordination in
management in their various statements. In the article “Papers on Science of Administration’,
Mooney held that the fundamental principle of any human organisation is ‘coordination’.
Any organisation is the result of a concerted effort.
According to the functional principle given by Mooney and Riley, there are certain
distinctive functions being performed in an organisation and there is a distinction among the
functions. The three functions are
- determinative function– that determines goals and objectives
- the application function– acting purposively to achieve the goals
- and the interpretative function (decision making).
They argued that management must be aware of these functions to be prepared to discharge
them when necessary.
Mary Parker Follet is also one of the important proponents of this approach. According
to her, conflict was a normal and unavoidable part of social interaction in any organisation.
So, she developed the innovative idea of ‘constructive conflict’. In this, conflict is not to be
taken as a ‘wasteful outbreak of incompatibilities’ but a normal process through which
‘socially valuable differences register themselves for the enrichment of all concerned’. In
order to resolve conflict, she suggested that though it can be done through domination,
compromise, and integration, she preferred integration for conflict resolution. Another
important contribution of Follet is the concept of de-personalising order. According to her
issuing order may often invite negative repercussions so administrators often refrain from
doing so. The concept of de-personalizing order means that the order is emanating from the
actual situation so the problem of personalising order does not arise (cited from Chakrabarty
B, Chand P.)
Criticism
Administrative management has been subjected to much criticism especially on the matter of
principles. The principles of administration are formulated more on the basis on what ‘ought
39
to be’. They cannot be subjected to scientific verification. Thus, they are more of
recommendations and less of scientific principles. L.D White critiques that the terms the
proponents of this approach have used to describe or classify administrative functions and
organisations cannot be taken as universal principles. They can only be taken working rules
of conduct validated by wide experience.
Herbert Simon is one of the sternest critiques of this approach. He attacks the principles
as “homely proverbs, myths, slogans, inanities”. According to him “it is a fatal defect of the
current principles of administration that like proverbs they occur in pairs. For almost every
principle one can find an equally plausible and acceptable contradictory principle” that is, the
principles are ambiguous and mutually contradictory with nothing to indicate which of the
principles will apply in case of contradictions. For example, the contradictions that exist
between the principle of specialisation and unity of command. Thus, for Simon “the
principles of administration are at best criteria for describing and diagnosing administrative
situations”. The incapacity of this approach to “confront theory with evidence” is also one of
the critical drawbacks as pointed by critics.
The bases of organisation given by Gulick are also criticised on the grounds on
incompatibility. The principles are vague and overlap each other. The principles are also
prescriptive rather than descriptive and they state how work should be divided rather than
how work is divided (cited from Prasad et.al).
This approach has also been criticised neglecting the human element and oversimplifying
human motivations. The role of human beings in this approach had been reduced to mere
cogs in the machine. However, the human element cannot be taken for granted. As living
entities, human behaviour is motivated by both psychological and physiological processes.
Mere allocations of functions and duties does not lead to optimum contribution by the
workers. And above all personnel are not static factor in this system but an important variable
in the functioning of an organisation that is ignored in a mechanistic approach.
According to V. Subramanian there are two important limitations of this approach.
Firstly, there is lack of sophistication in the theories. They are informed by common place
general knowledge propositions which do not adequately satisfy the theorists and
practitioners of administration. Secondly there is a pro management bias in the classical
management approach. Despite existing operational problems that can be found at other
levels of management too, proponents of this theory were more concerned with the problems
of management in the organisation4.
Relevance
Despite many criticisms, the principles of administration continue to be relevant and are
applied in many present-day organisations. Planning, organising command, coordination and
control still continue to be practiced by management for achievement of goals and to increase
productivity. However, with rapid changes in the management pattern of organisations in the
4
Prasad et.al p 92
40
21st century, some of these principles appear to have lost its relevance. Now there is more
focus on empowering employees and instilling a sense of ownership in the workers by
involving their participation in the decision-making process. Also, in a competitive era, there
is more demand for workers who can reorient their skills and multitask rather than being
relegated to a single task. However, inspite of these issues, one cannot dispute these
principles have provided the bedrock for modern organisation theories and indeed have
contributed immensely to the development of public administration.
Conclusion
This approach has contributed significantly to the theory and practice of administration. The
principles for this approach arose as an attempt to resolve the problems of inefficiency and
low production that emerging industries were facing. This has enabled the effective
functioning of large-scale organisation which are also practices that have been adopted by
contemporary organisations. Despite the many criticisms, the relevance of these principles in
the study of science of administration cannot be dismissed. Proponents of this approach
themselves have recognised some of the limitations of their own theory and have suggested
modifications for the same wherever required and the revision offered by Gulick on the
importance of recognising human values in administration is one example on point. Thus, it
will be the task of future students of Public administration to understand and theorise the
dynamic nature of application of these principles based on the changing context.
Questions
1. What is administrative management? Examine its relevance in present day
organisation?
2. Discuss the principles of administrative management approach as laid down by the
proponents of this approach.
Suggested Readings
Chakrabarty B, Chand P. Public Administration in a Globalizing World. Los Angeles:
Sage:2012)
E.J. Ferreira, A.W. Erasmus and D. Groenewald, Administrative Management, Juta
Academics, 2010
Ravindra Prasad, Y.Pardhasaradhi, V.S. Prasad and P. Satyamarayana (eds), Administrative
Thinkers, Sterling Publishers, 2010
41
Structure
Introduction
Max Weber: His Life and Writings
Bureaucracy: Meaning
Max Weber on Authority
Types of Authority
Max Weber: The Concept of Bureaucracy
Max Weber: Characteristics of Bureaucracy
Max Weber: Limits on Bureaucracy
Max Weber’s Bureaucracy: Criticism
Conclusion
References
Introduction
The German sociologist Max Weber’s thoughts has influenced generations of scholars on
bureaucracy and formal organization. He occupies a central position in the bureaucratic
model and tries to study it in a theoretical framework. He was the first one to use and
describe the term bureaucracy. It is also called the bureaucratic theory of management or the
Max Weber’s theory. His formulation deserves careful analysis as his writings covered a
wide range of subjects including economics, sociology and administration. He also outlined
the impact of religion on the growth of capitalism and his thoughts are the larger
considerations of socio-economic and historical forces that led to the growth of complex
organizations. His thoughts represent the macro view of all these aspects. Weber believed
that bureaucracy helps in administering and establishing the organization in the most efficient
manner.
Max Weber : His Life and Writings
Max Weber (1864-1920) was born in a business family involved in textile manufacturing in
western Germany. He studied law from the University of Heidelberg after completing his
preliminary schooling in 1882. He completed his doctorate and worked as an instructor in
University of Berlin and wrote number of papers on law highlighting the social, political and
economic factors. In his writings, Weber main focus was on analytical and systematic study,
he always preferred to gain knowledge through practical experience as he was of progressive
outlook. His major writings include ‘The Theory of Economic and Social Organizations’,
‘General Economic History’ and ‘Protestant Ethic and Spirit of Capitalism’.
42
Bureaucracy: Meaning
Bureaucracy simply means ‘Desk Government’. Vincent De Gourney, a French national was
the first one who coined the term ‘bureaucracy’ in 1745. After him, several French writers
were involved in popularizing the word bureaucracy but as a term it was used in 19th century.
The famous economist J.S. Mill and the sociologists like Mosca and Michels extensively
wrote on bureaucracy. For Weber, bureaucracy is an “administrative body of officials”, who
all are needed to bring out the efficiency in the organizations. In his opinion there is a lot of
economic competition in the modern era, due to which capitalist organizations required a
highly efficient kind of organization system. The bureaucratic principles gave a scope to the
organization to go ahead with economic planning and maintain the stability in the market.
Weber observes, “The capitalist system has undeniably played a major role in the
development of bureaucracy. Indeed, without it capitalist production could not continue…Its
development, largely under capitalistic auspices, has created an urgent need for stable, strict,
intensive and calculable administration.” (Weber, 1953, p. 48) He further said that
“capitalism is the most rational economic basis for bureaucratic administration and enables it
to develop in the most rational form, especially because, from a fiscal point of view, it
supplies the necessary money resources”. (Weber, 1953, p 48)
Max Weber on Authority
Weber tried to explain bureaucracy as a sociological phenomenon; where theory of
domination can be understood in general context. Domination basically refers to a power
relationship that is authoritarian power of command between the rulers and the ruled. But
power is accepted, only when if it is justified and legitimate. Authority legitimizes the
exercise of power, where a person willingly complies with commands or orders; and on the
basis of this belief Weber identified three types of legitimation, each correspond to a
particular type of authority.
Types of Authority
i) Charismatic authority
ii) Traditional authority
iii) Legal-Rational authority
i) Charismatic authority: The term charisma can be defined as ‘gift of grace’. The
charismatic leader holds some personal qualities which makes him different from the
common man. He may be a hero, masiha or a prophet and by virtue of his magical powers he
has a wide acceptance which forms the basis of legitimate system. People follow his
commands or order without questioning him, they believe in his extraordinary capabilities.
The disciples of the charismatic leader have full devotion in him; however they don’t have
any special qualification or status. The administrative apparatus in this type of authority is
unstable and is very loose as the disciples work in accordance to the likes and dislikes of the
leader.
43
ii) Traditional Authority: Traditional Authority derives its legitimacy from the goodness of
the past where actions are based on customs and traditions. Individuals who exercise this
authority are referred as masters and those who obey the masters are called followers. The
masters have authority by virtue of his status which he inherited from the previous rulers; and
his commands are obeyed by the followers who have personal loyalty towards him and faith
in traditional status including household officials, relatives and personal choices of masters.
iii) Legal Rational Authority: Under legal rational authority, rules are applied judicially and
are applicable on all the members of the organization. In modern society, this authority plays
a dominant role. It is legal as it is based on systematic rules and procedures and it is rational
because it is well defined and more in accordance to proper channel to achieve an end. The
members who exercise this authority are referred as superiors, who follow an impersonal
order; and others include the administrative staff who obeys the laws. Strict adherence to
rules and procedures delimit the authority of the superiors.
Max Weber: The Concept of Bureaucracy
For Weber, in the administrative staff the appointed officials is referred as bureaucracy.
Bureaucracy explicitly includes the appointed officials and elected representative has no role
to play in it. Weber considers that legal rational authority which is based on rules, norms and
procedures holds a predominant position in bureaucracy. For Weber: "Bureaucratic
administration means domination by the force of knowing: that is its fundamental character,
specifically rational" (Cruz, 1995, 689).
“The development of the modern form of organization concurs in all sectors with the
development and continuous expansion of bureaucratic administration […] Because the
bureaucratic administration is always observed under equal conditions and from a formal and
technical perspective, the most rational type [...] The main source of the superiority of
bureaucratic administration lies in the role of technical knowledge, which, through the
development of modern technology and economic methods in goods’ production, has become
absolutely indispensable [...] Bureaucratic administration fundamentally means the exercise
of domination based on knowledge. This is the trait that makes it specifically rational. It
consists, on the one hand, of technical knowledge, which is, per se, sufficient to ensure a
position of extraordinary power for bureaucracy. On the other hand, it should be considered
that bureaucratic organizations, or those in power who use it, tend to become even more
powerful by the knowledge that comes from the practice that they attain in the function.”
(Weber, 1966, pp. 24-26)
The bureaucracy presented by Weber is an ideal or a mental map of a fully developed
bureaucracy, which means that it is an abstract and cannot be found in reality. This ideal type
model of Weber is based on the studies of ancient bureaucracies of Egypt, Rome, China and
Byzantine Empire. It was also influenced by the modern emerging trends of bureaucracy in
Europe during the 19th and early 20th century. He believed that in modern state system the
44
45
6) Employees’ regular wage: The employee wage is in the form of the fixed salaries which
are given in accordance to the nature of the job and responsibility. The salaries are
given according to the internal hierarchy of the organization; moreover, there are
chances of career advancement through promotion on the basis of seniority and merit.
7) Separation of ownership and the employee function: There must be a complete
separation between the ownership and employee function. The personal demands and
interests should be kept separate and not to interfere with the organizational activities,
since no employee can be the owner of his or her position.
8) Regular career of employees’ overtime: The promotion of the employees is based on the
objective criteria and not on the discretion of authority which helps in the enhancement
of the regular career advancement of employees over the time.
46
stability, in the stringency of its discipline and in its reliability. It thus makes possible a
particularly high degree of calculability of results for the heads of organization and for those
acting in relation to it. It is finally superior both in intensive efficiency and in the scope of its
operations and is formally capable of application to all kinds of administrative task.”
(Maheshwari, 1992) When Weber characterizes bureaucracy as value neutral, he
conceptualizes bureaucracy as a form of social organization which can be examined from
three different points of view. First is the structural view which gained maximum importance.
The features like division of work and hierarchy are included under the structural aspect.
Secondly, bureaucracy can be viewed in terms of behavioral characteristics; and includes the
characteristics like objectivity, precision and consistency. To quote Weber, “when fully
developed, bureaucracy also stands in a specific sense under the principle of sine ira ac
studio. Its specific nature, which is welcomed by capitalism, develops the more perfectly the
more the bureaucracy is ‘dehumanized’, the more completely it succeeds in eliminating from
official business love, hatred, and all purely personal irrational, and emotional elements
which escape calculation. This is the specific nature of bureaucracy and its special virtue.”
(Gerth and Mills, 1946, p. 215) Lastly bureaucracy is defined from the instrumental point of
view which includes the achievement of purpose. In the opinion of Peter Blau, “the
organization that maximizes efficiency in administration or an institutionalized method of
organized social conduct in the interests of administrative efficiency.” (Blau, 1956, p. 60)
Max Weber: Limits on Bureaucracy
While emphasizing the importance and need of bureaucracy, Weber was aware of the fact
that bureaucracy has an inherent tendency of accumulation of power. Albrow also pointed out
that due to this issue Weber considered number of mechanisms to limit the scope of system of
authorities in general and bureaucracy in particular. These mechanism falls into five major
categories.
i) Collegiality
ii) The Separation of Powers
iii) Amateur Administration
iv) Direct Democracy
v) Representation
Collegiality: The principal of collegiality is opposite to monocratism. In monocratic
bureaucracy Weber pointed out that at each stage of the official hierarchy there is only one
person but the moment more than one person get involved in decision making the collegial
principal come into being. Collegiality helps in limiting the role of bureaucracy but it also
results in to the disadvantage in terms of speed of decision and fixing of responsibility.
The Separation of Power: Separation of power meant dividing the same responsibility or a
function between two or more bodies. All the involved bodies have to make compromises, so
47
that they can reach to a decision. This will help to make bureaucracy free from monopoly of
decision by a single body; however, such a system is inherently unstable.
Amateur Administration: Under amateur administration, administration is run by those
people who have public esteem to command, general confidence and their activity is basically
unremunerated. But this system lacked in the expertise of professionals and experts which
modern society requires.
Direct Democracy: Direct democracy also limitize the power of bureaucracy, as under this
system officials are guided by and answerable to an assembly. It may take many forms like
short term of office, selection by lot and possibility of recall. But this system is successful
only in case of small organizations and in local governments.
Representation: Elected representatives of people shares the authority of bureaucracy which
helps in limiting or controlling the power of bureaucracy. But there is a possibility that these
representatives being bureaucratized. However, Weber believed that through the
representation, there is a greatest possibility of a check on bureaucracy.
Thus, Weber was conscious about the excessive authoritarian role of bureaucracy and that is
why he wants to limit the role of bureaucracy. There is a need to control the administrative
apparatus.
Max Weber’s Bureaucracy: Criticism
Weber’s bureaucracy is marked with several criticisms which mainly revolve around the
bureaucratic design, authoritative norms, administrative efficiency; and concept of rationality,
individuality and reliability.
Weber theory failed to take in to consideration the individuals and their behavioral
aspects within the organization. It is constructed as an ideal which cannot be found in reality.
Carl J Friederich observes the term ‘ideal type’ is unfortunate in that the entities to which it is
applied are certainly not ‘ideal’ even in a platonic ‘ideal’ sense; there is, more particularly
nothing ‘ideal’ about bureaucracy. Furthermore, if they were ‘ideal’ they would not be
‘types’ since ‘types’ derive their significance from the empirical reality which they typify…
But Weber, instead of thus proceeding by empirical observation and analysis of the
ascertainable givens of such experience, set forth his ‘ideal types’ as mental constructs which
are neither derived by a process of deductive ratiocination from higher concepts, nor build up
from empirical data…” (Friederick, 1963, pp. 469-70)
Critics are of the opinion that Weber’s theory is not fit for the task which involves
innovation and creativity as it is fit for routine and repetitive work of the organization
following strict rules and regulations. Robert K. Merton viewed that no doubt strict rules and
regulations; and impersonality helps in maintaining reliability and predictability of employee
behavior but it results in to rigid and formal structure in an organization and loss of
organizational effectiveness. Weber emphasized on specialization and differentiation and the
focus is on decentralization and delegation of responsibilities. The outcome is that there is a
48
goal displacement as mentioned by Philip Selznick. There are differentiated goals of different
sub units and the goals of the organization as a whole takes a second place as the focus of the
employees is on the goal of their sub units.
To quote Merton, “An effective bureaucracy demands reliability of response and strict
devotion to regulation. Such devotion to the rules leads to their transformation into absolutes;
they are no longer conceived as relative to a given set of purposes. This interferes with ready
adaptation under special conditions not clearly envisaged by those who draw up the general
rules. Thus the very elements which conduce towards efficiency in general produce
inefficiency in specific instances. Those very devices which increase the probability of
conformances is also lead to an over concern with strict adherence to regulations which
induces timidity consumerism and technicism”. (Merton, 1957, p. 156)
Another criticism was posed by Alvin Gouldner, he viewed that rules and regulations of
the organizations tend to highlight the minimum levels of acceptable behavior or
performance. If the focus of the superiors and subordinates is more on the rules and
regulations and less on the organizational goals then this would result in to goal displacement
of the organization marked with apathy and constant rifts amongst the superiors and
subordinates. Victor Thompson also put forward his argument that superiors are dependent
on the lower level specialists for the fulfillment of the organizational goals. They try to
formulate more and more rules and regulations to escape from the insecurities and their
answerability towards the performance of the organization. There is complete formal
structure followed by Weber in his theory, he failed to recognize the informal relationship
which plays an important role in the growth of an organization. Lloyd Rudolph and Susanne
Rudolph pointed out that, “Formal rationality (and technology) can contribute to
organizational efficiency, but can also contribute to organizational ineffectiveness by
building up the sources of alienation and resistance, and fuelling the struggle for power
against authority. The Persistence or retention of patrimonial elements in bureaucratic
administration can mitigate if not eliminate the struggle, just as the presence of bureaucratic
features in patrimonial administration can (and did) enhance its efficiency and effectiveness”.
(Rudolph and Rudolph, 1979)
Weber equates the authority of the administrative staff with the technical superiority,
Talcott and Parsons criticized this aspect as it leads to internal inconsistency. According to
them, it is not always possible that those who possess authority to give orders are equally
good in their technical skills. Another important drawback of Bureaucracy is that employees
do not get opportunity to express themselves, their opinions or decision making abilities do
not hold any value. As a result employees feel disheartened and demotivated. With the course
of time they are not bothered about rules and regulations and started boycotting them or
simply criticizing them.
49
Conclusion
Despite of several criticisms, many empirical researches have accepted the importance of
Weber theory of bureaucracy. It is of great benefit for managing the large scale organizations
which includes multi-level hierarchy, work based on well-structured established rules and
procedures; and also helps in increasing overall efficiency. In the present day administration
also the utility of Weber’s theory of bureaucracy is clearly visible. It is beneficial in both the
societies whether it is capitalist or socialist. In free economy where state has a minimum role
to play, bureaucracy performs some of the necessary functions of the state and fulfills day to
day requirements. He is a first theoretician who gave a theoretical base to bureaucracy and
highlights its importance in maintaining the organization in an efficient manner.
References
Albrow, M. (1978), Bureaucracy, The Macmillan Press Ltd., London
Bhattacharya, Mohit, 1981, Public Administration: Structure, Process and Behaviour, The
World Press Pvt. Ltd., Kolkata.
Braverman, Harry, 1979, Labour and Monopoly Capital, The Degradation of Work in the
Twentieth Century, Social Scientist Press, Trivendrum.
Lakshmanna, C. and A.V. Satyanarayana Rao, 2004, Max Weber, in D. Ravindra Prasad,
V.S. Prasad and P. Satyanarayan (Eds), Administrative Thinkers, Sterling Publishers, New
Delhi.
Clegg, Steward & David Dunkerley, 1980, Organisation, Class and Control, Routledge &
Kegan Paul, London.
Cruz, M. B. (1995). Teorias sociológicas. Os fundadores e os classics in Sociological
theories: The founders and the classics, Lisboa: Fundação Calouste Gulbenkian.
Ferreira. J. M. C. (2004). Abordagens clássicas [Classic approaches]. In J. M. Ferreira, J.
Neves, & A. Caetano (Coords.) Manual de psicossociologia das organizações [Handbook of
psychosociology of organisations]. Lisboa: McGraw-Hill.
H.H. Gerth and C. Wright Mills, Bureaucracy (Ed.), From Max Weber: Essays in sociology,
Oxford University Press, 1946
Friederick, Carl J., (1963), Man and his Government, New York, McGraw Hill.
Maheshwari, S.R. (1992). Bureaucracy on Bureaucratic Theory, Employment News, 17-23,
October
Merton, R. (1957), “Social Theory and Social Structures”, Free Press, Glencoe, III
Blau, Peter M. (1956), Bureaucracy in Modern Society, Random House, New Jersey
Rudolph L and Rudolph S. (1979), Authority and Power in Bureaucratic and Patrimonial
Administration: A Revisionist Interpretation of Weber on Bureaucracy”, World-Politics
50
Weber, M. (1946), The Theory of Social and Economic Organizations, translated by A.M.
Henderson and Talcott parsons, New York
Weber, M. (1953), “The Monocratic Type of Bureaucratic Administration”, in Dwight Waldo
(ed.) “Ideas and Issues in Administration”, McGraw- Hill, New York
Weber, M. (1966). Os fundamentos da organização burocrática: Uma construção do tipo
ideal in The basics of bureaucratic organization: A construction of the ideal type. AAVV.
Sociologia da Burocracia. Rio de Janeiro: Zahar Editores.
51
Unit-2
(b) Neo-Classical Theories
Structure
1. Introduction
2. Professor George Elton Mayo
3. Early Experiment:
4. The Hawthorne Experiment
4.1. The Great Illumination Experiment (1924-27)
4.2. Relay Assembly Study (1927-1932)
4.3. Human Attitudes and Sentiments (1928-31)
4.4. The Bank Wiring Observation Study (1931-32)
5. Main Findings of Hawthorne Experiments
6. Chester I Barnard’s Contribution to Human Relations Theory
7. The Essence of Human Relations Approach
8. The Human Relations vs. Classical Theories
9. Evaluation of Human Relations Approach
10. Conclusion
11. References and Further Reading
1. Introduction
The Human Relations theory is a path-breaking theory in the organization with its emphasis
on the human side of management and organization. The human relation movement come as
a criticism of classical theories, particularly, Scientific Management theory propounded by
Frederick W. Taylor. The Great Depression and economic damage of 1920s to 1940s lay bare
the shortcomings of earlier approaches to management. During this period, there was a
growth of labour unionism and an increasing demand of improved work conditions, labour
rights and social security. Such issues created a gap between the managers and labourers and
there was need of increased communication for developing more humane way of addressing
various problems of organization.
The Human Relations theory views organization in a holistic social perspective and
highlights the limitations of mechanistic approach to labour productivity and efficiency of an
organization. The pioneer of this theory was Professor George Elton Mayo. He is regarded as
52
the father of Human Relations approach to organization. In collaboration with his colleagues
of Harvard Business School, Mayo conducted series of experiments in this field.
2. Professor George Elton Mayo
Professor Elton Mayo was born in Australia in 1880. He studied Psychology and Philosophy
at University of Adelaide. He joined as lecturer in Logic, Ethics and Psychology at the
University of Queensland in 1911. Later on he was elevated to the rank of professor of
Philosophy there. He pioneered research on psychoanalytic treatment of shell-shock. His
research findings from the study in the Hawthorne Plant of the Western Electric Company
throw light on industrial and organizational psychology as well as certain aspects of
sociology.
3. Early Experiment
In 1923, Mayo conducted his first research in a Textile Mill near Philadelphia. It was later
termed as ‘first inquiry’. This research site was a highly organized sector. The environment
for workers there was conductive. Despite this, the general labour turnover (absenteeism) in
all the departments was estimated to be approximately 5 per cent per annum. Again in the
mule-spinning department the turnover was approximately 250 per cent. Various incentives
were provided to the workers to improve the situation, however, without much success.
Subsequently, Elton Mayo and his team studied the multi-spinning department from various
directions. On the basis of his research, he found that workers suffered from fatigue or lack of
adequate rest and there was a need of introducing rest periods to them. The motivating effect
of the scheme was tremendous. Mayo’s study was comprehensive in nature. It took into
account production levels, rest periods, working conditions, occasional accidents etc. By
delegating the decision of resting periods to the workers, the management in the Textile Mill
set in motion the social interaction between management and workers. It started a new
beginning.
4. The Hawthorne Experiment
The Hawthorne Plant of Western Electrical Company at Chicago happened to be one of the
progressive firms in the US. It was reputed for better working environment, favourable
workings hours and various facilities. But from the early 1920s, the firm was reduced to
moderate level of productivity. The management of the firm attempted every positive change
to improve productivity as suggested by the Scientific Management theory and Classical
theories of organization but the result were not satisfactory. Under this circumstance, the
management of the firm had approached Harvard Business School to find out the solution of
the problem of low productivity. Hence, Elton Mayo and his associates took this
responsibility and conducted a series of experiments and put forward their Human Relations
Approach to organization. The notable studies of this Hawthorne experiment are as follows.
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It was observed by Mayo that work satisfaction largely depends on the informal social
pattern of the working group. It was observed that cordial techniques of supervision
positively impact productivity.
4.3 Human Attitudes and Sentiments (1928-31)
Mayo and his team conducted another study during 1928-31. It was related to human
attitudes and sentiments. For this, they interviewed 21000 workers and asked them to express
freely their opinion about the working conditions and the policies of the management. These
interviews were more of an attempt to boost the morale of the workers than collecting data
about the various problems faced by the workers. It was observed that without proper
appreciation of the feelings and sentiments of the workers, it is difficult to delve deep into
their real problems. In the process, the research team acquired new insight in understanding
the concerns of the workers.
The study identified mainly 3 things:
First, Collection of information about the problems faced by the workers create a feeling
of equality among the workers, since they find place to participate in managerial decision
making. This create hope of improved working environment.
Second, the observation of the research team encouraged managers and supervisors to
become more responsive to the problems of workers.
Third, it was felt by the researchers for understanding the real problems of the workers it
is necessary to appreciate their sentiments and feelings. This in turn derive both from
employee’s personal history and social situation.
4.4 The Bank Wiring Observation Study (1931-32)
This experiment involved a group of 14 men (9 wirers, 3 soldiers, 2 inspectors) who were
assigned to do a wiring job which also included the job of soldiering and fixing the terminals.
Wages were paid on the basis of a group incentive plan and each member got his share on the
total output of the group. In contrast to their expectations, researchers found that the workers
were not reacting positively to the incentives. Workers fixed their own productive target
which was the lower than the target fixed by the management. There was an informal
consensus among the workers to maintain uniform rate of output and workers did not try to
increase or decrease production from the standard they agreed for themselves. Thus the
researchers uncovered an underlying group psychology and informal code of behaviour that
influences overall industrial productivity. Such behavioural pattern among the workers was
directly attributed to the deep seated distrust against the management. In this particular
experiment, the group used informal pressure to rectify the deviant members. The following
rules were framed:
Too much work should be avoided. If one does so, s/he will be regarded as ‘rate
buster’.
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Too little work should be discouraged. If one does so, s/he will be regarded as
‘chiseler’.
Anything negative about a fellow worker should not be reported to the supervisor.
Nobody should attempt social distance or act in an officious manner.
Thus this study was very useful in highlighting the fact of intra-group forces in the working
of an organization.
5. Main Findings of Hawthorne Experiments
The Hawthorne experiments and subsequent studies were very important in highlighting the
working of informal organization and socio-psychological factors as major determinants of
worker’s satisfaction and organizational output. This study has led to the understanding of
importance of human factor in organization and necessity of proper communication system
between the management and workers. The findings of experiments of Mayo and his
associates can be summarized as below:
1. Social Factors in Output: The level of organizational effectiveness is determined not
by the official prescriptions but by the social norms. Workers are not mere cogs in the
machine. They are human beings with social characteristics which in turn determine
the productivity and efficiency in organization.
2. Group Influence: In the organizational setting, workers not merely act as an
individuals but do as member of the group. Group standards exert major impact on
individual behaviour. The productivity of workers corresponds to this standard. The
group also provide protection against executive retaliations. In these ways, the
working of the informal groups somehow limit the executive power.
3. Rewards and Sanctions: Non economic rewards such as social rewards and group
sanctions are more effective than economic incentives for the increment of
productivity.
4. Supervision: Organizational objectives become acceptable to workers if they are also
involved in discussion and their informal leader is consulted. This necessitates
effective communication and willingness on the part of management to ensure
participation of the workers in decision- making.
5. Communication: Communication is key to develop a better environment for work
and development of organization. The rationality of a particular decision or action
should be properly communicated to workers. Management should try to identify the
attitudes, social and psychological factors, and methods of working of workers
through proper communication.
6. Chester I Barnard’s Contribution to Human Relations Theory
Another important exponent of Human Relations approach to organization is Chester I
Barnard, which is reflected in his work The Functions of Executive (1938). The main features
of Barnard’s theory of organization can be summarised as below:
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10. Conclusion
No theory can be regarded as all-inclusive and perfect. Elton Mayo’s Human Relations theory
has also certain short comings. But in spite of this, it may be regarded as milestone in
augmenting subsequent development of organizational practices. His ideas of adequate
communication system, participative management, importance of informal organizations, and
human side of organization among others are regarded as very crucial in organization
theories. His ideas led to the further development of Neo-Human Relations approaches,
particularly in the analysis of the work design and management evolved in the writings of
Douglas Macgregor, Abraham Maslow, Frederick Herzberg, Chris Argyris. At last we can
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say that Elton Mayo and his Human Relations approach is relevant still today not only for its
innovative ideas but also for practical application.
11. References and Further Reading
Baritz, L. (1960). The Servants of Power, Westport, CT: Greenwood.
Carey, A. (1967). “The Hawthorne Studies: A Radical Criticism’’, American Sociological
Review, 32 (3), pp. 403-416.
Chakravarty, B & Chand P. (2006) Public Administration in a Globalizing World, New
Delhi: Sage.
Chester, B. (1954). The Functions of the Executive, Cambridge: Harvard University Press
Drucker, Peter F. (1961). The Practice of Management, London: Mercury Books.
Jha, P. K. & Dubey, S. N. (Eds) (2015) Administration and Public Policy, New Delhi:
Scholar Tech Press.
Mayo, E. (1933). The Human Problems of an Industrial Civilization, Cambridge, MA:
Harvard.
----------(1945). The Social Problems of Industrial Civilization, Andover, Massachusetts:
Andover Press.
Roethlisberger, Firtz J., and Dickson, W. J. (1939). Management and the Worker, Cambridge:
Harvard University Press.
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Unit-2
Structure
Introduction
Definitions of Decision Making
Types of Decision Making
Principles of Decision Making
Meaning of Decision Theory
Intuitive Decision Making Model
Creative Decision Making Model
Rational Decision Making Model and Criticism
Rational Decision Making and Herbert Simon: Concept of Bounded Rationality
Critical Evaluation of Herbert Simon’s Model
Conclusion
References
Introduction
The subject of decision making is very extensive. Decision making is a multi-step process
which is considered as the most significant activity of the organization. It is the most basic
and central function of management at all levels. Decision making involves a clearly defined
elements based systematic process of selecting a course of action from multiple possible
alternatives for the achievement of the desired objective. Each defined element involves a
decision in itself and also serves as a building block of the decision process.
The main objective of the whole activity is to guide and channelise the human action for
the achievement of a proposed goal. It involves systemizing the organizational infrastructure
and required resources into the suitable course of action which would lead to achieving the
desired results in an orderly manner. The course of action involves questions like ‘what is the
objective’, ‘what is to be done to achieve the objective’, ‘how it is to be done’, ‘who all will
be involved’, ‘what are the resources’. By considering all the questions, alternative
possibilities are chalked out and then the best alternative is selected which is called as
‘decision’ and the whole process through which the final decision is taken is known as
‘decision making’. The word “decision” is derived from Latin word “decido”, which means
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settlement, a fixed intention bringing to conclusive result and decision making means arriving
at a conclusion as a solution of a problem.
All the administrative activities such as planning, organisation, direction, budgeting and
control etc are performed through decisions. That is why, the whole decision making process
is the most crucial aspect of administration.
Definitions of Decision Making
According to Koontz and O’Donnel, “Decision-making is the actual selection from among
alternatives of a course of action.”
Melvin T. Copeland said “administration essentially is a decision making process and
authority is responsible for making decision and for ascertaining that the decisions made are
carried out.”
According to Peter Drucker, “Whatever a manager does, he does through decision
making.”
Above mentioned definitions show that as the core function of management process,
decision is an act of choice selecting a particular alternative out of many possibilities. As an
act of choice, the whole process involves thinking, designing and deciding at each step. This
makes it a cognitive process where the knowledge about the problem helps to decide what to
do about the problem, how to solve it. Decision making involves gathering the available
information which is known, identifying the resources, chalking out the alternatives,
assessing the risks involved and making the best decision weighing all the alternatives in a
timely manner and evaluating decision effectiveness. This is fundamentally basic for each
individual decision to big organization, however, process of arriving at final solution is
complex can vary from individual to organization and at each level. (Bhattacharya and
Chakrabarty 2005)
Types of Decisions Making
There are many types of decisions which can be classified in a number of ways:
a.) Programmed decisions and non-programmed decisions
Programmed decision are structured and recurs after a regular interval. These types of
decisions involved routine and repetitive problems. The conditions of the programmed
decisions are highly certain which means that information about these problems are already
available and solutions are offered in accordance with habit, rule or procedure in a pre-
planned manner.
Non-programmed decisions are relatively unstructured and occurs much less often than a
programmed decision. Problems are unique and novel and conditions for non-programmed
decisions are highly uncertain and non-repetitive in nature. There are no prespecified
procedure to rely upon while taking decisions. Each situation is different from the other,
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involving situations and problems which are not often seen and thus, requires more
innovative solutions.
b.) Organisational decisions and personal decisions
Organisational decisions involve organizational goals and are made for the advancement
of the organization. These are the decisions which an executive or manager takes on behalf of
organisation. These can be delegated or transferred to others. These decisions making involve
decisions pertaining to practices and problems of the organisation.
Personal decisions are concerned to an employee of the organisation. These are basically
the decisions which are made by an executive or manager as an individual and not as a
member of the organisation. These decisions are made to achieve personal goals and cannot
be delegated to others.
c.) Individual decisions and group decisions
Individual decision is taken by an individual. In this an individual can often reach
decisions more quickly and it is less expensive in comparison to group decision. The clear
accountability lies with the individual who has taken the decisions.
Group decisions are those decisions which are taken by group or organisational team
which is constituted for the purpose. These decisions involve more information, process of
deliberations and the accountability lies with the whole group.
d.) Routine (tactical) decisions and strategic (basic) decisions
Routine decisions concerned with routine and repetitive problems. These types of
decisions neither require collection of new data nor conferring with the people. These can be
taken without much of deliberation. The primary purpose of these decisions is to achieve high
degree of efficiency in the ongoing activity. Within an organisation, lower level units can
take routine decisions in accordance to organisational rules.
The strategic decisions are taken on the serious problems and these require fact finding
analysis of the possible alternatives. These decisions require lengthy deliberations and has
long term implications. The strategic decisions are taken by top level management in an
organisation.
e.) Policy decisions and operative decisions
Policy decisions are the decisions that define the basic principles of the organization and
determine how it will develop and function in the future. These are taken by top level
management to change the rules, organizational procedure.
Operative decisions involved determining and planning short term objectives and goals
concerning routine tasks. These decisions are taken by lower management in order to put into
action the policy decisions.
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Apart from these categories, there are more types of decision making like departmental,
interdepartmental and enterprise decisions, major and minor decisions, short term and long
tern decisions, simple and complex decisions etc. Each decision making model has its own
advantages and disadvantages.
Principles of Decision Making
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On the basis of that three different areas of decision theory have been generated which
examine the decision making from three different point of view. These are descriptive,
prescriptive and normative decision theory.
Descriptive decision theory examines that how the irrational beings understand the
problem and take decisions.
Prescriptive decision theory provided fundamental guidelines to a decision taker in
order to draw possible inferences and make the best possible decision in uncertain
environment.
Normative decision theory highlights the importance of values and norms and
provides guidance for taking decisions based on set of norms and values.
Types of Decision Making Model
Decision making model describes the methods which is taken to make the decisions. There
are four main models of decision making and each model is relevant for a specific kind of
decision. It is important to mention here that each model of decision making has its
advantages and risks. The models are:
Intuitive decision making model
Creative decision making model
Rational decision making model
Bounded rational decision making model
Intuitive Decision Making Model
Intuitive decision making model focuses on the idea of reaching the decisions without
considerable conscious reasoning. With great deal of uncertainty attached, constraints of
time, finances, and limitation in terms of lack or imperfect information, it is often found that
people are taking decisions without considering the formal steps of the rational decision
making. But it is important to note here that, as it is seldom criticized from an outsider that it
is more based on gut feeling and guessing power, it is also a systematic model of decision
making. (Lumenlearning course)
Unlike rational decision making model, in this model decisions are not taken on the basis
of exploring best alternative out of possible options. Rather the decision taker here, analyses
the environment and figure out the pattern and use past experience and takes the suitable
course of action. If it is not coming out to be a workable solution then another new idea is
picked so at one given point of time, one choice is considered. Once a workable course of
action is recognized, the decision maker uses it to solve the problem. The basic strategy here
is trial and error, testing one solution at a time, understanding the patterns, scanning the cues
and thus reinventing the wheel every time.
Intuitive model is opposite of rational decision making model which is a multi-step
process of taking a decision based on facts analyse. This model is good to analysis ill-
structured and fragmented problems.
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In this step, people need to establish the relevance of all elements which are involved in
taking decisions like all the information, stakeholders involved, their requirement,
interest, preferences etc.
Weighing the decision criteria
This step revolves around putting the priorities and information in the decision in a
correct order.
Exploring possible alternatives
After the identification of the problem, and collection of the relevant information, the
next step is assessing them and chalking out all the possible alternatives.
Evaluate each alternative
This is the fifth step and in this step all the possible alternatives are evaluated on the
various parameters like feasibility, realistic and reliability of the alternatives, merits and
demerits of each alternative.
Choosing the best alternative as decision
Once the evaluation of the alternatives are finished, the decision maker now choose the
best suitable alternative and clearly state as decision.
Implementation of the decision
The final decision is implemented by the decision maker in order to solve the problem.
Evaluation of the decision
The last and final step involves evaluation the results of the decision.
Assumptions of the Rational Model of Decision Making
This model maintains that people choose the best alternative out of possible inferences on the
basis of maximization of benefits and minimization of cost analysis. The basic assumption of
rational model are:
People have complete and perfect knowledge about the problem and related
information on the basis of which they will make choices.
People have the perfect data to measure cost benefit analysis.
People possess the required cognitive ability to process the data, evaluate all possible
combinations against each others and has sound logical and objective ability to choose
the best possible alternative. (lumenlearning course)
Problems with the Rational Decision Making Model
The very basic problem with the model is its unrealistic assumptions of the decision maker
knows everything starting from the problem to all available choices, to choosing the best
alternative. The rational decision maker is expected to choose the ‘optimal alternative’ which
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has minimum cost and maximum benefits. In this decision making process, the ethical and
normative parameters are not taken into account. This model is dominated by the idea of
giving more preferences to fact, data and scientific analysis. (Henry 2003)
Critiques of the Rational Decision Making Model
The model have been criticized for having bias to the over-simplified and unrealistic
assumptions like:
The model assumes that all information is available pertaining the problem. It may not be
the true case and secondly, the decision maker might not be able to get and retain all the
information. There are many sort of limitations to it. As per the stepwise decision making
process, all information has to be gathered and analysed in order to create all possible
alternatives. There are some inherent problems with the very assumption as, first, it is tough
to get all information about any problem, there are some limitations to how much information
we can gather.
Secondly, pile of information can lead to ‘information analysis paralysis’ where too
much time would get wasted in analysing information and making sense out of it without any
conclusive decision. Too much reliance on these unrealistic assumptions has its problems.
Thirdly, individual rationality has its own boundaries to see through the data and figure
out alternatives out of that. There are cognitive, infrastructural, ecological restraints to it.
And, the more complex is the problem, more tough is to get information regarding it and
more are the limitations in order of making more rational decision.
Rational Decision Making and Herbert Simon
Nobel prize winning economist Herbert Simon’s (1916-2001) most celebrated work is
Administrative Behaviour: A decision making process was published in the year 1947. His
notable works are:
Administrative Behaviour (1947)
Fundamental Research in Administration (1953)
Organization (1958)
Human Problem Solving (1972)
In his book ‘Administrative Behaviour’ Simon mentioned that “decision making is the central
concern for understanding the organization and its working. And, in order to understand the
organization better, one need to analyse the human behaviour and its ethical and values
preferences in the whole decision making process.
Herbert Simon attacked the scientific and structural approach for their contradiction and
oversimplified, idealistic assumptions and thus making the discipline of public administration
inconsistent with no universal relevance. Simon in particular, questioned the theoretical basis
of rational decision making and challenged its universal validity. (Simon 1947)
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Herbert Simon’s investigation of the role of rationality in decision making has led to the
growth of behavioural approach in the field of administrative behaviour with focus on
decision making. For Simon, decision making is a universal process and has contextual
relevance. In his own words, “a theory of administration should be concerned with the
processes of decision as well as the processes of action. Mere setting up of a theory and no
relation to reality is of no value.” (Simon 1947)
For Simon, “administration is the art of getting things done” and for that he emphasized
on choices which ensure actions. Simon highlighted that in administrative study, more
attention has been given to action than choices. Choice precedes actions and without
understanding the choice properly, action cannot be analysed. And, decision making study is
the study of choices in behavioural approach. (Simon 1955)
Simon asserted that one has to understand that every administrative activity involves two
different and interrelated activity. These are:
‘deciding’ (decision)
‘doing’ (action)
‘Doing’ is integrally related to deciding. And, that is why deciding factors should be
analysed, should be based on sound principles so that it ensure effective action. Simon argued
that traditional administrative thinkers did not diagnose the situations thus lacked the frame
of reference which eventually made them suffer with the problem of universal validity. Thus,
Simon proposed his model of rational decision making which is based on logical positivism
and excluded value judgement, preferences and any normativity. Simon favoured that
administrative behaviour should only take into account those knowledge which is coming
from rigorous factual analysis. It is important to mention here that ‘logical positivism’ (a
philosophical movement arose out of Vienna Circle in the 1920s) basically holds the idea that
the only knowledge is scientific knowledge and meaningful knowledge which is based on
facts. Logical positivism differs from erstwhile schools of empiricism and positivism and
maintains that knowledge acquired by verification, experimental process should be
considered as basis of knowledge. (Bhattacharya and Chakrabarty 2005)
On the basis of logical positivism, Simon supported empirical approach and negated the
use of normative approach in the study of decision making in administration. According to
Simon, “factual information can be verified and tested, they are highly objective in nature but
value based judgements are subjective in nature and cannot be tested”. (Simon 1947)
Simon believed that decision making is a tough task as the decisions maker within an
organization is constantly facing new, complex challenges and out of the many possible
alternatives, the decision maker has to select the most suitable alternative to provide a
practical and workable solution to the problem.
Simon’s decision making theory is based on the basic idea that rational administrator or a
rational decision maker possesses perfect and complete knowledge about understating the
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problem, has all the required information, cognitive ability to interpret the information and
has the farsightedness to vision out the possible alternative and best alternative too.
Flowchart of Simon’s decision process
Is there a problem?
R
E
What are the V
alternatives? I
E
W
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Herbert Simon said that “the word satisficing is actually a combination of two words: satisfy
and suffice. As one can get all information, and even if one gets all information, he will not
be able to process it. In contrary, in bounded rationality, seeking ‘good enough’ something
which is satisfactory, fulfilling minimum threshold, acceptable works best and in the practical
world, this satisficing decision making is the most realistic approach.” Simon applied the
concept of bounded rationality and satisficing to individual to organisational decisions.
(Simon 1947; 1955)
So, in nutshell, there are some basic factors which are leading to satisficing decisions
based on bounded rationality. These are:
Dynamic and Complex nature of reality and administrative objectives.
Limited ability of decisions maker to foresee the alternatives and outcomes.
Lack of information and lack of cognitive and computational ability to process the
information.
Organizational pressure and other external factors in environment.
Personal interests, preferences and biases are bound to influence the decisions.
(Bhattacharya and Chakrabarty 2005)
On the basis of that, the administrative man has following traits:
On the basis of bounded rationality, administrative man takes satisfactory decisions
with meeting minimum threshold
He takes a simplified version of problem with only that much information which he
thinks adequate and do not fall for information analysis paralysis.
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policy making cycle. Excluding values and limiting the policy making to only factual study
would make the public administration too mundane, routinized, mechanical, and antipublic.
Many critics maintained that efficiency and cost benefit analysis should not be the only
concern of decision making. Satisfaction of all the stakeholders, societal welfare, optimal
utilization of resources are also equally important objectives of decision making which Simon
have ignored in the process.
Then, Simon has also been criticised for considering rationality as the only and most
crucial element of decision making. Whereas in reality, along with rationality, many other
non-rational dimensions play important role in decision making. Simon have failed to
recognise the role of tradition, faith, culture, personality traits, intuition and creativity in
decision making.
In this regard, Chris Argyris criticized Simon for not acknowledging the influential role
traditional values, belief system and intuition or sixth sense play in whole decision making
process. (Bhattacharya and Chakrabarty 2005)
Critics are skeptical that Simon’s idea of ‘satisficing’ might become a ‘justification tool’
or an excuse for those who are not serious about their decisions and taking decision that are
less beneficial.
They also critics that the difference between ‘maximizing’ and ‘satisficing’ is not clear,
rather these are overlapping and relative to each other as under many situations, satisficing
condition can also led to maximization and versa and again in many condition these two can
be poles apart.
Simon model is an attainable model for many critics because it is unattainable and
idealistic to get fit into real public administration and real world. Critics commented that the
concept of bounded rationality and satisficing are oversimplified and too generalistic ideas
and has nothing to guide or to contribute to the real planners.
Despite the criticism, Simon’s contribution and his path breaking work in public
administration cannot be neglected. With the rational decision making model, a new
paradigm emerged in the discipline of public administration with behavioural approach
shifting the traditional approach with a more scientific and logical orientation. Herbert Simon
highlighted the significance of decision making as role of choice can give a better
understanding of the administration and would help to understand the dynamics of
administrative behaviour.
Influenced by Simon’s idea and this path breaking work, several public administration
theorist, management thinkers, economists like Victor Thompson, Anthony Downs, Michel
Crozier, Gordon Tullock, Dwight Waldo, Golembiewski have further researched and
contributed to study of administrative behaviour.
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Conclusion
As discussed, decision making is one of the most important activity of not only an
organisation but an essential part of everybody’s daily life. The good decision is linked to
efficiency and effectiveness of choices one makes. Whereas the rational model characterizes
decision maker as a rational economic man, later Simon’s rational model of decision making
shows despite the limitations of decision maker, how the administrative man optimizes.
Simon, as opposite to the hard system approach, makes the decision making relatively simple
and clear. In the real world, problems are complex, face many constraints of varying range
and degree, with fast moving economy, ever changing administrative functioning, the
decision making have become more tougher and facing newer challenges.
Along with the manifestation of the problem based on these models, a decision maker or an
administrator, policy maker can improve his/her understanding of the social, economic,
political, cultural and cognitive factors and bring new ways of dealing with the issues and
problems. The main objective is to create more suitable and relevant conditions to make good
choices for the welfare of the society at large.
References
Bhattacharya, M. and Chakrabarty, B. (2005) ‘Introduction: Public Administration: Theory
and Practice’, in Bhattacharya, M. and Chakrabarty, B. (eds.) Public Administration: A
Reader. Delhi: Oxford University Press, pp. 1‐50.
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Henry, N. (2003) Public Administration and Public Affairs. New Delhi: Prentice Hall, pp.
53‐74.
Simon, H.A. (1947) Administrative behaviour. New York, NY:Macmillan
Simon, H.A. (1955) A behavioural model of rational choice, quarterly Journal of Economics,
59, pp. 99-118
Website Reference
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-management/chapter/rational-and-nonrational-
decision-making/
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/suny-orgbehavior/chapter/11-2-understanding-decision-
making/
Image Reference
Image 1: Available from: https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Illustration-of-the-concept-of-
bounded-rationality-Due-to-cognitive-limitations-time_fig1_326439800 [accessed 1 Nov,
2020)
Image 2: Available from https://courses.lumenlearning.com/suny-orgbehavior/chapter/11-2-
understanding-decision-making/ (accessed 1 Nov, 2020)
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Unit-2
(c) Contemporary Theories
i. Ecological Approach (Fred Riggs)
Bijendra Jha
Structure
Introduction
Riggs’ Ecological Approach to Administrative System
‘Agraria (Fused)’, ‘Industria (Diffracted)’ and ‘Prismatic’ societies
Sala Model: Administrative subsystem in prismatic society
Bazaar Canteen: Prismatic Society’s Economic Subsystem
Conclusion
References
Introduction
In the field of comparative public administration, F W Riggs (1917-2008) was a pioneer
intellectual in the period of post-world war II. He was chairman of Comparative
Administration Group (CAG) of the American Society for Public Administration. CAG
maintained that in order to enrich the discipline of Comparative Public Administration and
make it more scientific, it has to be more critical, analytical, and cross-cultural. Delivering his
lecture at Indian Institute of Public Administration in New Delhi (1969), Riggs has chosen
his title of talk as ‘The Ecology of Public Administration’. He had selected three models viz.,
United State of America, Thailand and Philippines to illustrate different models of
administration. The contemporary studies in public administration made use of ecological
approach to the public administration developed by F W Riggs in 1950s and 1960s. He
revised and reexamined his study various times and offered cross-cultural analysis of
administration.
He was the first who gave intellectual and organizational leadership to the comparative
public administration (CPA) movement in 1950s and 1960s. His empirical and comparative
studies of the administration popularly known as ecological approach are found in his book
‘The Ecology of Public Administration’ (1961)’, and ‘Administration in Developing
Countries: The theory of Prismatic Society (1964)’. Riggs borrowed from Sutton’s two ideal
model of Agraria and Industria to illustrate relationship between societal structure,
administration and whole culture. He illustrated the typology in comparative public
administration as Agraria and Industria, and claimed that similar category can be developed
by illustrating relationship between administration, society and culture. Later he termed
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structures. This approach is a method of analyzing the functions that are carried out in a
society, the structures that are responsible to carry out functions. Riggs insists that in every
society five types of functions are discharged viz., social, economic, communication,
symbolic and political.
‘Agraria (Fused)’, ‘Industria (Diffracted)’ and ‘Prismatic’ Societies
For the purpose of analysis, Riggs has developed models of administrative systems. In the
1950s, he divided societies into two groups: ‘Agraria’ (Fused) and ‘Industria’ (Diffracted).
‘Agraria’ (fused) refers to post-colonial societies dominated by a traditional economic system
like subsistence agricultural economy. No modernization in economy and politics have taken
place so primordial social and cultural systems exist along with traditional subsistence
economies, for example, China, Indonesia and Philippines in the 1950s. In these societies, a
single structure carries out a number of functions. Economics in these societies are based on
the traditional mode of exchange system and barter system. The king or Royal family and
nominated member rules the country with established traditional social laws. The
administrative system in these societies are based on the structure of the King’s/Royal family
and the entire administrative system serves the interest of the Royal family rather than to the
people of the society aimed at development, happiness and good life. Parochial culture
dominates the society at large and ascriptive values matter in everyday life. In these societies,
people have very limited social and political mobility and there is no specialized division of
labour. Old age customs, faith, value, believe, and way of living enabled people to live their
life collectively and control each-other’s behaviour. In these societies, critical thinking or
examination is depicted as a threat to the society. The Royal Family is all in all in the
country’s life and common people live a subjugated life.
In contrast, ‘Industria’ (Diffracted) refers to a developed society like the United States of
America whose economy was majorly industrial along with modern political and bureaucratic
structures. In these societies, modern industries play an important role in shaping a country's
economic structure along with a dynamic system of production and high level of specialized
division of labour. All organizations and structures are created and based on the basis of
modern scientific rationality. Economy is based on free market rationalization. Riggs termed
these societies as free marketized societies. In ‘Industria’ (Diffracted) society, government’s
intervention in the market and market operation is negligible. Social and spatial mobilities are
very high and people enjoy modern technology for their industries and individual’s utility.
In politics, democratic values like individual liberty, equality and justice play an
indispensable role in a country's political structure. Individuals have certain fundamental
rights against excesses of the state. Citizens have the right to participate in elections and get
elected for even the highest political office. Ascriptive values do not matter too much in
public/political life and the government is responsive to the citizens’ development, happiness
and good life. In these societies, there are independent civil society organizations in order to
protect the interest of the common people and government’s response to protection of human
rights is enormous. Citizens’ groups pressurize the government to work in the interest of the
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common people and get their demand fulfilled. There is consensus among citizens about how
to organize collective affairs of the state and basic aspects of social life at large. People pay
attention and give respect to common laws of the nation. They are active regarding
government’s policy. In these societies, there are more or less universal political cultures and
citizens are open minded and critical to the government’s public policy.
Administration in these societies are more or less independent, accountable and
transparent. They serve to rule of law in the interest of common citizens rather than to any
family or group. Entire administrative systems are based on Max Weber’s legal-rational
authority rather than traditional social ascriptive values. The Weberian model of bureaucratic
systems works in these societies. Universalization of rule of law applied to everyone
irrespective of their ascriptive identities. According to Riggs, all societies transform from
‘Agraria’ to ‘Industria’ in due course of time. For him, ‘Agraria’ is functionally diffused
societies also known as ‘fused’ societies (In primordial societies, various social and economic
functions are functionally diffused, that is, there is no specified division of labour), but
industrial societies (Industria) are functionally diffracted as division of labour are highly
specified. These are two but diametrically opposed societies. He has identified structural
features of ‘Agraria’ and ‘Industria’ which are following:
Agraria (Fused) Industria (Diffracted)
1 Ascriptive value Modern value
2 Particularistic or parochial cultural Universal political culture
3 Diffused pattern Specificity
4 Limited social and spatial mobility High social and spatial mobility
5 Simple and stable occupational Well-developed occupational
differences pattern
6 Differential social stratification Existence of egalitarian class
system
Source: Prasad and Prasad (Ch.17, p.215)
Later Riggs developed an equilibrium model named ‘transitia’ which refers to transforming
societies which represent transitional stages from agrarian to industrial economic systems.
These societies are economically, socially and politically between ‘Agraria’ and ‘Industria’
reflect characteristics of ‘Agraria’ as well as ‘Industria’. Riggs called it ‘prismatic’ societies,
an intermediate society between fused and diffracted.
Firstly, it must be noted that ‘prismatic’ societies are the post-colonial societies who
have been freed from colonization of western power in the 1940s and 1950s. Western power
ruled these societies for centuries through their developed administrative system along with
their social, economic, political, technological as well as cultural domination. They imposed a
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modern bureaucratic system to govern these societies. They have also recruited local people
in their bureaucracy in a limited sense. In the post Second World War, these countries have
gained independence. Secondly, when these western powers left these countries, they left
structures of modern bureaucratic systems, political systems, industrial systems, and
technological systems in these countries continuing with indigenous people. So, these
societies consist of a modern economic, political, and administrative system along with
traditional social, political and cultural structures. Therefore, these societies are intermediate
societies between ‘Agraria’ (Fused) and Industria (Diffracted). Riggs was curious to look into
the relation between western imposed administrative system and their social, cultural
environment in prismatic society.
In ‘prismatic’ societies, one can find that a traditional subsistence agricultural economy
exists along with modern heavy industrialization. Big and modern cities exist along with rural
hinterland and modern political institutions exist along with traditional social, political and
cultural structure. People's behaviour in these societies vary from participation political
culture (citizens aware of their rights and assertiveness for their due) to parochial political
culture (politically unaware citizens who find themselves powerless in front of bureaucratic
structure and state). One can find mix-political cultural structure in these societies. Here,
there are large gaps between rural-urban divide, poor-rich divide along with divide in the
administrative practice in favour of dominant class/caste. Administrative structure functions
within their social, economic, political, technological, and cultural environment.
Riggs’ focus of study was prismatic society where one can find characteristics of modern
industrial societies like heavy industry, technology, modern political structures like
parliament, judiciary, and bureaucracy as well as primordial social, economic and culture
structures like hierarchy based on traditional social stratification, social status, traditional
ascriptive identities dominates in everyday life. Traditional social values have equal or more
importance than modern values like individual’s rights, liberty, and equality. Riggs’ interest
was to inquire about interactions between modern bureaucracy and their social, economic,
cultural structure in developing societies. In other words, Riggs was concerned with social
structure at large of the prismatic society and their interaction with the administrative
subsystem.
Riggs has identified three characteristics of prismatic society: 1) heterogeneity: It refers
to co-existence of modernity along with traditional; simultaneous presence of different kinds
of systems, practice and view point. Riggs finds a high degree of heterogeneity in prismatic
society regarding structure, practice and worldview; 2) formalism: there is a large gap
between envisaged vision of the society in the constitution and actual practice. Discrepancy
exists between descriptive and perspective, between formal power and effective power, and
between aims and objectives stated in the constitution and real practice. Due to formalism
actual behaviour bureaucratic officials vary and result in official corruption; and 3)
overlapping: in prismatic society, modern political, administrative structure has created but
indifferent and traditional structures continue to dominate in the social behaviour system.
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Thus, newly created highly modern structures are paid only lip-service and overlooked
widely in favour of traditional social structures. This is regarded as overlapping. Western
bureaucratic and political structures have been created for administrative purposes but often
ignored in favour of traditional social structures. Thus, modern structures co-exist with
traditional but traditional structures continue to dominate in actual practice.
Overlapping has several important dimensions like nepotism, favouritism, poly-
communalism (hostile interaction among different groups), poly-normativism (existence of
several norms rational as well as irrational/traditional), existence of clects (interest groups
based on communal identity), poly normativism (various norms for various group depending
on group’s social status, and bargaining capacity) and modern administrative system co-exists
with traditional administrative structures. Riggs calls economic structures in prismatic society
as bazar-canteen and it has characterized a different set of prices for a commodity or service
for different sets of people depending on social status and bargaining capacity.
Sala Model: Administrative Subsystem in Prismatic Society
The prismatic society is characterized by numerous social, economic, political and
administrative sub-systems. Riggs calls the administrative subsystem a ‘sala’ model. In
diffracted (Industria) societies, it is termed as ‘office’ or ‘bureau’, and in Fused (Agraria)
societies, it is termed as chamber. These three administrative structures have different
characteristics of their own. In a prismatic society, nepotism or patronize bestowed or
favouritism based on family relationship and kinship is prevalent. In fact, nepotism or
favouritism plays a very significant role in selection in various administrative offices and
performance of administrative functions. Family lineage, kinship and traditional law
prevailed and universalization of rule of law was lacking in practice or infact disregarded.
The ‘sala’ official gives priority to social structure while dealing with administrative matters.
They prioritize family/kinship and social ascriptive identity of the individual rather than to
common citizens their political equality. They increase personal power, wealth, and
prosperity rather than to social welfare. The ‘sala’ official behaviour and performance are
highly influenced by his socialization and parochial character. As a result, they don’t apply
law universally. They are biased and their action and interactions are guided by his ascriptive
value and parochialism. Few get more benefits from the government programme and rest
remain ignored from government’s general welfare schemes.
Various social groups interact with each-other as communal members rather than
common citizens. In prismatic society, these communal identities and their hostile interaction
is denoted as poly-communalism. Interest groups are formed on the basis of ascriptive
identities and there is constant struggle among these groups to get bureaucratic favours.
These interest groups based on ascriptive/communal identities are known as ‘clects’. In his
study of prismatic society, Riggs has noted that poly-communalism and presence of clects
creates certain administrative problems. Normatively speaking, government officers
implement laws, schemes and programme universally and without any favouritism and
discrimination, but ‘sala’ officials shows greater loyalty towards member of their own
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members of the dominant community, clects, privileged groups, and politically influential
people have access to market and its institutions like canteen for the army who serves at the
subsidized rate. Conversely it behaves like a ‘tributary’ canteen to the members of the
marginal communities who have to pay a higher price than the influential political people and
dominant caste/class.
The fluctuation of price in prismatic society creates more problems and it encourages
black marketing, hoarding, adulteration, and ultimately leads to high inflation in the
economy. It has a direct impact on common people. In such a situation, the ‘sala’ official in
prismatic society tries to develop contacts with business groups, foreign business clubs and
institutions, and misuse foreign exchange for private purposes. It would often lead to large
corruption, exploitation of the common people, poverty and decline of life standard of
common people in prismatic society. In prismatic society wage depends on political
influence. There is a great divide between higher wage and lower wage in the economy and
that results in high economic inequality and social injustice. Thus, exploitation, poverty, and
social injustice become the major features of the bazaar canteen model.
Conclusion
F W Riggs’ ecological approach has been criticized for being too pessimistic about the post-
colonial society and neglecting social change. It is too much theoretical without adequate
empirical evidence and too static about the external factors and overgeneralization. Riggs
himself examined and re-examined his own model of public administration in developing
society. His model is too broad and overgeneralization of the post-colonial society. Great
scholar of the public administration Ramesh Arora has identified the negative character of the
prismatic/ecological model of the public administration. He argues that Riggs’ ecological
model has western bias towards post-colonial society and the model has portrayed a negative
picture of the prismatic society. Actually, study was conducted with parameters of western
society and it has painted a bad picture. It is not that administration in the prismatic society
has all bad characteristics, there are many good that Riggs’ ignored in his study like nation-
building institutions. It is not that the administrative office ‘bureau’ is not corrupt and biased
in western society but Riggs has painted them as transparent and clean.
Riggs in his study of post-colonial societies, he left many variables that are very
important to understand the bureaucracy like population, territorial size, the role of the
military, and especially the role of national leaders/freedom fighters who have played
important role in creating the entire structure of the post-colonial state. Most importantly, the
unique social context of each country influences the administrative behaviour that Riggs
seldom debated in his entire explanation of the ‘sala’ official as well as the bazaar canteen
economy.
References
Chakarvarty, Bidyut and Prakash Chand. 2017. Public Administration: From Government to
Governance. New Delhi: Orient Black Swan.
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Unit-2
(c) Contemporary Theories
Structure
● Introduction
● Biographical Sketch
● Major Contributions of Peter Drucker
● Drucker’s Management Theory
● Drucker’s Theory of Management: An Appraisal
● Conclusion
● References
Introduction
Peter Drucker is well acknowledged thinker in the field of management for his contribution to
management theory. His contribution to the field of administration is acknowledged all over
the world. Peter F. Drucker is known for his contribution to management theory and practice.
He examined the working of organization in the wake of privatization, advent towards
decentralization, change in power contours of the world, rise in importance of market and
development of informed societies. In the wake of these changes the management theory of
Drucker led to understanding of administration with a new perspective towards theory and
concepts of management. His contribution is widely recognized and has gained approval in
the field of administration and management both in the public and private sector. This
chapter will focus on understanding the basic principles of Peter Drucker in relation to the
idea of modern management and their relevance in the contemporary times.
Biographical Sketch
Peter Drucker is known as the father of modern Management. He contributed immensely
towards understanding the management and functioning of organization. Born in Vienna,
Austria on November 19, 1909, Drucker was born in a family which had active intellectual
environment. His parents were actively involved in discussions on economics, politics,
science, literature and more. This helped him develop a broader perspective towards
understanding the various aspects in an interdisciplinary manner. For his higher education
Drucker moved from Austria to Germany to study Admirality Law at Hamburg University
and then he moved to Frankfurt University to pursue his study of law.
Drucker was influenced by the writings of Aristotle, John Maynard Keynes, Schumpeter
and various other thinkers. Drucker worked with several British newspapers like the financial
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The more important works are; Practice of Management (1954), Managing by Results
(1964), The Effective Executive (1967), The Age of Discontinuity (1969), Management:
Tasks, Responsibilities and Practices (1974), and Management Challenges for 20th Century
(1999).
Major Contributions of Peter Drucker
Peter Drucker examined the bureaucratic structure of the organizations and devised
innovative methods for management of practices in the organization. He has been critical of
the classical thinkers for their principles of organization such as unity of command, hierarchy
and more. He criticized the bureaucratic principles for its absence of accountability and
prescriptive methods. He describes the concept of management to be different from
administration and is generic in nature. The key concepts which contributed towards
management practices and entrepreneurship as follows
● Nature of Management
Drucker describes management as the means of introducing innovation and creative
characteristics. Innovation is an important component of an organization as it looks at
a combining new and old ideas, building new ideas and incorporating ideas from
across discipline which encourages new ideas. Drucker describes management as a
practice towards building skills, tools and techniques in the working of an
organization. He also emphasise that management along with skills and techniques
requires right perspective as per the socio-economic and cultural needs of a system.
● Management Functions
Drucker describes Management as a mode of accomplishing tasks. These tasks are
carried out by managers. Manager helps the organization to accomplish specific
objectives e.g. a university has specific purpose and mission which aims to
accomplish. Managers direct the workers towards achievement orientation and
making it more productive. They also play an important role in managing the
organization towards its social responsibilities.
Manager has a key role to play in the conduct of activities. Manager acts as an
administrator as well as an executor where he/she focuses on redirecting the various
resources and utilizing them in an innovative manner. Manager directs and redirects
resources by setting up objectives and defining functions to achieve those objectives.
Drucker further emphasise that innovation, productivity, profitability, financial
resources, development, performance and responsibility towards people is important.
● Restructuring Government
Drucker focused on innovation techniques towards management of organization. He
emphasised on the need to reform the bureaucratic structure of organization with its
dysfunctional methods. In his view towards working towards effective organization
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To work towards these, it is important that the organization must meet certain criteria such as
▪ Categorizing the objective from most important to the least relevant ones.
▪ Quantification of objectives
▪ Specify the goals
▪ Consistency of goals
Therefore, the concept of Management Business objectives has redefined the practices
and objectives of organization. Under this he also identifies some important task of
the manager. He emphasised that he/she should be able to integrate the team towards
the defined objectives, devise strategies towards it. They should be able to
communicate information and motivate employees to gain commitment and
motivation. The manager should be able to have a holistic approach in the functioning
of the organization. He emphasised on the need to integrate the functioning of the
whole organization by taking into account the product and the total environment in
the context of social, economic and political changes and developments.
● Organizational Changes
In view of the various changes happening in the social and the economic framework
there has been changes guided towards philosophy which defines the structuring and
functioning of the organization. These changes have made organizations dynamic.
While examining the organizational structures and their development in the
production he criticises the perception that workers are an appendage to machine. In
the move towards strengthening of capitalism he emphasised that workers should be
given an opportunity to participate in the management of production process. He
describes it as essential that workers should be given an opportunity to participate in
the production and management activities.
● Rethinking and Abandonment
In this concept Drucker focuses on the restructuring of organization in which he
focuses on the notion of downsizing organizations. He outlined that instead of
focusing on downsizing of organizations there should be a focus on expanding and
promoting activities. The organizational based activities can be restructured. There is
a need to make organizations more flexible, collaborative with delegation. Along with
the management the workers should be given an opportunity to take risks. The
management and the subordinates should work in a collaborative manner and take
risks together.
Drucker’s Management Theory
Drucker’s theory of management has evolved in the context of social transformations
pertaining to high levels of corruption, along with a shift from owner capitalism to manager
capitalism focusing on social, technological and ethical changes with new management
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approach. Drucker’s (1985) analysis of capitalism led to construct of hypothesize and link
between changes in technology and understanding the responses of management to new
social trends. This transformation has led us towards new management approach. Drucker’s
management approach represents various concepts towards management approach. These are
as below:
Decentralization
Drucker focused on decentralizing the conduct of activities at workplace. He believed and
emphasised on the participation of subordinates and assigning tasks to them. He wanted
that there should be a relationship between workers and supervisors and they should
together work towards accomplishment of goals. Through this relationship he wanted to
strengthen the working of organization and make the workers feel empowered.
Knowledge Work
In an organization knowledge worker are the actors who generate knowledge. Their key
function is to generate knowledge. This Knowledge includes technical knowledge, data
handling and information. This helps in innovation and creativity. It is the leading
dimension towards productive process and helps to create a culture of bringing in insight
and ideas. They play an important role in expansion, and are the key driver of
competitive advantages within and among societies. Knowledge implies the capacity for
action in social life. Realization of knowledge depends upon the social, economic, and
intellectual context (Stehr, 1996). These knowledge workers have helped to create
knowledge societies. The knowledge workers will demand new rules in management and
will build innovation and change.
Management by Objectives
Peter Drucker is the father of Modern Management and has worked towards social
change. Drucker emphasised that management by objective is a strategic way to enhance
the performance of the organization. This is the process by the organization that conveys
its desire towards the achievement of various objectives to the members of the
organization. All the members of the organization i.e. workers at various levels work
together to achieve the common objectives. The workers also express their opinion and
can give inputs. The key steps towards MBO are:
1. Defining organizational objectives
2. Defining objectives of the employee
3. Monitor the progress of performance
4. Evaluate performance
5. Reward the performance
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the needs of all employees. Innovation and creativity should be encouraged amongst
all members as this would help to achieve efficiency and effectiveness in the
organization.
Drucker’s Theory of Management: An Appraisal
Peter Drucker is assessed and evaluated for his contribution towards understanding the
conduct of management and functioning of organization. His people-centric approach to
business management became the foundation of both his writing and subsequently his
principles of professional management. Drucker highlighted that management has an
obligation to people that goes far beyond just meeting the objectives. Peter Drucker
underlined that professionally managed organizations should work towards building
intellectual and moral capacities of employees.
Drucker focuses on the principle of manner as against matter which emerges as a
consequence of traditions, culture and the values in which they participate. Drucker in this
theory towards management has focused on various ideologies and how one ideology derives
strength from the other. He focuses on understanding the behaviour and working of
organization in the context of socio-economic changes and how humans have adapted to
these changes.
Drucker’s theory of management rests on his understanding of societal changes which
subsequently lead to changes in political institutions and the conduct of economy. He
emphasises that the shift from agrarian framework to industrialization which led to the advent
of capitalism was accompanied by revolution and innovations which led to shaping up of
human values and human control. Drucker describes the profession of management as a
discipline which helps us to identify significant features and characteristic by focusing on
data and information which otherwise gets neglected.
Drucker’s theory of management has focused on initiatives and participation with self-
control and responsibility on the conduct of activities. The institutions of business should
work towards cumulative objectives of all members of the organization i.e. in the field of
economics, societal and political. His concept of Management by objective encourage
participation at all levels and that initiatives to be taken at all levels. But Drucker’s notion of
Management of objectives is often criticized for not being able to achieve the objectives due
to failure in procedure or maybe implementation. Nonetheless, Peter Drucker has made a
significant contribution to the field of administration and has developed some key principles
towards the working of management.
Drucker has emphasized the need of conducting the business in enterprises with virtue
ethic which critics generally failed to recognize. Kurzynski (2009) compares Drucker
management philosophy with Aristotle’s moral philosophy as Drucker believed that business
and managers have a purpose that surpasses the individual ethic of self-interest and profit
maximization. He describes business organization as a human and social organization where
workers find a purpose and strive to achieve their objectives. However, Drucker’s writings
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are criticized for being journalistic and generalist in nature. Nonetheless, his views towards
business organization and management are recognized in both public and private sectors for
the conduct of activities.
Conclusion
Drucker with his interdisciplinary approach focused on dealing with business problems and
concerns of management in the second half of the 20th century. He contributed towards
immensely body of knowledge in the field of management, economics, public administration
and public policy. He integrated perspectives from various disciplines worked towards
developing theories and concept for efficient organizations. He emphasised on
entrepreneurship and innovation for the conduct of activities in an organization with inputs
from all levels. He extended his consultancy services to all kinds of organizations that helped
organizations to develop a holistic view on management. Drucker’s first book titled ‘The
End of Economic Man' published (1939) outlined his faith in modern society which focus on
economic equality and at the same time focused on freedom to all levels. He looked at
organization in a holistic way with a focus on goals to build efficiency and effectiveness in
organization. Peter Drucker has made a significant contribution to the field of Public
Administration and are relevant for both public and private organization.
References
● Carmella S. (2018). “The Management Theory of Peter Drucker”. Retrieved from
http//www.business.com/ article/management-theory-of-peter-drucker
● Drucker, P.F. (1954) The Practice of Management, USA, Harper Business:62-63
● Kanter, R.M. (1985), "Drucker: the unsolved Economic puzzle", New Management,
Vol. 2 No.1, pp.10-13.
● Kurzynski, M. (2009). Peter Drucker: Modern day Aristotle for the business
community. Journal of Management History, 15 (4), pp 357-374.
● Stehr, N. (1996). Knowledge as a capacity for action, Peter Wall Institute for
Advanced Studies. Vancouver, Canada: The University of British Columbia.
● http://www.bl.uk/people/peter-drucker
● http://hbr.org/2009/11/product/why-read-peter-drucker
● http://www.drucker.institute/perspective/about-peter-drucker
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Structure
Introduction
Understanding public policy
Characteristics of public policy
Types of public policy
Significance of policy analysis
Levels of policy analysis
Different forms of policy study
Models of policy making
Relevance of public policy
References
Introduction
A better understanding of public policy is very crucial for understanding the relationship
between the state and its people. The presence and relevance of the state is evident in all
aspects of lives and with the rapid geo-political and economic changes, the mutual
relationship between public and state has also become very significant. In this regard, the role
of public policy has enhanced tremendously.
Simply put, public policy is a like a strategical framework which the government within
a state uses to fulfill its functions. And, in this regard, public policies become very significant
as it holds the power to change and reshape the lives of the public in their given political
system.
The presence of public policy can be seen in every socio-economic aspect of public.
States are enacting policies to bring economic development and promote social justice and
empowerment of all sections of the society. So, not only the economic but the social
relationships are also getting transformed due to the sound public policy. In this way, it
become essentially important to understand the public policy so as to know the state and
society and their relationship better.
Understanding Public Policy
One important point which is necessary to highlight here is that as countries are different in
all aspects, the public policy also differs. The nature, process, policy priority and impact of
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policy significantly vary from country to country depending on social, political, economic
aspect, priorities, available resources, stakeholders involvement etc. In India, the policies are
made keeping in mind the problems of poverty, illiteracy, rampant unemployment, food
insecurity, priorities like social and gender justice, empowerment of the weaker section of the
society, development of agriculture and industries, sound economic growth, for better human
security indicators, environmental sustainability, and national security broadly. One can
realize the comprehensiveness and complexities of public policy as it is highly interconnected
to different aspects.
Therefore, it has also become difficult to give a defined public policy. This means that on
the basis of semantics, simply put, linguistically it is difficult to define public policy because
of the comprehensiveness of the very nature of public policy. Public policy has been defined
by different scholars in different ways focusing on different aspects of the policy and policy
process. Different definitions give different perspectives and dimensions to understand policy
making.
Thomas R. Dye says that “public policy is whatever government choose to do or not to
do”. (Dye 2008).
David Easton defined public policy “as the authoritative allocation of values for the
whole society”.
According to William Jenkins “public policy is a set of interrelated decisions taken by a
political actor or group of actors concerning the selection of goals and the means of achieving
them within a specified situation where those decisions should, in principle, be within the
power of those actors to achieve”.
Harold Lasswell and Abraham Kaplan define public policy as “a projected program of
goals, values, and practices”.
According to Cochran et al, “the actions of government and the intentions that determine
those actions”.
Robert EyeStone mentions public policy as “the relationship of government units to its
environments”.
Richard Rose says that “public policy is not a decision, it is a course or pattern of
activity”.
In the words of Carl J. Friedrich’s word, “public policy is a proposed course of action of
a person, group or government within a given environment providing opportunities and
obstacles which the policy was proposed to utilize and overcome in an effort to reach a goal,
an objective or purpose”.
From the above definitions, it becomes very evident that public policies are decisions
taken by government to achieve pre-conceived goals which involves proper planning, and a
well planned course of action. Definitions also make clear the public policy is a product of
well coordinated relation and meaningful interaction between various stakeholders like
government agencies as executive, legislature, judiciary, bureaucracy, various associations,
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pressure groups, civil society, and private and international organizations etc. (Krafts and
Furlong 2004)
However, where such definitions as feasible to understand public policy in ordinary
circumstances, but these are not sufficient indicators of a systematic study of public policy.
As Adam A. Anyebe (2008) mentioned that “these definitions make public policy look like
mere decisions, as expression of interests. It is true that these definitions work as a reference
point for starting with the discourse of public policy but a more precise definition is needed to
structure our thinking and to facilitate effective communication with one another. Public
policy also means patterns of resource allocation presented by projects and programmes
designed to respond to perceive public demands”. In this regard, Political Scientist James E.
Anderson (1997) defined policy as “a relatively stable, purposive course of action followed
by an actor or set of actors in dealing with a problem or matter of concern.” This approach
helps us to understand what actually has been done rather what has been proposed for doing
in a complex environment with multiple challenges.
The characteristics, types, policy analysis, approaches and policy cycle can help make
meaningful understanding of public policy. Policy analysis helps to understand the policy as a
whole, the linkages with political and social system and develops a scientific investigation of
the factors which influence public policy and its outcome. According to Thomas Dye “policy
analysis is a perquisite to prescription, advocacy and activism”. (Dye 2008)
The policy process or policy cycle presents a very basic, most fundamental framework of
understanding a policy which includes formulation, implementation and evaluation stages.
Characteristics of Public Policy
1. Public Policy is a goal oriented purposive action. The basic objective of a public
policy is to achieve predetermined goals on the basis planned course of action by
utilizing the available resources and infrastructure.
2. Public policy is the result of ‘doing, it is ‘action oriented’ and it is not about what the
government obligated or intended to do. Government forms public policy on the basis
of number of parameters. The availability of resources, financial commitments,
priority groups, complexity of the problem, data availability, engagement of various
stakeholders in a political environment within in a specific administrative system.
3. Public policy is the result of collective action of government decisions. It shows the
action pattern of the government officials and reflects their concerns and
commitments towards the citizens.
4. Public policy is a well planned, well researched course of action. And, it gets
implemented with a sanction of law and authority to it.
Types of Public Policy
1. Distributive policy involves allocation of benefits and services for a specific section
of the society. Through these policies government try to reach out to all sections of
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the society benefitting specially the vulnerable sections of the society. These policies
allocate resources and use of public funds to assist vulnerable communities, groups
and industries. Example of these policies are education policy, poverty alleviation
policy, health policy etc. These are for specific sections of the society.
2. Redistributive policy involves deliberate actions of the government to
allocate/redistribute the rights, income, property among all sections of the society.
These are basically concerned with social economic changes and rearrange policies to
achieve welfare of the society in general. These policies are difficult to design as it
involves allocation of huge finances, proper use of power and rights. These policies
are managing the economy of the country. The techniques involved here manage the
fiscal (tax) and monetary (flow of money) policy in the country. Redistributive
policies tend to benefit one group (vulnerable section, lower income group) by
reallocating wealth of the another group (higher income group). Examples of
redistributive policies are taxation policy, fiscal policy, social welfare policy etc.
3. Another typology of the public policy is regulatory policies. These policies allow the
administrative state to authoritatively control or simply put imposition of restriction or
limitation on the behaviour of individuals the citizens for some activities. The
examples are regulative control for the consumption of alcohol and tobacco,
environmental protection policies, environmental pollution control polices, health and
safety policy etc. These policies focus on those sectors which need to be regulated
keeping in mind public interests.
4. Procedural/Substantive policies are related to those governmental actions to deal with
problems like roads, highways, dams construction, maintenance of the public
property, irrigation polices, environmental protection etc. Basically, while making
such procedural policy, the main focus is how the policy is designed and who are the
actors, what are their functions. All administrative procedure are taken into
consideration in this type. These policies are concerned with welfare and overall
growth of the society and all are not related to any particular segment of the society.
5. These are the types of policies on the basis of governmental functions. Apart from
these types, on the basis of various administrative business, activities, there are
several other policies like patronage/promotional policies which are further divided
into sub-policies as: contract, license and subsidy. One type is capitalization policy,
another is constituent policy.
6. Other types are symbolic or material policies, private goods policies, collective
policies.
Significance of Policy Analysis
According to Thomas Dye, “Policy analysis is finding out what government do, what they do
it, and what difference, if any, it makes”.
Similarly, Chochran and Malone explained that “policy analysis describes investigations
that produce accurate and useful information for decision makers”.
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1. Description: policy analysis helps to describe the public policy. It helps to understand
the functioning of the government better and what government is doing and what not
doing.
2. Causes: through policy analysis we can investigate the causes, analyze determinants,
the effects of various institutions, behaviours and policy processes on policies. Policy
is ‘dependent variable’ and several factors like social political, cultural, economic
factors which are determining policies become ‘independent variables’.
3. Consequences: this is very important part as it helps to understand the result of the
polices implemented. This is known as ‘policy evaluation’ where it is evaluated that
whether the specific policy which is implemented brought any significant change in
the lives of the people? In this, the effects of public policies are learnt and used for
future policy design. (Dye 2008)
Policy analysis understands the relationship between public policy, political system and
social system.
H. Lasswell (1917) explained the characteristics of public policy analysis. These are as
follows:
1. Public policy analysis is multidisciplinary in nature.
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2. Public policy analysis is an engagement with understating the linkages between policy
options, policy process and policy outcome.
3. Because of its diverse nature, it uses on multifold methodology.
4. Analysis have a direct impact on government actions, public choices and market.
Levels of Policy Analysis
1. Meta analysis is related with the understanding of the idea that public policy analysis
works by using metaphors. This analysis in order to describe something, would use
something else. Models of policy analysis based on this approach are elitist, pluralist,
neo Marxist.
2. Meso analysis is a middle level approach which focuses on the links between
definitions, agendas, and decision making process in policy design.
3. Decision analysis: the major question which this approach investigates is that ‘who
get what and how’ in the approach. Policy making is understood not just for
understanding the design purpose rather main focus is to analyze it to understand who
is taking the decisions, for whom decision is taken and how much everyone got out of
the decision? Models like Marxism, elitism, technocracy, pluralism, corporatism
come under this approach.
4. Delivery analysis understands the outcomes of the policy in terms on execution of the
policy, evaluation, impact and change level. (Kingdon 2003)
Different Forms of Policy Study
There are three different forms of policy study.
1. Descriptive form of policy study is concerned with describing the issues, the various
factors which are detrimental to policy study, role of various stakeholders involved,
and methods, techniques used by policy makers. This form is also concerned with
description of the policy outcome.
2. Prescriptive form of policy study suggests ways to improve policy design and how a
policy can be made relevant to the society at general. Suggestions are also prescribed
to improve the whole policy process by making it more inclusive, participatory and
change oriented.
3. Comparative form of policy study basically studies different policies, their structures,
traditions, priorities, different agencies, actors, policy outcomes etc so that ample
information can be collected to make the policy more effective and efficient.
Models of Policy Making
Policy scientists have developed various models to understand the whole policy making
process.
According to Thomas Dye, “models of public policy try to:
Simplify and clarify our thinking about politics and public policy.
Identify important aspects of policy problems
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Thomas Dye in his book has talked about the ‘policy model’ in great length, and following
the same conceptual scheme, the main models of public policy are as follows.
Process model Institutional model Rational model
Elite model Incremental model Group model
Public choice model System model Game theory
One important point which needs to be highlighted here that each model is understanding the
public policy from a specific point of view and give a different understanding of public
policy making. However, the policies are the product of public choice, elite preference,
political process, system process, rational planning, incrementalism, group activity and game
function.
1. Process Model
In this model, the pattern of political activities that is ‘process’ of policy making is examined.
The various stages of process model are:
Problem identification: policy problem is identified by analyzing the demands which
the various groups within society or society as a whole present to the government for
action.
Agenda setting: different stakeholders like administrative officials, media focus the
attention to the specific demands and decision is taken on what should be decided as a
course of action
Policy formulation: policy proposals is developed by various stakeholders involved.
Policy legitimation: a specific course of action is selected to tackle the problem and
enactment is through legislature, executive and administrative system.
Policy implementation: the policy is now get executed through public officials and
government institution.
Policy evaluation: the outcome and further implications are analyzed. Government
agencies themselves, and various other actors like media, think tanks, private
consultancies, and civil society, general public evaluate the policy outcome.
This model is beneficial to understand the various activities of the policy making in a
structured way.
2. Institutional Model
Public policy and political institutions are intricately related to each other. All political
activities are performed by political institutions like president, executive, legislature,
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judiciary, bureaucracy, urban and rural government institutions and public policies are also
designed, executed by the government institutions.
Thomas Dye mentioned that “the relationship between public policy and government
institutions is very close. A policy does not become a public policy until is adopted,
implemented and enforced by government institutions”. (Dye 2008)
Government institutions give three distinctive characteristics to public policy.
1. Legitimacy: It gives legitimacy to the policies. Government policies become legal
obligations and seek compliance of the citizens for the same. The legal legitimacy
is sanctioned through the government institutional activities.
2. Universality: The government institutions are the only and legal institutions
through which government policies are extended to all people in a society.
3. Coercion: Government can use authoritative force against the people who are not
complying to the policies and government regulations. Only government has the
legitimate authority to use force against the violators.
3. Rational Model of Public Policy Making
Thomas Dye mentioned that “a rational policy is one that achieves "maximum social gain";
that is, governments should choose policies resulting in gains to society that exceed costs by
the greatest amount, and governments should refrain from policies if costs exceed gains”.
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This model works on certain principles which policy maker must possess:
Policy maker should have the perfect knowledge of societal values, preferences,
Policy maker should know all the possible alternatives of solving specific problem,
Policy maker should envision the outcomes of each possible course of action,
Policy maker should know the cost benefit analysis of each policy alternative,
Policy maker should be rational, knows the value preference and society demands and
select the most effective and efficient alternative.
This must possess characteristics make it clear that policy making is a rational process which
includes all perfect information about possible policy alternatives, cognitive and
computational ability to process the information and weigh cost benefit analysis and can
facilitate rationality in policy design.
4. Elite Model
According to this model, public policy is the result of preferences and values of elite. It
reflects the interests of the elites and achieving their ends through the policies. Thomas Dye
explains that “elite model suggests that the people are apathetic and ill-informed about public
policy, that elites actually shape mass opinion on policy questions more than masses shape
elite opinion. Thus, the public policy really turns out to be the preferences of elites. Public
officials and administrators merely carry out the policies decided on by the elite. Policies
flow downward from elite to masses and they do not arise from mass demands”. (Dye 2008)
In this model, public policy making has been studied from the point of elitist theory.
Elite theory postulates that the decision making power is in the hands of powerful groups in
the society. Mosca, Pareto, Michels are the thinkers who have developed the elitist model of
political theory. In public policy, this idea of elitism have been developed to show the
domination of elites in decision making mechanism. According to Dye, “public policy
reflects elite values, serves elite ends, and is a product of the elite”. (Dye 2008)
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part of group, act as important actor in politics. Group is link between individual and
government. And, the political system manages the groups, their conflicting interest by
managing the groups, making accommodative policies to balance all the group conflict,
formulate and implement policies. (Kingdon 2003)
Thomas Dye mentions that “according to group theorists, public policy at any given time
is the equilibrium reached in the group struggle. This equilibrium is determined by the
relative influence of various interests groups. Changes in the relative influence of any interest
group can be expected to result in changes in
public policy; policy will move in direction desired by the groups gaining influence and away
from the desires of groups losing influence. The influence of groups is determined by their
numbers, wealth, organizational strength, leadership, access to decision makers and internal
cohesion”.
7. Public Choice Model
It is an economic study of public policy making. It postulates that in ‘politics’ and in ‘market
place’, all individual actors in different role as voters, tax payers, government officials,
private owners, political parties, interest groups, behave in the same manner and take their
choices on the basis of the principle of ‘maximization of the personal benefits in politics as
well as in the marketplace.
This theory maintains that individual doesn’t behave differently which means when it
comes to political choices, individual will think differently and in market place differently.
Similar to market place, in politics too individuals come together for their mutual benefit.
And, by coming together, they influence the policy decisions and thus enhance their own well
being also. (Kraft and Furlong 2004)
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Thomas Dye aptly concludes that “people pursue their self interest in both politics and
the marketplace, but even with selfish motives they can mutually benefit through collective
decision making”.
8. System Model
David Easton has developed this approach and widely used in public policy discourse too.
The public policy is considered as a political system which responds to demand coming
from the environment. Environment consists of social, economic phenomenon, and settings
that are external to political system. The political system consists of interrelated systems of
administrative machinery and activities as the authoritative allocation of values that are
getting implemented on the society. There are demands and support in political environment.
Demands basically are the claims for decisions that people seek to satisfy their personal or
group interest and societal values. Support is given by the citizens to the political system as
taxpayer, casting vote, abiding by the law.
The feedback loop is the subsequent impact that alters environment and converts into demand
once outcome of the policy is visible. Policy output leads to fresh demand and it’s a cyclical
process.
9. Game Theory
Game theory of public policy making is about analyzing rational decisions in the conditions
where two or more than two participants have to take decisions and outcome of that decisions
depends on the choices that they have made.
Game theory is not about how people are making their choices rather it informs that how
the people should make their decisions knowing their selected course of action is going to
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bring specific outcome and as a rational man, people know that outcome depends on their
selected choices.
Each model is relevant and crucial to understand the public policy making from different
dimensions. Each model has its advantages and disadvantages. Some model can be more
suitable to understand some situation or events in comparison to others. A good policy model
is based on objective analysis of the political behaviour without validity one preferred
theoretical biases. (Kraft and Furlong 2004) The goal of inquiry into public policy discourse
should be flexible and inclusive and should contribute for the better understanding of the
problems and solving the issues.
Relevance of Public Policy
Public policy is purposeful, meaningful and action oriented. It is outcome of a well planned
coordinated policy design to determine a course of action to achieve a set of goals. It has a
defined course of structure starting with policy formulation, policy implementation, and
policy evaluation. As policies are made for public, society at large and through policies, state
can overcome several challenges and fulfill basic demands of the citizens. Good policies
promote positive change and growth of the nation. As the time is growing, each country is
facing more and more challenges on every front. These problems are complex and more
severe. Along with national and security challenges, today we have more human security
threats too like population, food insecurity, water insecurity, health security, unemployment,
poverty, illiteracy etc. In such case the relevance of public policy becomes more crucial and
ever expanding.
Public policy helps to understand the society better and it brings a combination of
scientific understanding and value normativity to the discourse of policy science. It is
multidisciplinary in nature and develop linkages between social, economic, political aspects.
It equips the citizens to analyze the policy outcome, evaluate the performance of the
government and also highlights the significant role of the individual, group in public policy
making.
In India, there is a proper well coordinated administrative machinery including president,
prime minister, cabinet, executive, legislature, state government, Neeti Aayog (erstwhile
Planning Commission), bureaucracy, local urban and rural governing institutions etc. along
with thin tank, policy planners, academicians from different discipline address, media,
people, interest groups, civil society, international organization engage, debate and design
policies which then government implements.
The most important objective of public policy in India is socio-economic development.
Many agricultural, industrial policies, health, education, employment policies have been
implemented since independence. The main aim is to achieve socio-economic development
with social justice and national integrity.
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Unit-3
Structure
● Introduction
● Meaning of Public Policy
● Characteristics of Public Policy
● What is Policy Cycle
● Understanding Policy Formulation
● Policy Implementation
● Policy Evaluation
● Features of Good Policy
● Challenges Faced by Policy Cycle
● Significance of Public Policy
● Conclusion
● References
Introduction
The significance and relevance of public policy lie in the fact that its presence and scope
relate to all aspect of a society. In simple definition, a policy is described as a set of principle
or set of rules which guide decisions and achieve rational objectives. It is a course of action
which is goal oriented, the goals here are defined in terms of demands based on societal and
economic needs, societal values, preferences. Policy is based on preconceived outcomes and
course of action is planned to achieve the objectives.
Meaning of Public Policy
According to Harold Koontz, “as a course of action, public policy can be understood as
political management, financial and administrative mechanisms arranged to reach explicit
goals. Policy is a means of encouraging discretion and initiative within units.
According to Richard Rose says that “public policy is not a decision in itself, it is a
course or pattern of activity”.
Robert Eyestone terms public policy as the “relationship of government units to its
environment”.
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The feedback loop sends the evaluated reviews to the environment which affects the policy
outcome, people’s perceptions and generate new demands.
● Public policy is a product of well coordinated relationship between various stake holders.
Multiple stakeholders participate starting with executive, legislature, judiciary, bureaucracy,
think tanks, civil society, people, media, all formal and informal structures etc. Every agency,
actor has an important role to play in the making of public policy.
● Public policy is based on guidelines.
It lays down major policy guidelines based on that policy is implemented. Policy guidelines
inform about the principles of policy making and functioning of policy.
● Public policy is directed towards future.
Public Policy is based on objectives. It is based on public interest. These objectives strive to
achieve social justice, sustainable growth and economic development which makes the nation
ahead. Policies make the future of a nation. More sound and holistic the polices are, better it
will be for the nation.
Policy making is also flexible as future holds lots of uncertainties, policy making change its
tone and course as the future requirements.
● Public policy uses the best available methods.
Public policy uses both quantitative data and qualitative data for designing the public policy.
Scientific data and normative values are considered and available infrastructure are used in
best possible manner to make the policy effective and efficient.
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● The goals and objectives should be arranged in such a way that these should generate
holistic set of policy. For example, for eliminating illiteracy, it is necessary to understand
what all should be done to eliminate illiteracy, what are the main causes? On the basis of
that one broad policy should be formulated to tackle problem of illiteracy and has to be
made linked to other policies too like poverty alleviation and Midday meal schemes. This
is done because illiteracy is not a single problem rather it is linked to poverty,
unemployment, school dropout ratio, girl child enrolment to school, health parameters
etc. Proposals should also be based on long term and short term projections.
● Second factor is related to developing alternative possible strategies needed to enact the
policy. Like, direct benefit transfer or subsidy, deciding about the various ways of
providing goods and services to the beneficiaries. A strategy also is developed for
correctly identifying the beneficiary and gathering correct information of the
beneficiaries. Correct data helps the policy proposal to be more realistic and achievable.
● The third factor involves selecting the way through which policy would be implemented.
For example, setting up new institutional setting or working with existing setup. Like
Integrated Rural Development Programme (IRDP) was established for helping the poor
people for income generation, Anganwadi setup under Integrated Child Development
Scheme (ICDS) for providing pregnancy and maternity facilities, healthy food, primary
health care, immunization, primary education etc. to children under 6 years to poor and
malnourished beneficiaries. All the roles and functions of each and every administrative
units are clearly calked out in this stage itself.
The policy formulation clearly spells out the objectives, strategies, and mechanisms of
instruments. It is the significant stage as it leads the basic foundational structure and support
to whole policy, through this stage a coherent and realistic policy gets the needed base, it is
the stage which leads to better coordination between all agencies in an integrated manner. A
policy formulating needs expert knowledge and skill for which the government works with
non-governmental agencies also. For a better choice of strategy and enactment, multiple
partnership between different avenues are done to make the stage more impactful and
dynamic.
Policy Implementation
According to Thomas Dye, “policy implementation is a process of interaction between the
settings of goals and actions geared to achieve them. It is a dynamic conversion process of
policies and plans into specific programmes and projects”.
Approaches to policy implementation
● Procedural/managerial approach
This approach establishes appropriate processes, techniques for the management and
implementation of the policies.
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● Structural approach
It involves selecting the most appropriate administrative form for achieving the outcome.
● Political approach
Political approach understands the challenges which a policy could face in environment or
within political system and look for its solution.
● Behavioural approach
This approach creates consensus and raises acceptability by eliminating the conflictual
interests between multiple stakeholders through stakeholder analysis, organizational
development method etc. (Howlett and Ramesh 1995)
This is a very significant stage in whole policy design. The relevance of policy
implementation stage are as follows:
● Information: it makes the citizen aware about the policy
● Inducement: help people and government both to adopt new approach
● Enforcement: seek compliance of the people under legal sanctity
● Benefaction: provides benefits to those who change their political behaviour and allow
the policy to be implemented and offer their compliance to the policy. (Anderson 1997)
It needs to be ensured that policies get proper flexibility and sufficient autonomy to be
implemented properly, implementation too needs sufficient power for its validation. The
effectiveness and efficiency of implantation hugely depend on proper policy design.
However, many a times policies, which are implemented, did not achieve required results.
There are many reasons for which an implemented policy might be unsuccessful.
● Policy failure
Policy failure is basically an implantation gap which forms between policy and
implementation.
There are two types of policy failure.
a) Non-implementation policy failure is the one the policy is not enacted as it was
described due to some reasons.
b) Unsuccessful implementation happens when a policy is enacted properly but
external factors are not complying to the policy.
● Complexity of technical features
The ground realities are completely different dominated by human behaviour, action, values,
traditions, and complex technical features make the policy too technocratic in its orientation
and thus it becomes extremely difficult to implement such policy in society.
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● Evaluating Policy Content: focuses on articulation of goals and the framework it designed
for its implementation. Evaluation is done to understand the context of the policy design,
the very basic issues it is dealing with, the relevance, clarity of the content, and
implementation framework.
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evaluation plays a very critical role and sound policy depends on sound policy evaluation
along with effective use of rest two stages within policy cycle design.
Features of Good Policy
● The process of public policy is a complementary and interrelated process. All the stages
within the process are not separate event, these stages are leading to each other and
successful completion of one stage marks successful start of next stage and also ensures a
proper successful overall course of action.
● A good policy is knowledge based policy which is based on scientific evidence. This
means that policy design should be on correct and fact based information, the policy
decision should be designed keeping in mind the societal demands, financial
commitments and not on political biases, personal beliefs and faith etc.
● A policy is a good policy which is highly participatory, inclusive and involves people.
More the policy involves discussion, brainstorming, more participation of different
stakeholders, people, more the policy design would be able to understand the problem and
see possible alternatives. Also, inclusivity and more local participation makes the public
policy more effective and efficient.
● A good policy shows a strong and committed leadership towards the society. A good
policy reflects the aspirations and needs of the citizens getting transformed into policies.
● Gradual and incremental change are the good indicators of a good healthy policy.
● Democratic nature of the policy, proper consultation during policy making, transparency,
openness as information concerning policy is shared with people and other stakeholders
are the key ingredients of a good policy.
● A good policy must be consistent with the constitution and societal cultural settings.
● Policies must be inclusive. It should bring all the viewpoints, different knowledge system
of addressing the problem and solutions, the local people must be a part of whole policy
making process.
● A policy is good if it can be understood by everyone. It should be clear and based on
social and economic needs. It should be beneficial for society at large, for the welfare of
all.
● Policy should be stable without doing frequent changes in the nature of policy. That is
why careful study should be done while formulating and implementing policy.
● There should be sincere approach to policy design. It should adhere to ethics,
philosophical values of the nation and should keep intact the nation’s integrity and safety.
● A good policy is the one which is achievable. Realistic goals are important for a policy.
The objective should not be just ideal statements which can never be achieved. Rather
visioning a more realistic goals based policy is good for society.
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● Policies should be future and purposive oriented. And should be interlinked around
shared goals and values.
Challenges Faced by Policy Cycle
● Because of the complexity of the problems and inherent tensions in the social and
economic front, policy cycle may face difficulty in addressing the problem,
● The inherent multidimensional can lead to overlapping and contradictions in the policy
cycle.
● The support and consensus on nature and strategies to achieve social goals can be
contested.
● The value preferences, political and social interests are affecting the various stakeholders
and decision makers which can often lead to more conflicts.
● The very definition of problem cannot be solely based on scientific analysis or socially
constructed. It should be balance of both. However, it becomes difficult to strike a
balance in real world administrative setup with conflicting interests.
● The objective and subjective dichotomy in one important challenge. There is sense of
objectivity in terms of classification, explanation attached to the problem whereas the
same problems can be interpreted differently based on value judgement and preferences.
● The policy problem can affect multiple entities as policies are interdependent.
● There can be multiple ways to solve a problem. However, this aggravates the problem
more as problem are not solved due to flux between problem and multiple solutions.
Significance of Public Policy
● Public policy is a specialized study which makes public administration more effective.
● Public policy is a basis of government. Understanding public policy helps us to
understand our government and their duties, responsibilities, and their challenges better.
● Public policy is a mechanism to provide services and bring social justice, protects weaker
section of the society, and achieve welfare for the society.
● Public policy helps in the making of a sound and well informed public opinion.
● Public policy is an instrument of economic development, sustainable growth, and social
change.
● Public policy serves as a stabilizing force within society as it creates an environment of
accommodation and co-option. It brings stability and order to the society.
Conclusion
In nutshell, for a democratic country like India, development of rational, goal oriented public
policy is extremely important. The whole policy cycle with proper coordination and
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communication works to achieve the stated objectives. However, there are numerous
obstacles which it faces on its course. The challenge is to overcome those hindrances and
create effective and positive policy for the betterment of the society. Public policy helps the
government to aim for development and social and economic upliftment of the society. It
ensures the equity, effectiveness, and responsiveness of the government toward its own
citizens.
References
Anderson, J.E. (1997). Public Policy-Making: An Introduction 3rd ed. Boston: Houghton
Miffilin Company.
Brownson, R. C., Royer, C., Chriqui, J. F., & Stamatakis, K. A. (2009). Understanding
evidence-based public health policy. American Journal of Public Health, 99, 1576–1583.
Dye, T. R. (2008). Understanding Public Policy, 12th Edition, Upper Saddle River, New
Jersey: Prentice Hall.
Howlett, M., and Ramesh, M. (1995). Policy Cycles and Policy Subsystems, Canada: Oxford
University Press.
Kingdon, J. W. (2003). Agendas, Alternatives, and Public Policies, 2nd Edition, New York:
Longman.
Knoepfel, P., Larrue, C., Varone, F., and Hill, M. (2007). Public Policy Analysis, Bristol: The
Policy Press.
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development and economic growth. Scholars and specialists of public administration took
interest in studying state roles (especially bureaucracy’s role) in development in third world
countries.
The ‘development administration’ had roots in an era characterized by ‘big government’,
national planning, and state-led command economic development strategy. It had given
opportunities to public bureaucracy to undertake developmental goals. The concept of
‘development administration’ is a programme of action-oriented and strategy of
development-plan implementation.
Let’s clear the terminology ‘development administration’. The first word ‘development’,
has broad dimensions as Milton Esman (1991: 5-6 quoted in Jreisat, 2011) has identified five
goals for national development a) economic growth, b) equity, c) capacity (cultivation of
skills), d) authenticity, and e) empowerment (equal opportunities for all citizens to
participate). State envisioned development to denotes modernization and nation-building, and
the process of development sought to endure on self-reliance rather than to take assistance
from foreign sources and support. Further, the word ‘administration’ means a collective work
for public purpose. It has to do with ‘getting things done with the accomplishment of defined
objectives.’ Taken two words together, ‘development administration’ refers to government
led accomplishment of developmental goals like economic growth, equity, cultivation of
skills and institutions, empowerment. This is a state led project of modernization and national
building in which bureaucracy, a steel frame of the government, is highly involved in
development strategy and its implementation. The objective is ‘maximum innovation for
development’ (Weidner, 399:1970 quoted in Rathod, 2010) intended to modernization of
industries and infrastructure and social change.
In the age of globalization, global civil society, and international non-governmental
institutions (INGOS) along with local community-based organizations (CBOs), civil society
groups, self-help groups have come forward enthusiastically in the field of ‘development
administration’. In this light, the role of United Nation Development Programme (UNDP) is
very important in working with developing countries especially formulating strong policies,
helping in skill development and providing institutional support for progress and
development. At the turn of 21st century, world leaders agreed to see a broad future of the
world through Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). MDGs, with eight developmental
goals within measurable time-bound targets, were a pledge to uphold the principle of human
dignity, and free the world from extreme poverty. The Sustainable Development Goals
(SDGs) replaced MDGs and set seventeen developmental goals to end poverty, protect the
planet and to ensure that all enjoy peace and prosperity. These sustainable developmental
goals along with economic development of the nation-state has transformed the development
administration altogether. India abolished the Planning Commission in 2015 and established
National Institution for Transforming India (NITI Aayog) to redesign national developmental
priorities as per contemporary development requirement.
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First, the rise of ‘development’ paradigm: The word ‘development’ has western origin
and global consensus. In the post second world war, the development discourse was so
strongly popular that it acquired power to seduce everyone to charm, to please, to fascinate
and, to dream, but also to abuse and to deceive (Rist, 2008:1). USA’s Marshall Plan to
reconstruct the socio-economic aspects of devastated Europe through economic aid that had
given impetus to academic scholars to formulate, articulate and elaborate the concept of
development. Exponents of development projected growth as a necessary condition of
development. Scholars like W. W. Rostow’s work (1960) ‘The Stages of Economic Growth:
A Non-Communist Manifesto’ has evolved five-stage model for economic growth, namely,
1) traditional society- agrarian society needs sufficient manual labour, therefore need to
develop technology, 2) transitional stage-involving precondition for take-off based on
technological development; 3) take-off- a stage of self-sustaining economic growth; 4) drive
to maturity- industrialization has started and due to technological development productivity
has risen; and 5) high level of mass communication- when society need to consume durable
goods. Another important scholar A F K Organski in his work (1965) ‘The Stages of Political
Development’ demonstrated that economic growth is an integral part of economic
development and suggested four stages of growth: a) primitive unification; b)
industrialization; c) national welfare and d) the politics of abundance. These theories of
development have advocated that the developing nation should follow the footsteps of the
capitalist model of development in order to secure growth and development in their countries.
Further, famous literatures on development, for example, G Almond and J S Coleman ‘The
politics of Developing Areas (1960)’ L W Pye, ‘The Communication and Political
Development (1963)’ and S Huntington ‘Political Order in Changing Societies (1968)’
advocated modernization in terms of comprehensive change from traditional society to
modern one (Jresait, 2011).
At the international level, the United Nations has recognized that economic growth is
necessary but not sufficient for the notion of development. It recognized that development
means growth plus social change. In the month of January 1961, the United Nations resolved
that the 1960s would be the ‘decade of development’. ‘The UN Development Decade
Proposal for Action’ maintained that ‘in the United Nations development decade, we are
beginning to understand the real aim of development and the nature of the development
process. Development is not just economic growth, it is growth plus change’ (The UN
Development Decade Proposal for Action, 1962: v).
Meanwhile, rapid decolonization of Asia, Africa and Latin America needed state led
planning for economic modernization and national building for their development. State
administration was deeply involved in taking development courses for socio-economic
change. The UN first approach to development strategy was ‘concept of national planning-
for social as well as economic development.’ These western models of modernization theory
of development as well as the institutional approach of the UN’s emphasis on the role of the
state in the process of development gave rise to ‘development administration.’
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Secondly, the independence of the new nation-state in the third world: The age of
imperialism started diminishing and the decolonization process began in the post second
world war era that had given rise to newly independent nation-state in the continent of Asia,
Africa and Latin America. The international system shifted from a balance of power system
to bi-polar world where two super-power, opposed economically and ideologically, offered
their concept of development strategies. In both cases, the role of the state and its
bureaucracy were to be important in designing and drafting development strategies and its
implementation. ‘Development administration’ has to take all major steps in order to socio-
economic transformation in all these newly independent nation-states of Asia, Africa and
Latin America.
Thirdly, the emergence of Comparative Public Administration (CPA) in the United State
of America: In the 1950s and 1960s, scholars have started their research interest in
administrative structure and their functions in developing societies of Asia and Latin
America. In the field of comparative public administration, F W Riggs (1917-2008) was a
pioneer intellectual. As a chairperson of Comparative Administration Group (CAG) of the
American Society for Public Administration, Riggs gave intellectual and organizational
leadership to the comparative public administration (CPA) movement in the 1950s and
1960s. He focused on development administration and invented certain models and theories
that generated worldwide reaction from scholars in the field’ (Jreisat, 2011:155). His
empirical and comparative studies of the administration in his three classical work viz., ‘The
Ecology of Public Administration’ (1961)’, ‘Administration in Developing Countries: The
theory of Prismatic Society (1964)’ and ‘Thailand: The Modernization of a Bureaucratic
Polity (1966)’ have generated interest in comparative study of administration and made
research more analytical, scientific, critical and cross-cultural.
3. Conceptualizing ‘Development Administration’
The concept of ‘development administration’ is essentially contested. Edward W. Weidner, a
pioneer of the concept said that the ‘development administration’ as the ‘process guiding an
organization towards the achievement of progressive planning’, namely, ‘political, economic,
social objectives that are authoritatively determined in one manner or other’. In the 1960s, the
‘development administration’ emerged as a branch of public administration that involved the
state machinery, especially bureaucracy, in economic planning for socio-economic change. It
is more concerned with the task of development planning, projects, schemes, programmes,
and the ‘intention to develop, the mobilization of existing and new resources, and cultivation
of appropriate skills to achieve the developmental goals.’ According to Weidner, ‘the
development administration is basically action oriented and goal oriented administrative
system’.
These developmental goals are often referred to as nation-building, modernization and
intended to socio-economic progress. Swerdlow (1975: 324) has identified twin tasks of
development administration: institution building and development planning. He maintained
that development administration, like public administration of which it is a part, ‘a subject
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policies of John Kennedy and Lyndon Johnson’s Great Society Programme. In the UK, the
Beveridge Report had initiated state led development welfare in the early 1950s. The United
Nations declared the decade of the 1960s as ‘decade of development’ and it was emphasized
that the goals of the development should be economic growth plus change. The philosophy of
state led command economy continued till 1970. There was huge criticism from the free
market thinkers like Fredrick Hayek, Milton Friedman, Ayn Rand and Robert Nozick. They
criticized state control of the economy and planning. In the USA, Ronald Regan in the 1970s
and in UK Margret Thatcher 1980s revised the development planning strategies. They
followed the policy which is popularly known as ‘rolling back of the state’.
The decade of the 1980s is known as a crisis in the development administration. Many
deficiencies appeared in the development path that had started in the 1950s and 60s. The state
led planning development could not fostered the desired result. There was a rise of corruption
in which bureaucracy and the political elite were directly involved. In the developing
countries, there were rises of black economy, inflation, fascial deficit that was making state-
panning and welfare developmentalism unsustainable. In 1989, the International Monetary
Fund, the World Bank and US department of Treasury agreed on a new economic order
popularly known as Washington Consensus that prescribed a ten-point economic policy
prescription as an economic reform package for developing countries of the third world. This
was a landmark revision and top-down model of development dictated by the IMF and World
Bank. The neo-liberal economic order employed worldwide and the market connected to
each-other globally is better called by the term’globalization’.
4b) Globalization and Development Administration: 1990s onwards
In the 1990s, there were many changes at international level as well as at the national level
globally. Fall of Berlin Wall (1991), disintegration of USSR (1989), abrupt regime change in
Eastern Europe, and Washington Consensus (1989) all happen simultaneously and these all
influenced the thinking on development as a model and its implementation and output.
Francis Fukuyama’s work ‘The End of History and the Last Man’ (1993) demonstrated
victory of the liberal political and economic order and the arrival of the post-ideological
world. The neo-liberal political philosopher advocated for a ‘minimal state’ and free market
model of development. They advised that the state and bureaucracy should limit their role in
the development process. Washington Consensus (1989) advised third world countries to opt
‘Structural Adjustment Programme’ (SAP) and accept its economic reform package to
resolve the issue of inflation and fiscal deficit. For free marketeers, it would lead to better
economic growth and development. In other words, free-market led development becomes
global development strategies for all countries except few one.
The World Bank document titled as “Governance and Development’ emphasized on the
few measures necessary for a new model of development. In 1992, the World Bank came
with the proposal of ‘Good Governance’ as an agenda of development. It defined
‘governance’ as the ‘manner in which power is exercised in the management of a country’s
economic and social resources for development.’ For the World Bank, the term ‘Good
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curious to look into the relation between western imposed administrative system and their
social, cultural environment in prismatic society. Public administration in most developing
nations falls under the category of prismatic systems. In his work ‘Thailand: The
Modernization of Bureaucratic Polity (1966)’, Riggs demonstrated how weak political
structure is unable to control the administrative system. In ‘The Ecology of Public
Administration (1961), Riggs demonstrated, after a comprehensive fieldwork in Southeast
Asia and in the United State of America, that how administration is facing challenges in
developing countries.
Riggs has identified heterogeneity (co-existence of modernity along with traditional),
formalism (gap between envisaged vision and actual practice) and overlapping (newly
created highly modern structures are paid only lip-service and overlooked widely in favour of
traditional social structures). Overlapping has several important dimensions like nepotism,
favouritism, poly-communalism (hostile interaction among different groups), poly-
normativism (existence of several norms rational as well as irrational/traditional), existence of
clects (interest groups based on communal identity), poly normativism (various norms for
various group depending on group’s social status, and bargaining capacity) and modern
administrative system co-exists with traditional administrative structures. He concluded that
the western bureaucratic and political structures have been created for administrative
purposes but often ignored in favour of traditional social structures. Thus, modern structures
co-exist with traditional but traditional structures continue to dominate in actual practice.
Riggs notes that in a prismatic society, nepotism or patronize bestowed or favouritism
based on family relationship and kinship is prevalent. In fact, nepotism or favouritism plays a
very significant role in selection in various administrative offices and performance of
administrative functions. Family lineage, kinship and traditional law prevailed and
universalization of rule of law was lacking in practice or infect disregarded. The
administrative official, what Riggs called as ‘sala’ official gives priority to social structure
while dealing with administrative matters. They prioritize family/kinship and social ascriptive
identity of the individual rather than to common citizens their political equality. They
increase personal power, wealth, and prosperity rather than to social welfare. The
administrative behaviour and performance are highly influenced by his socialization and
parochial character
F W Riggs described the economic subsystem of the prismatic society as a bazaar-
canteen model. In prismatic society one can witness equality in urban areas while services in
rural areas are based on patronage and favouritism. But in prismatic society the relationship
between bureaucratic (the Sala) officials and their clientele is like buyer-seller. The price of
service depends on the nature of the relationship between the ‘Sala’ official and their
clientele. The price of the commodity or service varies from place to place, time to time and
person to person. It also depends on the family contact, social status, bargaining capacity,
individual relationship and power politics. Services are guaranteed to the socially dominant
class/caste and at lower prices but the marginal caste/class has to pay heavy charges
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The fluctuation of price in prismatic society creates more problems and it encourages
black marketing, hoarding, adulteration, and ultimately leads to high inflation in the
economy. It has a direct impact on common people. In such a situation, the ‘sala’ official in
prismatic society tries to develop contacts with business groups, foreign business clubs and
institutions, and misuse foreign exchange for private purposes. It would often lead to large
corruption, exploitation of the common people, poverty and decline of life standard of
common people in prismatic society. In prismatic society wage depends on political
influence. There is a great divide between higher wage and lower wage in the economy and
that results in high economic inequality and social injustice. Thus, exploitation, poverty, and
social injustice become the major features of the bazaar canteen model. Thus, Riggs
demonstrated deep problems faced by development administration in developing societies of
Asia.
7. Conclusion
Development administration has started its journey as part of comparative public
administration and remains always in search of its own identity. Parallel to the subject
‘developmental economic’ established itself but development administration always faced
crisis for its own identity. It was philosophically and methodologically imposed on a newly
independent third world in Asia and Latin America but the socio-economic difference as
shown by Riggs posed a huge challenge for everyone to achieve the goals of development
and it is a distant dream. In addition, it has given birth to many intra-community and inter-
communities conflicts along with conflict between human and nature. We need to relook
afresh at the concept of development and development administration.
Bibliography
Dwevedi, O P (1994). Development Administration: From Underdevelopment to Sustainable
Development. London: Macmillan.
Farazmand, Ali (2001). Handbook of Comparative and Development Public Administration.
Switzerland: Marcel Deccer.
Fukuyama, Francis (1992). The End of History and The Last man. New York: The Free Press.
Jreisat, Jamil (2011). Globalism and Comparative Public Administration. London: CRC
Press.
Rathod, P B (2010). Elements of Development Administration: Theory and Practice. Jaipur:
ABD Publisher.
Rist, Gilbert (2008). The History of Development: From Western Origins to Global Faith.
London: Zed Books.
Sen Amartya (2002). Development as Freedom: New Delhi: Oxford University Press.
World bank (1992). Governance and Development. New York: World Bank Publication.
United Nations. 1962. The UN Development Decade Proposal for Action. United Nations.
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Introduction
Towards the end of 1960s, New Public Administration (NPA) is developed as a new and
more inclusive theoretical approach of public administration. New public administration was
designed to meet the new and complex challenges of the society. Specially the American
society was facing extreme challenges in terms of citizens satisfaction and was in dismay.
New public administration was the outcome of these upheavals and it was the path breaking
approach in the development of Public Administration as a discipline which changed the
whole discourse altogether and led to the establishment of modern Public Administration.
The public administration needs to find new methods to resolve the issues of
inefficiencies, ill-effects and mal practices of administration and needs to find ways to keep
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the change compatible with the society. 1960s and early of 1970s witnessed the instability
and confusion within the discourse of public administration.
The main objective of the traditional public administration was to inquire on the
questions of efficiency and effectiveness. Traditional public administration dealt with the
questions of government providing quality service with available resources which highlights
the concern of ‘efficiency’ or about maintaining the level of services by being ‘economical’.
The main objective of economy, and efficiency were found to be inadequate and incomplete
to address the pressing concerns of the time. In such scenario, young scholars under the
patronage of Dwight Waldo came together to meet in conference held in Minnowbrook to
reduce the administrative deficit in the theoretical and practical perspective of public
administration. The main objective of conference was to explore ways that would be capable
of dealing with contemporary changes that creating more obstacles in administration.
Minnowbrook Conference happened in 1968 in Syracuse University and led to the
emergence of “New Public Administration”. New Public Administration presented the
alternative normative paradigm of administration highlighting the lacunas and orthodoxies of
traditional public administration and led to the beginning of modern phase of administration.
The traditional public administration gave more importance to administration rather than
public, principles and procedure rather than values and to efficiency and being economic
rather than effectiveness and in such way, the discipline was losing its relevance. New Public
Administration challenged the basic principles of traditional public administration like
politics administration dichotomy, sciences of administration etc.
The Minnowbrook conference highlighted the need of restoring values and purpose in
the governance. It is a public policy and social equity oriented based on post behavioral and
post positivist approach.
The emergence and growth of New Public Administration: important landmarks
I. The Honey Report on Higher Education for Public Service, 1967 (USA); John Honey
of Syracuse University begun an evaluation of discipline as a field of study and highlighted
the shortcomings institutional shortcomings in the area of public administration and lack of
communication between scholars and practicing administration. The report highlighted four
problems which needed action:
Lack of funds
Confusion regarding the nature of the discipline, uncertainty about the discipline as a
science, as a profession
Inadequate institutional and departmental networking
Inadequate communication between public administration scholars and practitioners.
This honey report aroused much debate across academics however, it did not say anything
concerning the role and nature of public administration as a discipline in the societies which
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are facing governance crisis. However, this report became the base for the wider and
comprehensive discussion on the role of discipline in resolving the basic tensions.
II. The Philadelphia Conference: the Theory and Practice of Public Administration,
1967 (under the Chairmanship of James C. Charlesworth); It expressed the view that as
the state has changed from a police state to a welfarist state, acquiring more administrative
responsibility and reduction of social inequalities.
Major viewpoints expressed in the deliberations of the conference are:
Subject should be flexible enough to facilitate growth. The growth of the function and
dimension is a continuous process. Creating a rigid boundary by demarcating the
discipline is highly disadvantageous for the discipline of public administration.
The scope of public administration should be extended to achieve public policy making
process. And, for that the dichotomy between the policy and administration that is
between the study of government and study of public administration should not be
considered. Too much emphasize on the sciences of administration and internal
processes is making the whole public administration highly rigid. Organizational
innovation and flexible administration incorporating people centric approach should be
given more appropriate. Public Administration should be given more attention to social
problems like poverty, unemployment, social security, environmental sustainability etc.
III. Dwight Waldo’s article on Public Administration in a time of Revolution, 1968.
VI. The First Minnowbrook Conference, 1968.
V. Toward a New Public Administration: The Minnowbrook Perspective, 1971
(edited by the Frank Marini).
VI. Public Administration in a Time of Turbulence, 1971 (by Dwight Waldo); and
VII. New Public Administration, 1980(by George Frederickson).
First Minnowbrook Conference 1968
The origin of New Public Administration is in the first Minnowbrook Conference which was
held in 1968 under the leadership of Dwight Waldo. Major themes discussed in the
conference are:
Contemporary relevance and significance of Public Administration
Social equity
Balance between public administration and democracy
Ethics and morality of Public Administration
Anti-Positivism
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In first Minnowbrook conference, the participants addressed the ways and problems of
institutionalized changes and offered solution of the bureaucratic tendencies and related
issues.
Features of NPA:
3 E’s of ‘economy, efficiency. Effectiveness’ and social equity, responsiveness,
inclusivity and representation.
Making the dimension of rationality broader by not only focusing on the
administrator’s action from the only government point of view but also from
perspective of citizens and society at large.
As the societal problems are highly complex, emphasis of NPA is to make the subject
more multi-disciplinary in its approach. A better and broad understanding of problems
and related various approaches including political science, economics, laws, history
political management, psychology human relation is essential for not only subject’s
growth but also help to resolve the societal problems in a more effective manner.
Bringing positive change and creating responsiveness: more flexibility and enhancing
adaptability to deal with constantly changing environment.
Structural changes should be in tune with current and relevant contexts and should be
responsive to environmental needs.
Goals of New Public Administration
Relevance
The theme of relevance is more of an interpretation. Whereas the original quest of public
administration is conventionally efficient and economy, NPA discovered that the subject
matter of public administration is less concerned about contemporary challenges and societal
concerns. It questioned the relevance and usefulness of management studies and science
influenced public administration and sought to make public administration more dedicated to
resolve the grievances of the society.
“Important questions which were discussed in the conference concerning relevance are:
Public administration knowledge is for what? The knowledge should be used to address
the problems of the people.
Is it the purpose of public administration to facilitate use of administrative knowledge
for perpetuation of political power?
What standards of decisions do we use to select which questions ought to be studied and
how to study them?
Who defines out questions and priorities for us?
To what extent are we aware of the social and moral implications of knowledge in
Public Administration?
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What are the uses of Public Administration as a social and political science”? (Marini
1971)
NPA focused on radical curriculum transformation to initiate meaningful studies directed
towards the realities of society.
Values
NPA rejected value neutrality in administrative process because according to NPA the public
administration discipline should highlight and address the concerns of the marginalized,
disadvantaged sections in society.
NPA openly condemned the value neutral and limited stand taken by behavioral
approach dominated political science and management and rigid technocratic ideas oriented
public administration. NPA highlighted the fact that Political Science and Public
Administration in order to become more rational and scientific, remained adhered to value
neutrality which had not only made the disciplines highly narrow and exclusive but also has
proved to be dysfunctional to both the disciplines as well as to society.
Social equity
NPA established the social equity as the most significant and main instrument for the human
development. NPA favoured that administration should treat and provide services to people
on the basis of equity and fairness. Public Administration should be more proactive to social
issues and the concerns should be properly addressed through policy process. The aim of
Public Administration should be to make a more egalitarian society.
Change
The main purpose of NPA is to focus on transforming Public Administration merely from a
theoretical discipline to a more practical change-oriented discipline. By attacking the status
quo and rigidity of the institutions and dominating scienticism in the discipline, NPA sought
the discipline to be more responsive to change occurring in the society.
Anti-goals of New Public Administration by Golembiewski
Anti-Positivist
NPA rejected the ‘value free’ approach of traditional Public Administration (TPA)
NPA rejected rationalist view of administration.
NPA highlighted the issues with rigidities in administration and explored ways to make it
more adaptable, inclusive, and problem solving
Anti-technical
It addressed the inherent problem with the discipline of being highly scientific, technical, and
thus rejecting creative and emotive aspects of society being sacrificed to safeguard the logic
and domination of the machine and the system. NPA condemned ignorance of non-technical
aspects for the logic of science and system.
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The focus of NPA is on the broad problems of society. The questions and relevance of
value, ethics are raised by NPA. The challenges of technology, urbanism and social
conflicts should be addressed with amore broad and inclusive approach.
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Frederickson argued that “social equity should be the guiding force in political and
administrative decision-making process. It is incumbent on the public servant to be
able to develop and defend criteria and measures of equity and to understand the
impact of public services on the dignity and wellbeing of citizens well-being citizens”.
NPA highlighted the fact that there was need to revisit the traditional hierarchical
model of bureaucratic organization which is leading to depersonalization and
obejectification of people within the administration.
Administration should be based on the principles of openness, inclusivity, transparency
and proper communication.
Fredrickson concluded that “main agreements of the new public administration are 1)
public administrators and public agencies are not and cannot be either neutral or
objective. 2) technology is often dehumanizing. 3) bureaucratic hierarchy is often
ineffective as an organizational strategy. 4) bureaucracies tend toward goal
displacement and survival”.
Modern concepts of NPA focused on consensus building, democratic administration
and better cooperation and highlighted the fact that administration cannot be confined
to simple administrative authority and bureaucratic rigidity.
According to Frank Marini, “modern concepts of public administration must be built
on post-behavioural and postpositivist logic- more democratic, more adaptable, more
responsive to changing social economic, and social, economic political
circumstances”. (Marini 1971)
George Frederickson, in his work ‘Toward a new public administration’, (1977)
mentioned that “the overriding spirit of the new public administration was a moral
tone. Tone the new public administration can be viewed as a call for independence
from both political science (it was not, after all, ever called the new politics of
bureaucracy) and management (since management always had been emphatically
technical rather than normative in approach)”.
NPA accepts the complexity of society and therefore want a more interdisciplinary
approach of Public Administration.
4 D’s of New Public Administration
Democratization
De-bureaucratization
Decentralization
Delegation
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Criticism of NPA
Many ideas of NPA were repackaging of older ideas with new terminology.
No defined and structured solutions to problems
4 D’s largely remained unexplored
Being too much anti-positivist, and anti-theoretical
Quickly replaced by newer and modern paradigms like New Public management. New
Public Services, New Public Governance.
Significance of NPA
It challenged the dominant older concepts and paved the way for modern Public
Administration.
Established the connections with society,
Focused on making the discipline more pro people and society centric.
Highlighted the importance of equity, relevance and positive change of the
administration.
Created new focus of ‘public administration’
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Scaling down the public sector in order to properly allocate the available resources for
optimal utilization. The range of the public sector is too extensive and comprehensive
and this makes it hard to manage scare resources.
Understanding and streamlining the governmental activities. One most suitable way is
to contracting out.
Reengineering the administrative and bureaucratic structure on market principles for
making it more relevant and pro people.
Problems of NPM
1. Too much importance to economic theory and market principles is creating more
complexity. Citizens, clients, or consumers, the public private dichotomy is keeping the
inherent tension intact.
2. Complex results are difficult to be measured.
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3. Focus on Neo-Taylorism is making the subject away from people and social centric
issues.
4. Reducing the accountability
5. Implementational problems with management pertaining to performance evaluation.
6. Ambiguities related to thematic interpretation of NPM.
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The World Bank report of 1989 first time mentioned challenges of development, economic
crisis and public sector performance in the Sub-Saharan African countries. The report titled
as ‘Sub-Saharan Africa: From Crisis to Sustainable Development’ cited that ‘underlying the
litany of Africa’s development problems is a crisis of governance’ (World Bank, 1989). The
report has observed that the Sub-Saharan African countries was characterized by the
centralization of power, corruption, unresponsive governmental bureaucracy, self-serving
politicians, absence of countervailing power, personalized and patronized politics,
unaccountability and opaqueness in developmental processes, controlled information, lack of
free press, authoritarian centralized political regime, and coercive and arbitrary state power
structures all contributed in the crisis. The report had emphasized that these crises must be
resisted and it can be resisted through focusing on governance.
Emphasizing on urgence of governance, the report (1989) on Good Govrnance had noted
that better governance needs political regeneration that can attack corruption from the highest
to the lowest levels. To promote governance, it is an urgent requirement to strengthen
accountability, to encourage public debate and to nurture a free press. In addition, governance
can be realized through empowering women’s groups, farmer’s associations, non-
governmental organizations (NGOs), co-operatives as well as by fostering grassroots and
local democracy for sound development management (World Bank 1989). The report had
noted that there is only one motive behind the concept of governance that is development.
The World Bank expected broad major structural reforms viz., political reform, judicial
reform, bureaucratic reform, and finally market reform to bring governance as a reality. In
addition, it focused on decentralization, accountability, participation, legal framework for
development, institutional arrangement to crack corruption, people’s participation especially
women in the decision-making process, inclusion of co-operative associations, non-
governmental organizations, farmers’ association and women’s groups in the development
process.
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Linking with the West promoted neo-liberal market, it has noted that ‘market mechanism
is important, but they must go hand in hand with good governance.’ Good governance had
been explained as ‘a public service that is efficient, a judicial system that is reliable, and an
administration that is accountable to its public’ (World Bank, 1989). Further, the concept of
good governance evolved in the next report of the World Bank titled as ‘Governance and
Development’ in 1992 that elucidated what is good governance. The report ‘Governance and
Development’ (1992) noted that ‘good governance is an essential complement to sound
economic policy.’ The report has given responsibility to the government of the third world
countries for ‘efficient and accountable management’ in order to execute sound economic
development. For the World Bank, good governance is ‘synonymous to sound development
management’.
It was equated with the term sound economic management for better development
characterized by an institutional framework conducive to growth, poverty alleviation and
environmental protection, public accountability, citizens’ participation, adequate access to
legal remedies, transparency and role of the government in ensuring sound development
management (World Bank 1992). It has noted that it is poverty, illiteracy and weak
institutions that makes sound economic development more complicated and problematic in
the third world countries. Citizens need to ask for good governance and the government
needs to be responsive to the citizens’ demand.
World Bank report (1992) ‘Governance and Development’ had identified four features of
good governance viz., first, public sector management, secondly, accountability, third is legal
framework for development, and fourth is transparency and information. In addition, the
report had recognized a participatory approach to public policy, programme and its
implementation, military expenditures and human rights.
The Bank report contrasted good governance with ‘poor governance’ that is held
responsible for the lack of sound development management in third world countries. Poor
governance includes corruption, weak public institutions, and opaque system. It has also
noted that arbitrary policy making, corrupt bureaucracy and legal system, excess of executive
power, lack of countervailing power, and corruption are major causes of poor governance.
According to the World Bank salient features of poor governance are as follows:
1. Failure to make a clear separation between what is public and what is private,
hence, a tendency to divert public resources for private gains;
2. Failure to establish a predictable framework of law and government behaviour
conducive to development, or arbitrariness in the application of rule of law;
3. Excessive rules, regulation, licensing requirements, and so forth, which impede the
functioning of markets and encourage rent seeking;
4. Priority inconsistent with development, resulting in a misallocation of resources;
and
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e. Information and Transparency: The World Bank (1992: 39) had noted that the
‘competitive market economy requires that economic actors have access to relevant,
timely and reliable information.’ The report has recognized that in all countries, the
government is the primary source of information. Information related to the market
economy and its current situation, and about government policies and intentions is
central. Although the government has legitimate reasons to withhold certain important
information like information related to security of the state, it needs to provide all
kinds of governmental information for greater transparency. Information and
transparency are important for economic efficiency and to curb corruption.
In the last four decades, there is emergence of many principles of good governance. Henk
Addink (2020) in his work ‘Good Governance: Concept and Context’ has explained six core
principles of good governance viz., i) properness; ii) transparency; ii) participation; iv)
effectiveness; v) accountability and vi) human rights. Addink argued that ‘good governance
has raised the third dominant concept in the modern state’, the first is rule of law and second
is democracy that have become ‘important for the legitimacy of the state authorities.’
Context for Good Governance: Theoretical Roots
In the developing countries of Asia, Africa and Latin America, state led planned economic
development dominated in the first four decades, 1950s-1980s. In these four decades, the
State initiated the process of development, modernization and nation-building. Although state
led planned developmental strategies did not deliver expected results, it gave many
unexpected economic problems like black economy, opaque governmental administrative
processes, rise of administrative corruption and sluggish process of progress. Responding to
the sluggish process of planned development, there were emerging voices from many corners.
a. In the 1970s and 1980s, Ronald Regan and Margret Thatcher’s neo-liberal economic
policies, New International Economic Order (NIEO), the World Bank (WB) and
International Monetary Fund (IMF) call for economic reform especially the Washington
Consensus (1989), the decline of socialist economic policies, all gave impetus to rethink
on agenda of development.
b. The well-known free market economists and political philosophers (the New Right
theorists) like Friedrich Hayek, Milton Friedman, Ayn Rand, and Robert Nozick
attacked over-centralization of economy, welfareism and planned development, and
argued in favour of market-led development. They strongly advocated in favour of
privatization, spending cuts (especially cuts in welfare programmes and schemes), tax
cuts (especially in the direct taxes), and opening and freeing the economy.
c. Later, the public choice theorists like Vincent Ostrom advocated for de-
bureaucratization, institutional pluralism and participatory decision-making. The well-
known theorist of reinventing government, David Osborne and Tad Gabler (1993) in his
work ‘Reinvesting Government: How the Entrepreneurial Spirit is Transforming the
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Public Sector’ advised how the public sector can perform better by reinvesting
government from bureaucratic to entrepreneurial.
d. In the1980s and 1990s, the environmental movement moved the idea of ‘sustainable
development’. In addition, there were several parallel movements like human rights
movements, women movements were going on in various parts of the world. It had
greater influence on formulation and articulation of the idea of good governance.
Features of Good Governance
There four salient features of the concept of Good Governance given below:
1. Participation: Strengthening democratic institutions and participation of women,
poor, tribes, aboriginal groups and disadvantaged groups are very important
components of good governance. Participation can be ensured through local self-
government and devolution of power and responsibility to the local levels. The
representation of each group is important for inclusive development and their
participation in decision-making processes and its implementation is always desirable.
Participation needs to be informed and organized. This means civil and political rights
must be ensured so that individuals and groups can participate in the development
process.
2. Rule of Law: Good governance requires fair legal approach for conducive balanced
development. Rule of law as a procedure as well as philosophical aspects like justice
and fairness require for sound and inclusive development management. In addition, it
also requires protection of human rights particularly for minorities and vulnerable
groups. Impartial enforcement of rule of law requires an independent judiciary and
incorruptible police force. OECD has noted the characteristics of good law as clear,
coherent, effective and accessible.
3. Transparency: Transparency means decision taken and it has been implemented as
per rules and regulations. All information regarding the decision-making process and
its implementation are open to all. It also means that information is freely available and
directly accessible to those who will be affected by such decisions and their
enforcement. It also means that enough information is provided and that it is provided
in easily understandable forms and media.
4. Responsiveness: Good Governance requires that institutions are ready to serve all
stakeholders within a stipulated time. By responsiveness means government
institutions are responding citizens and stakeholder demand in order to be effective.
New Trends in Good Governance
In the neo-liberal globalized world, good governance is focusing on many ideas like
corporate governance, poverty reduction, and human rights. Here, the paper will focus on
relationships between good governance and poverty reduction and concept of human rights.
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Focus here on strengthening the institutional measures to reduce poverty and protect human
rights.
The World Bank first report in 1989 had recognized that protection of human rights is
salient for good governance. The UN approach to protect human rights is part of the agenda
of development, therefore, it is an integral part of the notion of good governance.
Conclusion
The dimension of the concept of good governance has become so broad that it has lost its
shape. It is the idea that is being accommodated in all conceptual ideas viz, democracy,
development, administration, corporate ventures, and list goes on. However, it has a focus
theme as time to time reflected in various international agencies reports. Every year, there are
more than thousands of reports related to good governance issued by various national and
international agencies. In third world countries, politicians advocate minimum government
and maximum governance. It means incorporation of various agencies like civil societies
groups, non-governmental organization (NGOs), private organization, voluntary
organization, community-based organization, women’s group, farmers’ group, religious
groups etc. in order to pursue development. Emphasizing on the importance of good
governance, Henk Addink (2020: 24) has maintained that ‘good governance norms are
necessary to prevent maladministration and corruption’.
Bibliography
Addink, Henk (2020). Good Governance: Concept and Context. London: Oxford University
Press.
United Nations Development Programme (1997). Reconceptualizing Governance. Discussion
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United Nations (2007). Good Governance Practices for the Protection of Human Rights.
Geneva: UN.
United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and The Pacific (UNESCAP).
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Term Perspective Study. November, Washington DC: WB.
---. (1991). World Development Report: The Challenges of Development. New York: Oxford
University Press.
---. 1992. Governance and Development. Washington, DC: WB.
---.1994. The WB in Governance: The WB Experience. Washington, DC: WB.
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Introduction
History of Feminism: “the three waves”
Feminist approach in governance
o Gender of Governance
o Governance of Gender
Feminist perspective in Public Administration
Conclusion
Introduction
Feminist perspective is one of the most prominent perspective which examine the power
dynamics of the society based on gender and analyse the position and functions of women
and men in society. It focuses on giving space and voice to women and highlights that how
men and women both play a crucial role and thus should be treated equally.
As social movement and as an ideology, feminism investigates women’s inferior
position, and the discrimination and subjugation women face because of the gender biases.
‘Feminism’ has been derived from the Latin word ‘femina’ which means female. Ferguson
writes that “feminism aimed at defining, establishing and sustaining the gender equality in all
spheres of life which includes equal rights and equal opportunities for women and men in
political, economic and social realm to overcome the discrimination against women.
Feminism as an ideology has never been subscribed to women only. There are women who
are not feminist and men who are, so feminism should not be remained identical to ‘for
women’ only”.
Feminist perspective uses gender as a lens to understand the social dynamics and existing
differences and discrimination arising out of it. Gender grows from cultural ideas which
stipulates social meaning, connotation and expectations. It a complex combination of society
defined roles, social identities, performances, expressions leading to a gendered meaning.
Gender is a social fabric which is based on the preconceived notion of differences based
on sex and assumptions of power derived from such unequal values. Sex refers to the
biological definition of being male or female according to one’s reproductive organs and
functions based. Whereas gender, as described above, is shaped and produced by social
environment and experiences. According to Metcalfe “the main focus of gender is not on
women per se but on power relations between men and women, their access to resources and
decision-making power”. This shows the various ways in which the gender identities are
constituted differently according to social and historical context. A study of gender relations
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and organization in the context of globalization is also political since feminist modes of
inquiry rest on transformative agendas for social development and change (Metcalfe, Rees.
2010).
Feminism highlights and investigates the power dynamics in the structural gender
inequality created by the public private sphere. Through the gender analysis, the perspective
examines the ‘connects’ present in the mainstream concepts and help realize the marginalized
women’s voices and spaces and how these can be heard and presented as mainstream theory.
Feminism considers position of women as primary focus. Patriarchy, male domination
present in the social relationships is historically has remained main reasons for the
disadvantageous position of women. Gilligan maintains that “patriarchy leads to the
systematic discrimination, exploitation and multiple deprivations of women, when they
practice and assert their free will, rights, power and economic self-reliance”. Systematic
difference in family contributes to gender inequality as stereotypically public sphere is for
men and private for women.
Thus, feminism is considered as an intellectual investigation and a political movement
that seeks equality for all and justice for women and promotes social justice. Feminist inquiry
provides a very comprehensive and dynamic range of analysis on social, cultural, and
political phenomena.
History of Feminism: “the three waves”
The ‘first wave’ of feminism gradually evolved with the suffrage movement of the 1800’s.
The fast mobilization of the women suffrage in whole Europe and the beginning in US led to
the growing concerns of equal rights for women, particularly the right of suffrage that is right
to vote.
It focused on mandated inequalities specifically, women’s lack of voting rights, equal
access, equal rights and equal opportunities etc. The first wave of feminism, feminists sought
to pursue their goals within the existing social structures and didn’t address inequalities
present in the society.
The “Second Wave” had begun with the publication of Betty Friedan’s book, The
Feminine Mystique (1963) which talked about ‘the problem that has no name’. The problems
women were facing in a marriage, inside the household, domestic violence started getting
highlighted. According to Moore “the wave was centred around women’s inequality
concerning family, sexuality and work along with political rights. It emphasized the full
gender equality and attempted to abolish the systematic inequalities that create discrimination
between the sexes”. This wave dealt with wider range of issues such as family life, the
workplace, sexuality, reproductive rights, rape, and other unofficial inequalities, civil rights,
health, welfare etc. Moore further explained that “the personal is political’ caught the
attention of the world that signifies the first attempt to break down the gendered division
between the private sphere attributed to women and the public sphere of men in order to
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create equality between the sexes. In doing so, the gendered spaces of men/women in the
public/private sphere respectively can get blurred”. (Moore 1994)
The “third wave” had begun as early of 1980s. A new feminist movement as the
postmodern feminism has being recognized. The third wave extended the feminist movement
in understandings and experiences of the world that are shaped by where individuals are
situated within it in terms of class, gender, race, sexual identity, etc. and creating new ideas,
action across race, ethnicity, class, culture, community. It generated the much consciousness
that how to deal with differences among women who are placed differently. This wave argues
that the hegemonic culture of patriarchy is not only hiding but also increasing the differences
that are present among women with the differences with men. It also maintains that one
should identify, understand and embrace the differences, the situations, the locales in which
the women are positioned and different ideas, dialogues must be exchanged amongst the
different groups and these diversities must be accepted. Third wave feminism engages with
issues and concerns of oppression, such as workplace sexism, sexual harassment, body
shaming. It has also tended to be more diverse by addressing the specific concerns of people
of colour, sexuality, queer ideas, LGBT social movements.
Feminist Approach in Governance
The feminist perspective uses the gender analysis category to understand the gender issues
and related problems in governance. Public administration theory and practice is considered
to have masculine bias and feminist perspective promotes the gender equality by highlighting
the systematic difference of men and women in work opportunities, work standards and
theoretical approach. In the words of Gerda Lerner feminist perspective in administration
“believes in a system of ideas and practices which assumes that men and women must share
equally in the work, in the privileges, in defining and dreaming of the world. Feminism is all
about creating a space for heterogeneous gendered perspective; about perceiving and working
to change gendered power relations”. (Lerner 1984)
Gender of Governance
Since history, one can see that the private and public domain is dominated by men. The
sphere of administration too has the same patriarchal mindset and driven by masculine
hegemony and have led to the institutionalized exclusion of women from administration and
women from politics. In this regard, Sheila Rowbotham mentioned that ‘how women are
‘hidden from history’ and exactly the same is getting produced in public and private sphere.
And politics being in the domain of public were always have restricted women at bay.
The main argument which is given here is that politics and administration is male centric
and basically related to male activities and women completely lack the basic skills, expertise
and knowledge which is required for proper governance and politics.
Subsequently, theories and methods developed out of such understanding assume a
masculine standpoint and understand the male dominated governance sphere as very
universal and normal.
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Gradually, feminist scholars like Kate Millet, Carole Pateman not only challenged the
public private dichotomy as baseless and the private is the first place from where all the
power and gender inequalities begin but also highlighted the importance of gender equality in
governance issues. Gender is all about power and through the use of power only the
inequalities and masculine hegemony is created and reinforced.
The politics, the administrative state and its governance also are dominated by the
masculine hegemony and prefers men over women and restricting women to domestic chores
(cooking, clothing) thus devaluing the presence, contribution and issues of women.
Governance of Gender
Feminist perspective through the gender analysis is highlighting that how the masculine
domination is not only prevalent in administrative theoretical understating but also it is
evident in practice. It assesses the effect of such understanding on men and women work
culture, state policies and government measures.
Neglecting women’s role, their contribution, devaluing the leadership qualities of
women, unacceptance of women in positions of authority are getting questioned. From the
embedded gender inequality in the structure of organisation (gender of governance) and
getting highlighted in the administration (governance of gender) has focused on systematic
exclusion of women from the administration. The works of feminist scholars show that only
highlighting the inequalities and discrimination theoretical would not change the condition of
women for better rather the very basic assumptions and system in which these theories are
getting evolved has to be questioned.
That is why a new theoretical lens, a more dynamic paradigmatic shift is required so that
without any hegemonic biases the administrative theory and practice can be analysed, and a
more inclusive and equitable just approach can be created to not only understand the
administrative world and politics and also a more balanced politics can be practiced.
Feminist Perspective in Public Administration
The feminist theories in public administration can be broadly categorised into two types. First
is descriptive theories which focus on the discrimination against women and study the
comparative difference between male and female experiences in public sphere and promotes
women’s right in public sphere like better job facility, equal treatment, career growth,
elimination of sexual harassment etc.
The second category is of conceptual theories which question the gender biases in public
administration by examining the methods, concepts, fundamental theoretical features.
Camilla Stivers defined that feminist perspective in public administration as “it raises the
crucial questions regarding position, power, inequalities of gender and its relevance in public
administration. It seeks to research that how and to what extent gender defines and informs
the theory and practices in public administration in the light of the fact that women are
unequally represented and the integration of the gender analysis into the public policies are
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highly undermined. It seeks to capture the relation between structure and practices of
administration, the interplay between the structure and gender”. (Stivers 1990) Few
prominent feminist scholars in Public Administration are Camilla Stivers, Delysa Bernier,
Mary E. Guy, Joan Acker, Carol Gilligan, Hutchinson, Kathy Ferguson etc.
The most recognized, discussed and significant contribution came from Camilla Stivers
who dealt with questions of women’s issues in the administration discourse in her path
breaking work ‘Gender Images in Public Administration: Legitimacy and the Administrative
State’ which has provided a broader perspective which would legitimize gender dimension in
the discourse. Camilla Stivers encouraged the ‘’study of the problematic aspect of gender
issues in public administration by focussing on history and current distribution of women in
public sector roles. She studied “glass ceiling” issues, leadership and gender biases and
gendered administrative reform approach’’. (Stivers 1993)
Guy (1994) mentions that “women have remained disadvantaged in the workplace by
unequal power dynamics best explained through metaphors of glass ceilings, glass walls,
sticky floors, and trap doors. Glass ceilings and glass walls refer to job segregation ways
between men and women. Glass ceilings highlights invisible, non-tangible (think cultural)
factors which cause women to be disproportionately neglected and overlooked when it comes
to job promotion into powerful decision-making positions. Glass walls refers to the intangible
barriers (women lacking the skill) that make it difficult for women to move ahead in jobs
traditionally supposed to be men’s forte. On similar line, Sticky floors refers to those factors
which make it difficult for women to move up the career ladder. For example, women having
maternity leave, childcare responsibilities etc. are often overlooked for promotion. Trap doors
means obstacles which cause women to “fall through the floor” in terms of career
advancement”.
Stivers wrote that “public administration is structurally male despite its apparent
neutrality. The state depends on the household but hardly acknowledges the political
relevance of domestic issues. Women are “citizens” but in reality, their participation in public
and political life is relatively less”. She calls it a ‘gender paradox’ that “constitutes the
dilemma for women in public administrative state. These paradoxes devalue women’s
contribution and concerns and limit their political and social freedom”. She also highlights
that examining gender implies not limited to gender per se but also taking into account other
factors as well like race, class etc. Stiver explains that “the gender lens encourages us to see
the underlying assumptions that shape concepts and conclusions. This lens tells us that the
public dimensions in this discourse are gendered rather than neutral. Public administration
involves exercise of public power which has to justify itself too. But this publicness is
problematic as it is a product of the historical understanding of public as male preserve which
is far distinct from private space which is for women exclusively. Women’s domestic chores
are not of political concern, not of public interest”. (Stivers 1993)
The masculine character of the administrative state gives minimal attention to the
women’s concerns and remained insensitive to gender which is a systemic problem sustained
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by power relations in society. These masculine features also provide political, economic
advantage to men. That is why is so important to bring out new ideas, new actors, new
agencies of leadership, virtue professionals, ideas of ethics and normativity in administration,
as all suffer from cultural masculinity, highlighting the women and overall marginalized
sections contribution and significant presence in politics and society at large.
Stivers maintains that “leadership is a function of hierarchy and merely increasing the
numbers of female leaders is not going to change the situation is not enough. We have to
think the ways by which we can enhance the image of leadership as a facilitator of share for
agency clients, for citizens, and for other lower rank officials in organizational decision
making”. (Stivers 1993)
Thus, according to Stivers, “the virtuous public administrator must be the administrator-
as-citizen who will see herself or himself as “partner with” rather than “guardian over”. The
idea is to have a comprehensive horizontal rather than vertical relation between administrator
and citizens and the conceptual division between public and domestic sphere as permeable
and mutually supportive”. (Stivers 1993)
Camilla Stivers showed that how feminist interpretation can examine the realities of
women’s position in administrative state, in bureaucracy and the obstacles women face. She
highlights that public administration literature lack consciousness about the unequal
experiences two sexes witness and therefore she promoted the concepts like ‘the existence of
the sexual dynamics’, ‘depersonalized power in bureaucracy’, and ‘diverse workforce’ etc.
(Stivers 1993)
Janet R. Hutchinson, one of the leading scholars in the discipline has described that there
are public administration suffers from gendered masculinity resulting into male biased
theories, actors and agencies creating challenges for women centric issues to get a place in
mainstream discourse. She suggested a multiple strategy in public administration which can
be identified that helps to create a more coherent, regular feminist public administration
perspective. Few of the strategies are participation of women in administration, politics,
knowledge production and work leading to the equality. She also points out that one has to
make a very conscious effort to overcome and not fall for the systemic process where women
themselves have created a very exclusive category of ‘working women trying to fit in the so-
called mainstream category of male workforce’ which once they have tried to eliminate. One
another important strategy Janet focuses on incorporating the dynamic ‘feminist lens’ to the
discipline so that a new paradigm could emerge in the knowledge production process leading
to a more radical and neutral subject matter of public administration. A comprehensive lens
of studying public administration is prerequisite of a healthy participatory democracy. Janet
mentions that “this shift is necessary as the current public administration is highly masculine
in nature and systematically gendered. Thus, seeing through a feminist angle will lead to the
widening up of the horizons of administrative approaches making it more reliable and
assimilative in its scope”. (Janet 2002)
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fixed (if flawed) reality of administrative life”. (Burnier 1994) She further highlighted that
where feminist scholars have provided much needed alternatives to traditional bureaucratic
state, in the same place, the theory of entrepreneurial government overlooked the feminist
concerns making it a peripheral and much narrower idea. According to Delysa, “feminist
approach of ‘interpretative-critical framework’ should be incorporated to re-invent the
government for a more inclusive approach and for that more research and analysis needs to
be developed within the discourse. Where the interpretative turn leads to systematic analysis
of the meaning, symbols, actions in the discourse, the critical turn leads to shift from
individual case study to more broad interface between gender dynamics and context”.
(Burnier 1994) She highlighted the importance of ethics, organisational behaviour, interactive
and participatory leadership styles in discourse to make it more pragmatic and equitable.
Kathy Ferguson seeks “a new approach based on the historical cultural experiences of
women which have real transformative values and will redefine the notions of power,
rationality and leadership. She envisions a non-bureaucratic collective life where bureaucratic
discourse would be replaced within feminist discourse centered on individual human
development and community needs”. (Ferguson 1983)
Franzway, Court and Connell proposed that “bureaucratic state is an agent in sexual
politics maintaining the gender biases and gives supremacy to the interests of men over
women which shows that no theory of state is void of sex and gender biases and this becomes
one of the primary limitations of the administrative state to flourish democratically in real
sense”. (Franzway, Court & Cornwell 1989)
Cynthia Cockburn discusses “the behavioural problems women face in organisations and
illustrates through her study that women find themselves defined by men as the
organisation’s ‘other’. Men have identified the situation, definition for women in a way that
asks women to be just like men and not like herself”. (Cockburn 1991)
Conclusion
Advancing the feminist understanding, new variants of gender, sex, and sexual preference,
including transgender, bisexual concerns are getting prominent place in the discipline. This is
a very new entrant in public administration. Many studies are highlighting the multigendered
concepts, asserting legal identities and creating their scope within administrative state as the
head of various states, highlighting the basic issues of discrimination against gays, lesbians
and the very absence of legal protections in terms of employment echoes the pressing need of
more non-discriminatory, inclusive approach.
An alternative perspective, as discussed by Hutchinson, is the “theorization of new
administrative paradigm, which is intersectional, multi gendered, more inclusive in its
approach”. Butler pointed out that “gender is something that we are becoming in every
moment. Sex and gender are at the same time multiple, even evolving”. (Butler, 1999) This
kind of a wide understanding can offer much wider possibilities for the discourse where
multi-gendered nonbiased approach of feminism would be able to contribute in real sense.
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It remains a challenge to understand the ‘otherness’ existing due to power dynamics and
thus accepting the ‘otherness’ in totality which would lead to the end of masculine hegemony
and create a more pro people Public Administration in real sense.
Another significant challenge is that how in long run feminist perspective through a
multigendered approach can keep itself a strong and firm theoretical framework in long run.
Feminist perspective holds a different idea, different viewpoints together and keeping all the
voices speaking and heard, safeguarding the minorities (third world women, black women,
LGBTQ actors) are very important.
The feminist perspective contributes significantly and also determines the scope and
purpose of Public Administration by highlighting who are the real ‘public’ in Public
Administration. A very strong knowledge system of feminist theories within the discipline is
required for making the discipline and practices of administration more multifaceted,
inclusive and pro people.
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