AERMOD FUNDAMENTALS

MICROMETEOROLOGY AND DISPERSION

by
Akula Venkatram
 AERMOD FUNDAMENTALS
Akula Venkatram

! Dispersion
" Turbulence and Dispersion
" Taylor’s Analysis
" Dispersion when properties vary in the vertical
! Micrometeorology
" Surface layer
" The atmospheric boundary layer
" M-O theory
! AERMOD
 The Plume

Instantaneous plume shows little

structure
The Time Averaged Plume

The time averaged plume is better

behaved
u

h
 The Naïve Model
Mass balance suggests

Q
C=
uhw
h= Height of plume
w= Width of plume
u= Mean wind speed
 PGT System For Dispersion
The PGT dispersion scheme is based on a method
suggested by Pasquill in 1961. Uses the Gaussian
distribution to describe concentrations.

      
2 2 y2
 
C(x, y,z) = Q 


exp −
 (h − z )



+ exp −
 (h + z )

 
exp −



    
2π u σ y σ z
  2σz2   2σz2  
2σ 2














y 



h=Effective stack height

The plume spreads are based on
observations
 PGT Dispersion Scheme

Wind Speed PGT Classes

Cloud Cover Dispersion

Time of day

Dispersion Vertical and

horizontal plume spread expressed as
σ y,z = ax n
 PGT Dispersion Scheme

Increasing

A Stability

B
σ y ,z

Distance
 Basis

" Based primarily on Cramer's (1957) analysis of the

Prarie Grass observations. Vertical profile
measurements at the 100 m arc provided ground-
truth data.
" Estimates for distances beyond 1 km are extrapolations
guided by a few measurements made in England.

" Pasquill did not provide estimates of vertical

spread for elevated releases. Pasquill is vague on
the appropriate height of measurement for the
wind speed.
 Atmospheric Stability
PGT stability classes should not be confused with
atmospheric static stability
Static stability depends on potential temperature
gradient
PGT stability class depends on static stability and
wind speed
 Potential Temperature

Ra / C p
 po 
θ =T  
 p 
Temperature of parcel when it is adiabatically
brought to pressure po.
Potential temperature is constant during adiabatic
motion.
Atmospheric Stability

Stable Unstable
Potential Temperature
dθ dT g
≈ +
dz dz Cp

dT g
=− Adiabatic Lapse Rate
dz Cp
≈ -10o C / km
Turbulence and Dispersion

" Dispersion is governed by turbulence

in the flow
" PGT goes directly to dispersion
without explicit use of turbulence
" AERMOD first calculates turbulence,
which is then related to dispersion
 Turbulence

u'(t)

Velocity

Time
Turbulence Statistics

u = u + u′
σ = u′
2
u
2

T
1
u = ∫ u(t)dt
T0
 Theoretical Analysis

" Plume dispersion modeled with

statistics of positions of particles
released serially from source
" Puff dispersion modeled with
statistics of separation of particle
pairs released from a source
 Taylor’s Analysis

σz = σ w t t << TLw
σz = σw (2tTLw ) 1/2
t >> TLw

σw t
σz =
(1 + t / 2TLw )1/2
 Lagrangian Time Scale

l
TL =
σw
TL is the time over which a particle remembers
its velocity
l = Size of eddy
σ w = Velocity of Eddy
 A Simple Explanation
dn + 1 = dn ± l

d 2
n +1 = d 2
n + l 2
± 2 dnl

d 2
n +1 = d 2
n + l 2

d 2
n = nl 2
A Simple Explanation

σz = l n
t
n=
TLw
l = σwTLw
σz ~ σw (tTLw )
1/2
 The Concentration

The concentration can be written as:

 y2 (z −h )2 
− 2 + 
Q σ σ 2 
C= e  y z 
πuσ y σz
Gaussian Plume Model
 Theory to Application

! Theory applies to homogeneous

boundary layer
! Turbulence in the atmospheric
boundary varies with height,
downwind distance and time
Simple Model for Plume Spread

The small time limit is used to model

dispersion

x
σz = σ w
Ue
x
σy = σv
Ue

Ue = Velocity at z = σz
 Elevated Release

Q u
Q
Cmax =
hs uπhs
2

Q  − hs 
2
C(x,0,0) = exp 2 
πuσy σz  2σz 
The Mass Conservation Equation
The Gaussian distribution is the
solution of the equation:

∂C ∂C ∂  i ∂C 
+ ui = K 
∂t ∂xi ∂xi  ∂xi 
where
1 dσ 2
K =
i i
2 dt
 Eddy Diffusivity

σ = 2σ TLw t when t >> TLw

2
z
2
w

K = σ w2 TLw or K = σ wl

Eddy diffusivity that depends only on

atmospheric properties cannot be
justified near the source, where it
matters.
Puff versus Plume Dispersion

" Dispersion in a puff is referred to as

relative dispersion- relative to the
moving center of mass of the puff

" Dispersion of a plume is referred to

as absolute dispersion -relative to the
fixed point of release
The Atmospheric Boundary
Layer

" The layer next to the ground that is

turbulent
" Turbulence maintained by surface
heating and wind shear
" Boundary layer height varies from
~100m at night to about ~1000m
during the day
Surface Energy Balance

Incoming Incoming Emitted Thermal

Solar radiation Thermal Radiation Radiation

Reflected
Solar Radiation
Latent
Sensible Heat
Heat Flux Flux

Soil Heat Flux

 ABL Evolution

Sunset

Height

Sunrise

Time
 Temperature Profiles

Height
Night Day

Potential Temperature
 Velocity and Turbulence
Profiles

Height Day

Night

Mean Wind σw
Estimating Dispersion in ABL

! Estimate the temperature and mean

velocity as function of height
! Estimate turbulence levels as
functions of height
! Derive “effective” values to use in
dispersion equation
 Turbulence in the ABL

" Turbulence maintained by shear and

surface heating
" Turbulence caused by shear is
proportional to surface friction
velocity
" Temperature caused by surface
heating related to convective velocity
scale
 Surface Friction Velocity
Shear stress at the ground is caused by
downward transport of momentum by turbulent
eddies.
Turbulent velocities are related to surface shear
stress.
τo
u∗ =
ρa

σ w = 1 . 3u∗
Computing Surface Friction
Velocity
u∗  z 
u(z ) = ln  
k  z0 
k (u10 − u 5 )
u∗ =
 10 
ln  
 5 
Say
u10 = 5 m/s and u 5 = 4 m /s
0 . 4 × (5 − 4 )
u∗ = = 0 . 58 m/s
ln (2 )
 Convective PBL

Wind
Downdraft
Updraft
Free Convection Velocity Scale
ρ
Upward force = ρ Vg = g
ρ
p

Downward force = g

 
g 1
ρ ρ
Net upward force = g − g =
 −

ρ
p  ρ
p 
 θ
p 
g 1
θ′
=
 −
 = g

 θ
 θ
Free Convection Velocity Scale

Energy Argument
θ′ 2
g z ~ w
θ

θ ′w 3
g z ~ w
θ

1 / 3
 Q
o 
w ~  g z 
 θ

Free Convection Velocity Scale

1/3
g 
uf =  Qoz 
 To 

σ w = 1.3uf
Computing Free Convection Velocity
Scale

1/3
 g 
uf =  Q oz 
 To 
2 3
Q o = 300 W/m /( 1200 W.s/(m K ))
m
= 0.25 K
s
1/3
 9 . 81 
uf =  0 . 25 × 10  = 0 . 43 m/s
 300 
 Monin-Obukhov Length
Height at which
σ w (free convection ) = σ w (mechanical )

uf = u∗
To u 3
L=− ∗
g kQo
 M-O Theory
Describes mean and turbulence profiles of
wind and temperature in the surface layer

du u∗  z
= φM  
dz kz L

σw  z
= f 
u∗ L
The Stable Boundary Layer

" Stable stratification restricts

vertical motion of fluid
" Turbulence is intermittent and
difficult to characterize
" Methods to estimate boundary layer
height are unreliable
" Few observations of plume growth
Turbulence in Upper SBL

" Surface radiative cooling at night creates stable

temperature gradient
" Vertical motion generated by shear is suppressed
by stable gradient
1/2
 z 
σ w = 1 . 3 u∗  1 − 
 zi 
1/2
σw  g dθ 
l~ where N =  
N  To dz 
z i = Au ∗3 / 2
The Convective Boundary Layer

" Turbulence enhanced by buoyancy

" Turbulence can be characterized
" Methods to estimate boundary layer
height are reliable
" Several observations of plume growth
in the field and the laboratory
 Turbulence in the CBL
1/3
 g 
σw = 1 . 3  Q o z  z ≤ 0 . 1z i
 To 

1/3
 g 
σw = 0 . 6  Q o zi 
 To 
 Height of the CBL
T
1
∆θzi = ∫ Qodt
2 0

1 2 1 T2
Stable Potential
γzi = Qmax
Temperature Gradient
C
2 2 τ
Zi Sensible Heat Flux
1/2
B  Qmax 
zi =   T
A

 γτ 
 Typical Magnitudes
σ w ~ σ v = 0 . 5 m / s in CBL
σ w ~ σ v = 0 . 1 m / s in SBL

w∗ = 2 m/s
u∗ = u10 / 13

zi = 1000 m in CBL
zi = 100 m in SBL
 Summary

" We can estimate concentrations if we know

something about mean and turbulence
structure of the atmospheric boundary
layer
" Surface stress (wind) and heat flux can be
used to estimate structure
" Dispersion models can be very simple to
provide reasonable concentration estimates
 Summary
Simple model for plume growth

dσz σwe
=
dx ue
dσ y σve
=
dx ue
Effective values at z = σz
 AERMOD

" AMS/EPA Regulatory Model

" Designed to replace ISC
" Developed by a committee of 4 EPA
and 3 AMS scientists
" Coding performed by PES
" Incorporates current understanding
of micrometeorology and dispersion
 AERMOD Vs ISC

ISC
Meteorology PGT Classes Dispersion

AERMOD
Meteorology Turbulence Dispersion
NO PGT stability classes
 ISC uses PGT Curves

" PGT curves are partial description of

plume spread of surface releases
-Prairie Grass Experiment, 1956
" Curves do not apply to elevated
releases
" Application to surface releases
requires correct specification of wind
speed
 Design Philosophy

" Includes no more than necessary physics

" Minimizes model inputs
" Robust
" Produces realistic concentration estimates
 AERMOD Components

" Meteorological processor that converts

routine measurements into micromet
variables required by model

" A terrain processor

" Dispersion model

Meteorological Processor

" Mean wind and temperature profiles

" Horizontal and vertical turbulent
velocity profiles
" Boundary layer heights
" Surface micromet variables
 Measurement of Met Variables

" Measure as close to the source as possible

" Measure flow using sonics (propeller

anemometers if you are cheap)

" As many levels as possible

Near Field Dispersion Experiment at BL
Memorial School (April 7 – 14, 2001)
Near Field Dispersion Experiment at BL
Memorial School (April 7 – 14, 2001)
Near Field Dispersion Experiment at BL
Memorial School (April 7 – 14, 2001)
 Estimating Met Parameters

" u*=ku/ln(z/zo)

" Qo=0.3(Incoming solar radiation)

 Dispersion Model
" CBL dispersion model
" PDF model that incorporates non-Gaussian
dispersion in the vertical (Weil et al, 1997)
" SBL dispersion model
" Gaussian model that incorporates current
understanding of vertical dispersion
(Venkatram and Strimaitis, 1998)
" Complex terrain model
" Uses dividing streamline concept
" Urban dispersion model
" Allows TIBL growth over urban area
Vertical Spread in the Surface
layer

2 u∗
σz = x ;forx ≤ 1.4
πu
2 u∗
= 1.12x2/3L1/3 ;forx/L > 1.4, L > 0
πu
2 u∗ x
= ;forL < 0
π u (1 + 0.006(x / L) )
2 −1 /2
 PDF Models for CBL

Q
w
h
w+∆w
∆z
x
Cu ∆ z = QP ( w ) ∆ w
u∆ z
∆w =
x

 uh 
P w = − 
 x 
C = Q
x
Vertical Velocity Distribution

P(w)

Positively skewed
Negative Mode

- w +
 Dispersion Models for CBL
Gaussian dispersion model is fine for
the CBL with the correct sigmas

σwx
σz =
U
σ vx
σy =
U
σv = σ w = 0 .6 w ∗
Vertical Spread in the SBL

σ z = σ w t /( 1 + t / 2 T L ) 1 / 2

TL = l / σ w

1 1 1
= +
l ls ln

ls = γ 2 σ w / N ; ln = kz r
 Plume Rise

F x
1/3 2/3
∆ h = 1 .6 Neutral
u

F
∆ hmax = Unstable
uσ 2w

1/3
 F 
∆ hmax = 2 . 6 2 
Stable
 uN 
 Modeling Approach

Interpolate between known limits of

dispersion behavior

Example: Interpolate between surface

and elevated dispersion
 Combining Understanding of
Elevated and Surface Dispersion

Interpolate between surface and

elevated plume spreads

σEffective
z = σ Elevated
z .(1 − f) + σ Surface
z .f

 hes 
f =  1 − 
 zi 
Dispersion In Complex Terrain

" Flow tends to be horizontal in stable

conditions
" Streamlines and plume are depressed
towards hill surface
" Vertical turbulence is enhanced
" Concentrations are increased over
flat terrain values
 Approach

" Observed state is a weighted

combination of two states
" State 1 assumes that plume is horizontal
" State 2 assumes that plume climbs over
the hill
C(x, y, z) = fCf(x, y,z) + (1 − f)Cf(x, y,ze )
Critical Dividing Streamline
Height
 Climbing State

Hp

zh
Hp

z eff = (z − z h )
 Weighting States

" Concept of dividing streamline height, Hc

" Fluid below Hc tends to remain horizontal

" Fluid above Hc climbs over hill

f = f( φ)
Hc

∫ C (x, y, z)dz
f
φ = fraction below Hc = 0
∞

∫ C (x, y, z)dz
0
f
 Weighting

f = (1 + φ ) / 2
When plume is well b elow Hc
φ = 1 and f = 1

When plume is well a bove Hc

φ = 0 and f = 1/2
 Low Wind Speeds

The horizontal distribution is written

as: 1 1  y2 
H(x, y) = fran 
+ (1 − fran )  exp − 2
2πr 2 πσ y  2σ y 
 

2σ 2
fran = v
2σ2v + um2
 Urban Conditions

Cold stable air from the rural area becomes

unstable when it flows over warmer urban area
 Urban Conditions
1/ 4
 P 
z urban = z o  
 Po 

Q o = 0 . 1 u ∗ (∆ T u − r )

 P 
∆ T u − r = ∆ T max f  

 Pmax 
 Building Effects

" AERMOD incorporates PRIME

" PRIME treats dispersion in the wake,
where turbulence is enhanced
" Allows material to be entrained into
cavity
" This material then disperses as
ground-level source
 Building Effects
Assume that source is at ground-level
Initial vertical spread=source height

Cavity Wake
CE-CERT Parking Lot
CE-CERT Parking Lot
CE-CERT Parking Lot
Horizontal Distribution

Distribution is taken to be Gaussian

σ vt
σ =
y
(1 + t / 2 T Lv )1 / 2

l
T Lv =
σv

What is l ?
 Performance of Improved Air Quality Models

Estimates from the best available

dispersion models deviate from
observations by large factors

" r2 < 0.2 and 95% confidence interval is factor of 4

-Weil, 1992

" 70% confidence interval is 2.5- Hanna et al., 1999

 Behavior of Model Errors

Error Total Error

Input Error

Inherent Error

Model Inputs
An Example of Model Performance
 Evaluation Method

" Evaluation assumes that model input

errors did not allow point by point
comparisons of model estimates with
observations
" Distributions of model estimates and
observations compared
" Ranked observations plotted against
ranked model predictions
 Model Evaluation

" AERMOD was evaluated with 10 data

bases, which included flat terrain,
complex terrain, and urban settings

" Performance was as good or better

than available models
 Complex Terrain Results
T racy SF6 1-Hr Q-Q Plot (Conc.)

100

10
Predicted

AERMOD
CTDMPLUS
1

0.1
0.1 1 10 100

Observed
 Future Improvements

" Dry and wet deposition

" Shoreline dispersion
" Screening Model
" Interpretation tool
 Shoreline Fumigation

Fumigation

Q  y2 
C= exp  − 
Water Land 2 πU σ y zi  2 σ 2y 
 

1/2
u∗  ∆ Tlw 
zi =  x 
u  γ 
 Dry Deposition

Depleted region

Particle settling can be accounted vsx

by removing material of thickness
u
Problems in Dispersion and
Micrometeorology
Akula Venkatram
Problem 1

The emissions from a Burger King are

entrained into the wake of a building. The
concentration close to the building is 1000
µg/m3. If the wall where the concentration is
measured is 4 m high and 5 m wide, estimate
the emission rate of the pollutant.
Problem 1
Solution

U=5 m/s

Q = CAU
g m
= 1000 × 10 -6
× 20 m 2
× 5
m 3
s
g
= 0.1
s
Problem 2

The maximum concentration of SO2 measured

at ground-level is 1000 µg/m3 when the wind
speed is 5 m/s. The stack is 50 m high, and the
plume rise is given by the equation 100/u,
where u is in m/s. What is the maximum
concentration when
a) u increases to 10 m/s?
b) stack height increases to 100m?
Problem 2
Solution

1
C max ~
Uh 2
e

a )
m 100
U 1 = 5 ; h e1 = 50 + = 70 m
s 5
m 100
U 2 = 10 ; h e2 = 50 + = 60 m
s 10
2 2
 U   he1   5   70 
C max 2 = C max

1 
1



 h

 = 1000   
 U 2   e 2   10   60 
µ g
= 681
m 3
b )
2
 70 
C max 2 = 1000 ×  
 120 
µ g
= 340
m 3
Problem 3

The plume from a smelter is well mixed

through the depth of the mixed layer at 10 km
from the source. If the maximum
concentration at this distance is 150 µg/m3,
what is the maximum concentration at 15 km?
If the mixed layer height is 1000 m, the wind
speed is 5 m/s, and the spread of the plume is
5o, what is the emission rate from the smelter?
Problem 3
Solution

zi

r
Q
C =
r θ z iU
a )
 10  µ g
C ( 15 km ) = C ( 10 km )  = 150
 15  m 3
b )
Q = Cr θ z iU
15
= 150 × 10 -6
× 10 3
× × 2 π × 1000 × 5
360
g
= 1963
s
Problem 4

A typical car emits 60g/mile of CO. Estimate

the concentration of CO in ppm at 5m from a
freeway given
Average speed of car= 50 mph
Traffic flow rate= 160 cars/minute
Wind speed= 5m/s
Vertical plume spread=0.1×(distance from
freeway)
Problem 4
Solution

U
h

q
C =
hU
q = Fe
cars min g mi
= 160 × × 60 ×
min 60 s car . mi 1600 m
g
= 0.1
s.m

0 .1 1 g mol 1 m 3
C = = × × × 10 6
ppm
5 × 0 .1 × 5 25 m 3
28 g 41 mol
= 35ppm
Problem 5

The maximum concentration caused by an

elevated release is 1000 µg/m3 at a distance of
5 km from the stack. If the wind speed is 5
m/s and the effective stack height is 200 m,
estimate the vertical turbulent velocity. Will
the maximum concentration change if the
turbulent velocity increases?
Problem 5
Solution

he

σ x
σ z ~ w

U
σ x
w
~ h e
U
heU 200 × 5
σ w = = = 0 .2 m / s
x 5000
Problem 6

A source emits pollutants at a height of 200m

into a boundary layer 800 m high, and the wind
speed is 5 m/s. The early morning temperature
profile shows the temperature increasing from
10oC to 12oC over a height of 1000m. Assume
that the surface heat flux increases linearly
from sunrise to the time you observe the plume
to 6 hours later. Estimate the location of the
maximum concentration.
Problem 6
Solution

zi
Q
t
1 1
γz i
2
= Qt
2 2
γ z i2
Q =
t
d θ dT g 2 10 12 K
γ = = + = + =
dz dz C p 1000 1000 1000 m
12 800 × 800 m
Q = × = 0 . 36 K
1000 6 × 3600 s

1 / 3
 9 . 81  m
σ w = 0 .6 ×  × 0 . 36 × 100  = 0 . 65
 283  s
σ x
w
= 200 m
U
200 × 5
x = = 1500 m
0 . 65
Problem 7

You notice a bird hovering in the boundary

layer at a height of 500 m. You estimate that
the bird weighs 0.5 kg and has a wing span of 2
m. Estimate the heat flux into the boundary
layer assuming that the bird is a circular disc
with a diameter corresponding to its wing span.
Problem 7
Solution

1 mg
mg = C D ρ Aw 2

2
1 / 2 1 / 2
 2 mg   2 × 0 . 5 × 9 . 81 × 4 
w =  
 =  
 C D A ρ   1 .1 × π × 4 × 1 .2 
m
= 1.5
s
1 / 3
 g 
w = 0 . 6 ×  Q 0 z 

 T 0 
3 3

Q = 
w  T0  1 .5 
= 
300
0  
 0 . 6  gz  0 .6  9 . 81 × 500
m
= 0.96 K
s
Problem 8

If the boundary layer height is 1000 m and the

surface heat flux is 200 W/m2, estimate how
long it takes for material released at the
surface to reach the top of the mixed layer.
Problem 8
Solution

1 / 3
 g 
w ∗ =  Q 0 z i 
 T 0 
1 / 3
 9.81 
=  × 0 . 2 × 1000 
 300 
m
= 1.87
s
m
σ w = 0 .6 w ∗ = 1 . 12
s
zi 1000
T mixing = = = 900 s
σ w 1 . 12
Problem 9

If σw=0.35 m/s at z= 10 m, and the surface

heat flux is 400 W/m2, estimate the surface
friction velocity and the Monin-Obukhov
length.
Problem 9
Solution
1 / 3
 g 
σ wf
= 0 .6 u f
= 0 . 6  Q 0 z 

 T 0 
 9.81 
= 0.6  × 0 . 4 × 10 
 300 
m
= 0.3
s
σ 3
w = σ 3
ws + σ wf
3

σ 3
ws = σ 3
w − σ 3
wf

= (0.35) 3
− ( 0 .3 ) 3

= 0.016
m
σ ws = 0 . 25 = 1 .3 u ∗
s
m
u ∗ = 0 . 19
s
T0 u ∗3 300 ( 0 . 19 ) 3
L = − = − × = − 1 .3 m
g kQ 0 9 . 81 0 .4 × 0 .4
AERMOD FUNDAMENTALS
MICROMETEOROLOGY AND DISPERSION

by
Akula Venkatram