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Transportation Engineering II
Railway Lines- Construction Need
CE-407
• The need for constructing a railway line may arise
from one of the following considerations.
– For the development of an area. The existing
Railway Engineering transport facilities may be inadequate.
– To develop an area which may be rich in mineral
resources or other natural wealth like timber
Lecture 4 resources.
– For development of existing industries.
– For shortening an existing railway line.
– For connecting a sea port with its adjacent land.
Syed Muhammad Noman
Assistant Professor – To serve as feeder line for an existing railway line.
Department of Civil Engineering

Track Alignment Track Capacity

Consideration of good alignment
• Purpose of new railway line
• Integrated development
• Economic consideration
– Shortest route
– Construction Cost
– Maintenance and operational cost
• Aesthetic
• It is defined as number of trains that can be
handled or run safely on a track per hour.
• Capacity can be enhanced by
– Achieving faster movement of trains on a
track
– Decreasing the distance between the
successive trains

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Capacity Enhancement
• Via Increasing the speed of the trains
– Trains should be made to run at same speed
• This requires uniformity of gauges and traction
– Use of Diesel or Electric traction
– Removal of speed restrictions (if any)
– Improving the existing track
– Reduction in the time of stoppages of trains
– Better coordination for change of direction of train at
junction
– Electronic control and signalling arrangement
Track Capacity Enhancement
• Other related aspects
– Optimising the yard operations
– Revising the standards to permit higher speeds
on the track
– Adopting safety measures and
telecommunications facilities for better
movement
– Availability of relief mechanism in case of
misshapenness
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Track Capacity Enhancement
• Via reducing the gap between trains
– Adopting multi-aspect signalling
– Decreasing the length of the section
– Increasing the length of crossing section or loops
– Increasing the number of tracks/line
– Interlocking the section and yards
– Use of centralised traffic control system
Coning of Wheels
• Problems with flat rails
– Lateral sway on the straight
track
• Wearing of flanges and sides of
rail head.
– Unequal movement on curved
rails
• Longer distance to be moved on
outer curved rail as compared to
inner curved rail
• Flexibility not available due to
rigidity of the base.
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Coning of wheels Coning of wheels

• On a straight track
– Bringing back wheel to average diameter by
slipping the wheel
• On a curved track
– Shifting the outer wheel outwards due to
centrifugal force thus causing an increase in
diameter that helps it in moving longer distance
on outer curve compared to inner wheel for
which the diameter reduces thus making it to
traverse shorter distance.

Tilting of Rail (Adzing of sleepers) Traction

• It is defined as the source through which the
• To reduce the effect of coning rail is tilted locomotive drives power.
inward at certain angle. • Sources:
• Tilting of rail can also to performe by using – Steam
canted bearing plate. – Diesel
– Electric Supply (AC/DC)
• Traction/power has a bearing upon:
– Load carrying capacity
– Speed
– Economy
– Efficiency of services

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Traction -Comparison Resistance to Traction

• Source of Energy
• Engine(Design, Weight)
• Resistance
• Overload capacity (10% for Diesel, 20-30% Electrical) – Rolling Stock, Track Profile, Tractive Effort,
• Power Utilization/fuel Consumption Wind
• Speeds and Rate of acceleration
• Life of locomotives (30 Yrs for D, upto 40 yrs for E)
• Shed Requirements (20 hrs/ month for D, 4 hrs/month for E)
– Rolling stock: Speed dependent, Speed
• Flexibility ( in terms of attaching coaches with the locomotives,
currently 18-24 coaches can be easily connected) independent and atmospheric conditions
• Cost
– Track Profile: Gradient, Curves
• Working hours /day
• Monthly kilo meterage (9000-10000) – Tractive Effort: Starting, Acceleration
• Pollution and Hazards
• Availability of service
– Wind

Rolling stock Resistances Rolling stock Resistances

• Speed Independent:
These are caused due to
– Friction imposed due to train components
(locomotives, wagons, compartments),
known as Journal friction. This friction is
dependent on type of bearing, lubricant used
and temperature of atmosphere.
– Friction between steel wheels and steel rails
– Track Resistance –wave action of rails
– Rsi = 0.0016w, weight of trains in tons.
• Speed dependent resistances:
– Track irregularities
– Vertical movement of wheels on rails
(improper joints and maintenance)
– Flange action (oscillation, sways, etc)
– Rsd= 0.00008 W * V
• W= Weight in tons, V = speed in Km/hr

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Track Profile Resistances

Rolling stock Resistance
• This is caused due to
– Gradients and Curves
• Atmospheric resistance:
– Standing air causing some resistance to – Resistance due to gradients can be
movement computed as
– Rg = W tan ᶿ
– Wind is assumed as not blowing
– Resistance due to curves can be
– Ra=0.0000006 W. V2 computed as
Mean resistance =FG/R

Resistance due to Traction Wind Resistance

• These are induced due to the following • It depends on • It is quantified as
– Due to starting operations – Direction of wind with
respect to the Rw= 0.000017A V2
• Varies due to type of the object movement of trains
– For locomotive ; Rs = 0.15 W – Wind velocity
– For vehicles ; Rs = 0.005 W – Sectional area exposed
Rw= 0.0000006W V2
– Acceleration given to a locomotive to wind
• Caused due to change in speed with respect to time
• Ra= 0.028w(v2-v1)/t

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Hauling capacity Railway Points and Crossings

• Defined as the load that can be handled by the • Turnouts:
locomotive. It is an indicative of power available – A combination of points and crossings by
to a locomotive. manipulation of which train from one track may
be diverted to another track or branch line or to
• It can be computed as a product of co-efficient of siding is known as Turnouts.
friction and weight on the driving wheels
– The switch consists of the
• At the minimum level it should be equal to pair of linked tapering
traction resistances. rails, known
as points (switch rails
• Hauling Capacity of Locomotive= no. of pairs of or point blades), lying
driving wheels x axle load x coefficient of friction between the diverging
outer rails (the stock rails).

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Components (ctd…) Components

• The frog, also known as the common
• The points (switch crossing (or K-Rail in Australian
terminology), refers to the crossing point
rails or point blades) are of two rails. This can be assembled out of
several appropriately cut and bent pieces
the movable rails which of rail or can be a single casting of
manganese steel.
guide the wheels towards • The frog is designed to ensure the wheel
either the straight or the crosses the gap in the rail without
"dropping" into the gap; the wheel and
diverging track. They are rail profile ensures that the wheel is
always supported by at least one rail.
tapered on most • To ensure that the wheels follow the
switches. appropriate flange way, a check-rail
("guard rail" North American terminology)
is installed inside the rail opposite the frog

Components (ctd…) Components (ctd..)

• A guard rail (check rail) is a short piece of rail • A points lever, ground
throw, or switch stand is
placed alongside the main (stock) rail opposite a lever and accompanying
the frog. These exist to ensure that the wheels linkages that are used to
follow the appropriate flange way through the align the points of a switch
manually. This lever and its
frog and that the train does not derail. accompanying hardware is
Generally, there are two of these for each usually mounted to a pair
frog, one by each outer rail. of long sleepers that
extend from the switch at
the points.

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Crossing types
• Apart from the standard right-
hand and left-hand switches,
switches commonly come in
various combinations of
configurations.
• These can be found anywhere
but the trend is to make
layouts as simple as possible in
order to reduce installation
and maintenance costs. The
more complex layouts are
usually only used where space
is limited.
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Turnout Motors
• In some parts of the US. electro-pneumatic
point machines are used. They are
referred to as switch motors. The London
Underground also used e.p. motors. They
require an air main to be laid alongside the
track and compressors to supply the
air. They can also cause problems with
condensation due to climatic changes. This
photo also shows a heater used to keep the
turnout blades free of ice and snow during
bad weather.
• The switch motor also includes electrical
contacts to detect that the switch has
completely set and locked. If the switch
fails to do this, the governing signal is kept
at red (stop). There is also usually some
kind of manual handle for operating the
switch in emergencies, such as power
failures.