Evaporation

It is a process of changing water from its liquid

phase to the vapor phase. It is possible from
water bodies,, saturated and non-saturated
surfaces – very important in designing big and
small hydro projects, irrigation systems etc.

What Affects the Rate of Evaporation?

 Factors affecting evaporation

 As temperature, wind speed, and surface area

increase, the rate of evaporation increases.

 The rate of evaporation is proportional to the

difference between the vapor pressure in the air
and vapor pressure at the surfaces of soil or water
bodies.
 Transpiration
(Process of removal of moisture from
plants)

Evaporation + Transpiration = Evapotranspiration

(ET)
Also known as consumptive use
 Potential and actual ET

 ET = P + other sources – Runoff – Groundwater

Loss - Change in moisture storage
Different methods to measure ET
◦ Laboratory or Field – Lysimeters

◦ Field observation

◦ Various Mathematical Equations

 Penman; Modified Penman; Blaney-
Criddle (SCS and FAO); FAO Crop
Coefficient , Wright Crop Coefficient;
Hammon, Thornthwaite
 Surface Runoff
 Runoff is defined as portion of precip.
goes to water bodies (streams, rivers, etc.)
through surface or subsurface; however,
the term is more common for surface
runoff
 Various methods for calculating surface
runoff rate and volume
◦ Rational method, Q = CiA
◦ Soil Conservation Services method
Factors affecting runoff
 Precipitation characteristics
 Type, duration, intensity, season
 Shape and size of the catchment
 Topography
 Smooth or rugged, soil type, Slope
 Weather conditions

6
 Shape and size of catchment

NUST Institute of Civil Engineering/Engr Sajjad Ahmad 7

Rational Method
Time of Concentration
The time required for water to flow from the most remote
(in time of flow) point of the area to the outlet once the
soil has become saturated and minor depressions filled.
The time of concentration is calculated by the Kirpich
(1940)equation.

Tc = 0.0195 L0.77S-0.385

Where Tc = time of concentration in minutes.

L = maximum length of flow in meters.
S = the watershed gradient in m per m or
the difference in elevation between the outlet and the
most remote point divided by the length L.
Figure 1
Nomograph for estimating Tc for a small basin
Table to Calculate C for Rational Method
 SCS Curve Number Method for Runoff
The SCS method relates the initial abstractions, and retention
parameters to watershed properties as described by the curve
number (CN).
The potential maximum retention (S) after runoff occurs is related
to the CN as follows:

The initial abstraction (Ia) includes interception, surface

storage, and infiltration related to the potential
maximum retention.
The runoff (mm) is related to the precipitation (mm) and
the potential maximum retention (mm), and describes as:
Table to Calculate Curve Number for SCS Method
Reservoir
• A natural or artificial pond or lake used for the
storage and regulation of water.
• With world's largest and unified irrigation system,
Pakistan has three major reservoirs (Dam)
Chashma, Mangla, and Tarbela
–19 barrages
–12 link canals
–45 irrigation canals
–107,000 water courses
Dam and why they are built?
 Dams are massive barriers built across rivers
and streams to confine and utilize the flow of
water for human purposes such as irrigation
and generation of hydroelectricity. This
confinement of water creates lakes or
reservoirs.
 The first known dam was built in 2900 B.C.
across the Nile River
Issues with dams
 Soil Erosion: Dams hold back the sediment load
normally found in a river flow, the downstream water
erodes its channels and banks
 Species Extinction: Dams do not include proper
bypass systems for aquatic animals, interfering with
their lifecycles
 Spread of Disease: Due to the slow movement of
water, dams provide grounds for mosquitoes, snails,
and flies
 Changes to Earth's Rotation: Due to balance of
water shifting from ocean to dams
Barrage
 A barrage is an artificial obstruction at the river
or stream to increase its depth or maintain a
separation between fresh and salt water or
reduce the risk of flooding.

 It is consist of a series of large gates that can be

closed or opened to have a control on the
amount of water passing through it.
 It distributes water for municipal or irrigation
purposes through canals
Difference between dam and barrage
 According to World Commission on Dams: A
barrage is built for diverting water, a dam is
built for storing water in a reservoir to raise the
level of water considerably
 A dam stores surplus flood water and
distributes it through. Barrages have no storage
and the canals take water directly from the
rivers.
 Thus it can be said that whereas dams add
water, barrages subtract it.
Lake
 A lake is a body of relatively still fresh or salt
water of considerable size in a basin OR a lake is
a water-filled depression in the crust of the earth
 Most lakes are fed and drained by rivers and
streams
 Natural lakes are generally found in mountainous
areas and areas with ongoing glaciation
 Some lakes are artificial and constructed for
industrial, municipal or agricultural use
Channel or Canal
 An artificial waterway constructed to allow the
passage of boats or ships inland or to convey
water from the source of supply to one or more
areas.