Chapter2 EMT2024

Field and Wave Electromagnetics
Chapter 2: Vector Analysis
Prof. Ruey-Bing (Raybeam) Hwang
Institute of Communications Engineering

National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University
Hsinchu, Taiwan
Spring, 2024
Prof. Ruey-Bing (Raybeam) Hwang (Institute

Field andof Wave
Communications
Electromagnetics
Engineering National
Spring,
Yang
2024
Ming Chiao
1 /Tung
23
Vector space
Vector space I
Field Axioms: Addition

Associativity: (a + b) + c = a + (b + c)
Commutativity: a + b = b + a
Distributivity: a(b + c) = ab + ac
Identity: a + 0 = a = 0 + a
Inverses: a + (−a) = 0 = (−a) + a
Field Axioms: Multiplication
Associativity: (ab)c = a(bc)
Commutativity: ab = ba
Distributivity: (a + b)c = ac + bc
Identity: a · 1 = 1 · a = a
Inverses: a · a−1 = 1 = a−1 · a (a ̸= 0)

Field andof Wave
Communications
Electromagnetics
Spring,
Yang
2024
Ming Chiao
2 /Tung
23
Vector space
Vector space II
Definition of Vector Space

A vector space V is a set that is closed under the finite vector
addition and scalar multiplication.
Euclidean n-space Rn is called a real vector space, and Cn is called
a complex vector space.
For A, B, and C ∈ V and any scalars r, s ∈ F, the following
conditions must hold.
Commutative: A + B = B + A
Associative of vector addition: (A + B) + C = (A + B) + C
Associative of scalar multiplication: r(sA) = (rs)A
Additive identity: For all A, 0 + A = A + 0 = A.
Existence of additive inverse: For all A, there exists a −A such
that A + (−A) = 0
Field andof Wave
Communications
Electromagnetics
Spring,
Yang
2024
Ming Chiao
3 /Tung
23
Vector space
Vector space III
Distributive of scalar sums: (r + s)A = rA + sA

Distributive of vector sums: r(A + B) = rA + rB
Scalar multiplication identity: 1C = C.

Field andof Wave
Communications
Electromagnetics
Spring,
Yang
2024
Ming Chiao
4 /Tung
23
Cylindrical and Spherical coordinates
Cylindrical coordinates I
Construct orthogonal coordinates at the point on a cylinder.

The three bases are ρ̂, ϕ̂ and ẑ, they satisfy
ρ̂ × ϕ̂ = ẑ
ẑ × ρ̂ = ϕ̂
ϕ̂ × ẑ = ρ̂
Unit vector ρ̂ is along the radial direction, we have ρ̂ · x̂ = cos ϕ
and ρ̂ · ŷ = cos(π/2 − ϕ) = sin ϕ; therefore, ρ̂ = x̂ cos ϕ + ŷ sin ϕ.
Unit vector ϕ̂ can be obtained by performing
ϕ̂ = ẑ × ρ̂ = ŷ cos ϕ − x̂ sin ϕ

Field andof Wave
Communications
Electromagnetics
Spring,
Yang
2024
Ming Chiao
5 /Tung
23
Cylindrical coordinates II
Convert the vector A = Aρ ρ̂ + Aϕ ϕ̂ + Az ẑ into Cartesian

coordinates.
Ax = A · x̂ = Aρ ρ̂ · x̂ + Aϕ ϕ̂ · x̂ + Az ẑ · x̂
Ay = A · ŷ = Aρ ρ̂ · ŷ + Aϕ ϕ̂ · ŷ + Az ẑ · ŷ
Az = A · ẑ = Aρ ρ̂ · ẑ + Aϕ ϕ̂ · ẑ + Az ẑ · ẑ

Field andof Wave
Communications
Electromagnetics
Spring,
Yang
2024
Ming Chiao
6 /Tung
23
Spherical coordinates I
A point in space is expressed in terms of r (radius), θ (elevation

angle), and ϕ (azimuth angle). Parameter r is the distance from
origin to the point on a sphere; θ is the angle counted from the
z-axis; angle ϕ is counted from the x-axis on the x-y plane.
The three unit vectors: r̂, θ̂, and ϕ̂ are perpendicular to one
another.
r̂ × θ̂ = ϕ̂
ϕ̂ × r̂ = θ̂
θ̂ × ϕ̂ = r̂
A point r on the sphere can be expressed in terms of Cartesian
coordinate system written as:
r = r sin θ cos ϕx̂ + r sin θ sin ϕŷ + r cos θẑ

Field andof Wave
Communications
Electromagnetics
Spring,
Yang
2024
Ming Chiao
7 /Tung
23
Spherical coordinates II
Unit vector ϕ̂ is parallel to the x-y plane, we have

ϕ̂ · x̂ = cos(π/2 + ϕ) = − sin ϕ and ϕ̂ · ŷ = cos ϕ. Therefore, ϕ̂ can
be expressed as:
ϕ̂ = − sin ϕx̂ + cos ϕŷ
.
The unit vector θ̂ can be obtained as follows.
θ̂ = ϕ̂ × r̂ = cos θ cos ϕx̂ + cos θ sin ϕŷ − sin θẑ

Field andof Wave
Communications
Electromagnetics
Spring,
Yang
2024
Ming Chiao
8 /Tung
23
Spherical coordinates III
Convert the vector A = Ar r̂ + Aθ θ̂ + Aϕ ϕ̂ into Cartesian

coordinates.
A = Ax x̂ + Ay ŷ + Az ẑ
Ax = A · x̂ = Ar r̂ · x̂ + Aθ θ̂ · x̂ + Aϕ ϕ̂ · x̂
Ay = A · ŷ = Ar r̂ · ŷ + Aθ θ̂ · ŷ + Aϕ ϕ̂ · ŷ
Az = A · ẑ = Ar r̂ · ẑ + Aθ θ̂ · ẑ + Aϕ ϕ̂ · ẑ
We have the relationship given below:
Ax = Ar sin θ cos ϕ + Aθ cos θ cos ϕ + Aϕ (− sin ϕ)
Ay = Ar sin θ sin ϕ + Aθ cos θ sin ϕ + Aϕ cos θ

Az = Ar cos θ + Aθ (− sin θ)

Field andof Wave
Communications
Electromagnetics
Spring,
Yang
2024
Ming Chiao
9 /Tung
23
Spherical coordinates IV
Differential length: dl = drr̂ + rdθθ̂ + r sin θdϕϕ̂

rdθ = r2 sin θdθdϕ
Differential surface: ds = r sin θdϕ × |{z}
| {z }
ϕ−arc θ−arc
dr ×ds = r2 sin θdrdθdϕ

Differential volume: dv = |{z}
radial
Differential solid angle: dΩ = sin θdθdϕ
π 2π
Solid angle of a sphere: Ω = θ=0 ϕ=0 dΩ = 4π = 720(degree)
Surface area of a sphere with radius a is 4πa2 .
4π 3
Volume of a sphere with radius a is 3 a .

Field andof Wave
Communications
Electromagnetics
Spring,
Yang
2024
Ming Chiao
10 /Tung
23
Gradient, divergence and divergence theorem
Gradient of a scalar field: in rectangular coordinate

system I
Gradient operator
Gradient is an operator that changes a scalar field into a vector
field.
Definition of the gradient operator:
∂ ∂ ∂
grad := ∇ → x̂ + ŷ + ẑ
∂x ∂y ∂z
Operating on a scalar ϕ(x, y, z), we obtain:
∂ϕ ∂ϕ ∂ϕ
∇ϕ = x̂ + ŷ + ẑ
∂x ∂y ∂z

Field andof Wave
Communications
Electromagnetics
Spring,
Yang
2024
Ming Chiao
11 /Tung
23

system II
The total differential in ϕ can be expressed as:
∂ϕ ∂ϕ ∂ϕ
dϕ(x, y, z) = dx + dy + dz
∂x ∂y ∂z
The vector differential displacement is written as:
dl = x̂dx + ŷdy + ẑdz
The increase of ϕ along the direction of dl equals to the projection

of ∇ϕ along that direction, written as:
∇ϕ · dl = dϕ

Field andof Wave
Communications
Electromagnetics
Spring,
Yang
2024
Ming Chiao
12 /Tung
23

system III
Example
Find the gradient of a scalar field given below
1
Φ(r) =
|r − r′ |
where r ̸= r′
′
If we set R = |r − r |, we have
∂(1/R) ∂(1/R) ∂(1/R)

∇Φ = x̂ + ŷ + ẑ
∂x ∂y ∂z
where
∂(1/R) ∂(1/R) ∂R
=
∂x ∂R ∂x
Field andof Wave
Communications
Electromagnetics
Spring,
Yang
2024
Ming Chiao
13 /Tung
23

system IV
, and
R = [(x − x′ )2 + (y − y ′ )2 + (z − z ′ )2 ]1/2
∂R 1 1
= 2(x − x′ )
∂x 2 R
∂(1/R) 1
=− 2
∂R R
Similarity with the derivative with respect to y and z, we have:
1 R
∇Φ = − 3
[x̂(x − x′ ) + ŷ(y − y ′ ) + ẑ(z − z ′ )] = − 3
R R

Field andof Wave
Communications
Electromagnetics
Spring,
Yang
2024
Ming Chiao
14 /Tung
23

system V
Moreover, we can prove:
1 R
∇′ Φ = 3
[x̂(x − x′ ) + ŷ(y − y ′ ) + ẑ(z − z ′ )] = 3
R R
where
∂ ∂ ∂
∇′ → x̂ ′
+ ŷ ′ + ẑ ′
∂x ∂y ∂z

Field andof Wave
Communications
Electromagnetics
Spring,
Yang
2024
Ming Chiao
15 /Tung
23
Divergence and Divergence Theorem I
Divergence of a vector field: the divergence operator applies to a

vector and its outcome is a scalar. If a vector in the Cartesian
coordinates is denoted as D = Dx x̂ + Dy ŷ + Dz ẑ, we have:
∂ ∂ ∂
divD = ∇ · D = (x̂ + ŷ + ẑ ) · (Dx x̂ + Dy ŷ + Dz ẑ)
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂Dx ∂Dy ∂Dz

= + +
∂x ∂y ∂z

Divergence Theorem: V ∇ · Ddv = S D · ds

Field andof Wave
Communications
Electromagnetics
Spring,
Yang
2024
Ming Chiao
16 /Tung
23
Divergence and Divergence Theorem II
Conceptual proof:
∂Dx ∂Dy ∂Dz

∇·D= + +
∂x ∂y ∂z
The region under integration is assumed to be a cubic box has

infinitesimal volume; the differential operator can be simplified as
that of difference given below:
∂Dx Dx (xo + ∆x/2, yo , zo ) − Dx (xo − ∆x/2, yo , zo )

≈
∂x ∆x
∂Dy Dy (xo , yo + ∆y/2, zo ) − Dy (xo , yo − ∆y/2, zo )
≈
∂y ∆y
∂Dz Dz (xo , yo , zo + ∆z/2) − Dz (xo , yo , zo − ∆z/2)
≈
∂z ∆z
Field andof Wave
Communications
Electromagnetics
Spring,
Yang
2024
Ming Chiao
17 /Tung
23
Divergence and Divergence Theorem III

The volume integral becomes:
Dx (xo + ∆x/2, yo , zo ) − Dx (xo − ∆x/2, yo , zo )
∆x∆y∆z+
∆x
Dy (xo , yo + ∆y/2, zo ) − Dy (xo , yo − ∆y/2, zo )
∆x∆y∆z+
∆y
Dz (xo , yo , zo + ∆z/2) − Dz (xo , yo , zo − ∆z/2)
∆x∆y∆z
∆z
The flux of D over the 6 faces of the cubic box is:
D · x̂|(xo +∆x/2,yo ,zo ) ∆y∆z + D · −x̂|(xo −∆x/2,yo ,zo ) ∆y∆z+
D · ŷ|(xo ,yo +∆y/2,zo ) ∆x∆z + D · −ŷ|(xo ,yo −∆y/2,zo ) ∆x∆z+

D · ẑ|(xo ,yo ,zo +∆z/2) ∆x∆y + D · −ẑ|(xo ,yo ,zo −∆z/2) ∆x∆y
Notably, the surface normal vector is along the outward direction.
Field andof Wave
Communications
Electromagnetics
Spring,
Yang
2024
Ming Chiao
18 /Tung
23
Curl operator and Stokes’s Theorem
Curl operator and Stokes’s Theorem I
Curl operator applied to a vector field (in Cartesian coordinates):
∂ ∂ ∂
∇ × H = (x̂ + ŷ + ẑ ) × (Hx x̂ + Hy ŷ + Hz ẑ)
∂x ∂y ∂z
Stokes’s theorem:

∇ × H · n̂ds = H · dl
S C
We consider the integration is taken in a small square over the x-y

plane with the normal vector n̂ = ẑ; the widths along the x- and
y-directions are denoted as ∆x and ∆y (both of them → 0),
respectively. The center locates at (xo , yo ).
The term of ∇ × H · ẑ is the z-component of ∇ × H equal to
∂Hy ∂Hx
∂x − ∂y .

Field andof Wave
Communications
Electromagnetics
Spring,
Yang
2024
Ming Chiao
19 /Tung
23
Curl operator and Stokes’s Theorem II
The partial derivative can be approximated by difference given as

Hy (xo +0.5∆x)−Hy (xo −0.5∆x) x (yo −0.5∆y)
∆x − Hx (yo +0.5∆y)−H
∆y
Due to ∆x(y) → 0, the field quantities can be assumed to be
uniform within the rectangular patch. The surface integral
becomes: Hy (xo + 0.5∆x)∆y − Hy (xo − 0.5∆x)∆y − Hx (yo +
0.5∆y)∆x + Hx (yo − 0.5∆y)∆x.
The above result, in fact, equals to the line integral of H · dl along
the contour of the rectangular patch (counter-clockwise).
The proof can be extended to an arbitrary shape of surface. By
partitioning the surface into some small rectangular patches
subject to the condition of ∆x(y) → 0, the surface integral
becomes the summation of line integral of each rectangular loop.
Since the adjacent two interior edges has the opposite direction of
integration, they will be canceled out. Namely, all the net line
Field andof Wave
Communications
Electromagnetics
Spring,
Yang
2024
Ming Chiao
20 /Tung
23
Curl operator and Stokes’s Theorem III
integral in interior edges disappears. As a consequence, the line

integral comes only from the outermost contour.

Field andof Wave
Communications
Electromagnetics
Spring,
Yang
2024
Ming Chiao
21 /Tung
23
Null identities and Helmholtz’s theorem
Null identities and Helmholtz’s theorem I
Identity I: the curl of the gradient of any scalar field vanishes
∇ × (∇Φ) = 0
where Φ is a scalar function.

∇ × (∇Φ) · ds = ∇Φ · dl = dΦ = 0
S C C
Identity II: the divergence of the curl of any vector field is

identically zero.
∇ · (∇ × A) = 0

Field andof Wave
Communications
Electromagnetics
Spring,
Yang
2024
Ming Chiao
22 /Tung
23
Null identities and Helmholtz’s theorem
Null identities and Helmholtz’s theorem II
Helmholtz’s theorem states that a general vector field can be

written as the sum of the gradient of a scalar function and the curl
of a vector function.
E= −∇Φ
| {z } + ∇ × A}
| {z
irrotational solenoidal

Field andof Wave
Communications
Electromagnetics
Spring,
Yang
2024
Ming Chiao
23 /Tung
23

Chapter2 EMT2024

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Chapter2 EMT2024

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Field and Wave Electromagnetics

Chapter 2: Vector Analysis

Prof. Ruey-Bing (Raybeam) Hwang

Institute of Communications Engineering

Prof. Ruey-Bing (Raybeam) Hwang (Institute

Field Axioms: Addition

Prof. Ruey-Bing (Raybeam) Hwang (Institute

Definition of Vector Space

Vector space III

Distributive of scalar sums: (r + s)A = rA + sA

Prof. Ruey-Bing (Raybeam) Hwang (Institute

Construct orthogonal coordinates at the point on a cylinder.

Prof. Ruey-Bing (Raybeam) Hwang (Institute

Convert the vector A = Aρ ρ̂ + Aϕ ϕ̂ + Az ẑ into Cartesian

Prof. Ruey-Bing (Raybeam) Hwang (Institute

A point in space is expressed in terms of r (radius), θ (elevation

r = r sin θ cos ϕx̂ + r sin θ sin ϕŷ + r cos θẑ

Unit vector ϕ̂ is parallel to the x-y plane, we have

θ̂ = ϕ̂ × r̂ = cos θ cos ϕx̂ + cos θ sin ϕŷ − sin θẑ

Prof. Ruey-Bing (Raybeam) Hwang (Institute

Spherical coordinates III

Convert the vector A = Ar r̂ + Aθ θ̂ + Aϕ ϕ̂ into Cartesian

Ax = Ar sin θ cos ϕ + Aθ cos θ cos ϕ + Aϕ (− sin ϕ)

Ay = Ar sin θ sin ϕ + Aθ cos θ sin ϕ + Aϕ cos θ

Prof. Ruey-Bing (Raybeam) Hwang (Institute

Differential length: dl = drr̂ + rdθθ̂ + r sin θdϕϕ̂

dr ×ds = r2 sin θdrdθdϕ

Prof. Ruey-Bing (Raybeam) Hwang (Institute

Gradient of a scalar field: in rectangular coordinate

Operating on a scalar ϕ(x, y, z), we obtain:

Prof. Ruey-Bing (Raybeam) Hwang (Institute

Gradient of a scalar field: in rectangular coordinate

The total differential in ϕ can be expressed as:

The vector differential displacement is written as:

dl = x̂dx + ŷdy + ẑdz

The increase of ϕ along the direction of dl equals to the projection

Prof. Ruey-Bing (Raybeam) Hwang (Institute

Gradient of a scalar field: in rectangular coordinate

∂(1/R) ∂(1/R) ∂(1/R)

Gradient of a scalar field: in rectangular coordinate

Prof. Ruey-Bing (Raybeam) Hwang (Institute

Gradient of a scalar field: in rectangular coordinate

Moreover, we can prove:

Prof. Ruey-Bing (Raybeam) Hwang (Institute

Divergence and Divergence Theorem I

Divergence of a vector field: the divergence operator applies to a

∂Dx ∂Dy ∂Dz

Prof. Ruey-Bing (Raybeam) Hwang (Institute

Divergence and Divergence Theorem II

∂Dx ∂Dy ∂Dz

The region under integration is assumed to be a cubic box has

∂Dx Dx (xo + ∆x/2, yo , zo ) − Dx (xo − ∆x/2, yo , zo )

Divergence and Divergence Theorem III

D · x̂|(xo +∆x/2,yo ,zo ) ∆y∆z + D · −x̂|(xo −∆x/2,yo ,zo ) ∆y∆z+

D · ŷ|(xo ,yo +∆y/2,zo ) ∆x∆z + D · −ŷ|(xo ,yo −∆y/2,zo ) ∆x∆z+

Curl operator and Stokes’s Theorem I

Curl operator applied to a vector field (in Cartesian coordinates):

We consider the integration is taken in a small square over the x-y

Prof. Ruey-Bing (Raybeam) Hwang (Institute

Curl operator and Stokes’s Theorem II

The partial derivative can be approximated by difference given as

Curl operator and Stokes’s Theorem III

integral in interior edges disappears. As a consequence, the line