Ma. Patricia G. Remetio Doc. Annie Cu.

Gallardo
GZP 3101-5
Activity 13
Urogenital System in Animals

I. Illustrate the vertebrate kidney and its parts, including its ducts.

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II. Illustrate the nephron showing the mechanism of urine formation:

A. glomerular filtration

B. tubular reabsorption

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 C. tubular secretion

III. Illustrate and discuss the stages of spermatogenesis and oogenesis:

Each secondary spermatocyte enters the second meiotic division and produces two
spermatids, each containing the haploid number (23 in humans) of chromosomes. Thus, in
the two steps of meiosis each primary spermatocyte gives rise to four spermatids. A
spermatid usually contains a combination of its parents’ chromosomes but may contain all
chromosomes that the male inherited from his mother or from his father. Without further
divisions the spermatids transform into mature spermatozoa. Modifications include great

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reduction of cytoplasm, condensation of the nucleus into a head, formation of a middle
piece containing mitochondria, and a whiplike, flagellar tail for locomotion he heads
consists of a nucleus containing the chromosomes for heredity and an acrosome, a
distinctive feature of nearly all animals (exceptions include teleost fishes and certain
invertebrates). In many species, both invertebrate and vertebrate, the acrosome contains
enzymes that are released to clear a path through the cellular layers and matrix that
surround an egg. In mammals at least, one of the enzymes is hyaluronidase, which allows a
sperm to penetrate between the follicular cells surrounding an egg. A striking feature of
many invertebrate spermatozoa is the acrosome filament, an extension of varying length in
different species that projects suddenly from the sperm head when the latter first contacts
the surface of an egg. Fusion of the egg and sperm plasma membranes is the initial event
of fertilization.

Early germ cells (oogonia) increase by mitosis during embryonic development to form
diploid primary oocytes. Prior to birth, each primary oocyte enters meiosis and proceeds to
prophase of the first meiotic division. Oocytes remain arrested in this state until after
puberty, when, during each menstrual cycle, a cohort of diploid primary oocytes divide in
the first meiotic division into haploid secondary oocytes and haploid polar bodies. One or
two haploid secondary oocytes (each with attached polar body) are selected to develop
into a mature follicle or follicles that are released from the ovary during ovulation, and if
the secondary oocyte is fertilized, it enters the second meiotic division. The double-
stranded chromosomes separate into a large ootid or ovum and small second polar body.
Both ovum and second polar body now contain N number of chromosomes. Fusion of the
haploid egg nucleus with a haploid sperm nucleus produces a diploid (2 N) zygote.
IV. Illustrate and discuss the important events occurring during the (1) menstrual and
(2) ovarian cycles and (3) the hormones involved in the process.

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  ovulation, releasing an oocyte from the ovary.
 During the ovarian luteal phase, a corpus luteum (“yellow body” for its appearance
in cow ovaries Progesterone (“before carrying [gestation]”), as its name implies,
stimulates the uterus to undergo final maturational changes that prepare it for
gestation (the secretory phase of the uterus).
 GnRH from the hypothalamus, and LH and FSH from the anterior pituitary, are
controlled by negative feedback of ovarian steroids (and inhibin).
 positive feedback mechanisms are rare in the body, because they move events
away from stable set points.

Sex hormones. These three sex hormones show the basic four-ring steroid structure. The
main female sex hormone, estradiol (an estrogen), is a C 18 (18-carbon) steroid with an
aromatic A ring (first ring to left). The main male sex hormone, testosterone (an androgen),
is a C 19 steroid with a carbonyl group (C=O) on the A ring. The female sex hormone
progesterone is a C 21 steroid, also bearing a carbonyl group on the A ring.
V. Complete the table:
A. Urogenital system in Invertebrate Group

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Invertebrates Excretory Mode of Type of Reproductive Copulatory
organ / type of water & Fertilization structures (intromittent)
kidney waste and and ducts organ
excretion Reproductive
method
Protozoans Contractile Contractile Varied, - Absent
vacuoles vacuoles including
expel excess asexual and
water and sexual
waste reproduction
Poriferans Coelomocytes Water Mostly - Absent
currents asexual
through reproduction;
body walls some have
sexual
reproduction
Coelenterates Nematocysts, Diffusion, Mostly Gonads, Absent
Gastrodermal some sexual, with gametes,
cells species have variations in gastrovascular
specialized modes cavity
excretory
cells
Platyhelminths Protonephridia Flame cells Mostly Gonads, cirrus
actively sexual, with gametes,
pump waste variations in gastrovascular
modes cavity
Nematodes Renette cells Simple Mostly Ovaries, copulatory
diffusion sexual, with testes, spicules.
separate reproductive
sexes in ducts
some species
Annelids Metanephridia Filtration Varied, Ovaries, clitellum
and active includes testes,
transport sexual and reproductive
asexual ducts
reproduction
Mollusks Metanephridia Filtration Mostly Gonads, gypsobelum
(some also and active sexual, with gonoducts,
have nephridia) transport external mantle cavity

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 fertilization
in some
Arthropods Malpighian Filtration Varied, Ovaries, phallus,
tubules and active includes testes, pedipalps,
transport sexual and reproductive gonopods
asexual ducts
reproduction
Echinoderms Water vascular Diffusion Mostly Gonads, Absent
system with sexual, with gametes
tube feet external
fertilization

B. Urogenital system in Vertebrate Groups

Vertebrate Excretory Mode of Type of Reproductive Copulatory Sex Glands

organ / type water & Fertilization structures (intromittent) (male &
of kidney waste and and ducts organ female)
excretion Reproductive (male &
And other method female)
accessory
glands
Fishes Pronephros, Filtration fertilization in Gonads usually Testes in
mesonephros, and urine many species; (testes and absent, as males and
or excretion internal ovaries) fertilization ovaries in
metanephros through fertilization in release often occurs females.
nephrons some gametes into externally
the water for
external
fertilization.
Amphibians Mesonephros Filtration External Testes and Cloaca is Testes in
and and urine fertilization ovaries used for males and
metanephros excretion (mostly), paired with copulation ovaries in
through some internal oviduct females.
nephrons fertilization
Reptiles Metanephros Filtration internal Testes and Hemipenes in Testes in
and urine fertilization ovaries are males males and
excretion with varied present, and ovaries in
through modes copulatory females.
nephrons organs like

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 hemipenes in
males.
Avians Metanephros Filtration Internal Testes and Cloaca is Testes in
and urine fertilization ovaries, with used for males and
excretion with external oviducts in copulation. ovaries in
through egg laying females for females.
nephrons egg
formation.
Mammals Metanephros Filtration internal Testes and Penis in Testes in
and urine fertilization ovaries, with males. males and
excretion with varied uterus and ovaries in
through modes other females.
nephrons reproductive
structures in
females.

VI. Answer the following:

a. What are the hormones involved and the role they played in the urine
formation?
 Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH or Vasopressin) - ADH is produced by the
hypothalamus and released by the posterior pituitary gland. It regulates water
reabsorption in the kidneys.
 Aldosterone - It regulates sodium and potassium ion balance in the blood and,
consequently, water balance.
 Atrial Natriuretic Peptide (ANP) - It acts to decrease sodium reabsorption in the
distal tubules and collecting ducts, inhibiting water reabsorption.
 Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone System (RAAS) - The RAAS is a complex hormonal
system that regulates blood pressure and fluid balance.
 Parathyroid Hormone (PTH) - It indirectly influences urine formation by promoting
calcium reabsorption in the distal tubules and inhibiting phosphate reabsorption.
PTH helps to maintain calcium balance in the body.
b. Discuss (compare & contrast) the following types of kidney; Illustrate using a
diagram; Label its parts and ducts.
i. The ancestral kidney: holonephros

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 The holonephros is considered the ancestral
condition of vertebrate kidneys, representing a
simpler and more primitive form that predates the
evolution of the pronephros, opisthonephros, and
metanephros. It served as a foundational structure
for the evolution of more specialized kidneys in
later vertebrates.

ii. The larval kidney:

pronephros to develop
during vertebrate
embryonic development
and is considered more
advanced than the
ancestral holonephros.
The pronephros consists
of segmented tubules
called nephrons. Each
nephron includes a renal
corpuscle and a tubular
structure, and the
nephrons connect to a
pronephric duct. The
pronephros is often functional during the larval stage but is typically
transient and replaced by more advanced kidneys during further
development. Its main function is excretion, but it is not as efficient as
the kidneys found in later stages of development.

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 iii. Kidney of anamniotes: opisthonephros

The opisthonephros follows the pronephros during

embryonic development in anamniotes (jawed
vertebrates without an amnion). The opisthonephros is
more developed than the pronephros, with additional
nephrons and a longer pronephric duct. It retains the
segmented structure seen in the pronephros.The
opisthonephros is more functional than the pronephros
and contributes to excretion and osmoregulation. It
represents an evolutionary advancement in kidney
development for anamniotes.

iv. Kidney of amniotes: metanephros

The metanephros is the final and most advanced

stage of embryonic kidney development in
amniotes (reptiles, birds, and mammals). The
metanephros is highly organized, consisting of
millions of nephrons with renal corpuscles, tubules,
and collecting ducts. It is connected to the ureter,
which carries urine to the urinary bladder. The
metanephros is the main functional kidney in
amniotes, with high efficiency in regulating water
and electrolyte balance and excreting waste
products. It represents the pinnacle of kidney
evolution among vertebrates.

C. Discuss the development and embryonic origin of the vertebrate excretory

organ and the genitals.
Development of the Vertebrate Genitals

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Gonadal Ridge Formation
Embryonic Origin: The gonads, which develop into the testes or ovaries, originate from the
gonadal ridges. These ridges form from the thickening of the intermediate mesoderm
along the ventral body wall.

Primordial Germ Cells (PGCs)

Embryonic Origin: Primordial germ cells, which give rise to sperm or eggs, originate in the
yolk sac and migrate to the gonadal ridges during early embryonic development.
Differentiation of Gonads:

Embryonic Origin: The gonadal ridges differentiate into testes or ovaries under the
influence of specific genes and hormonal signals.

Development of Male Genitalia

Embryonic Origin: In males, the presence of the SRY gene on the Y chromosome triggers
the differentiation of the gonads into testes. Testosterone and anti-Müllerian hormone
(AMH) secreted by the developing testes lead to the development of male reproductive
structures, including the epididymis, vas deferens, and external genitalia.

Development of Female Genitalia

Embryonic Origin: In females, the absence of the SRY gene results in the differentiation of
the gonads into ovaries. The absence of testosterone and AMH allows for the development
of female reproductive structures, including the fallopian tubes, uterus, and external
genitalia.

Summary:
The development of the vertebrate excretory organ (kidneys) and genitals involves a series
of coordinated events originating from the intermediate mesoderm. The evolution of these
structures reflects the adaptation of vertebrates to different environmental challenges, and
their development is tightly regulated by genetic and hormonal signals. The kidneys
progress from the pronephros to the mesonephros and finally to the metanephros, which
is the definitive kidney in amniotes. Similarly, the development of genitals involves the
differentiation of the gonads into testes or ovaries, leading to the formation of male or
female reproductive structures, respectively.
D. Illustrate and discuss the neural control of excretion and the reproductive
processes.
Hypothalamus-Pituitary-Gonadal (HPG) Axis

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  The HPG axis regulates reproductive processes by controlling the release of
gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH), luteinizing hormone (LH), and follicle-
stimulating hormone (FSH).
 The hypothalamus secretes GnRH, which stimulates the anterior pituitary to release
LH and FSH.
 In females, LH and FSH regulate the menstrual cycle, ovulation, and the
development of ovarian follicles.
 In males, LH stimulates the testes to produce testosterone, while FSH stimulates
sperm production.
Hypothalamus-Pituitary-Adrenal (HPA) Axis:

 The HPA axis is involved in stress responses and can impact reproductive processes
indirectly.
 Stress can lead to the release of cortisol from the adrenal glands, which, in turn,
may suppress the HPG axis, affecting menstrual cycles and fertility in females and
sperm production in males.
Central Nervous System Control of Sexual Behavior:

 The CNS, particularly the limbic system, is involved in the regulation of sexual
behavior and arousal.
 Emotional and psychological factors, along with sensory stimuli, can influence the
activation of sexual centers in the brain, leading to the release of neurotransmitters
like dopamine and serotonin that play a role in sexual arousal
References:

Hickman, C. P., Jr, Cleveland, H. J., Keen, S. L., Larson, A., Eisenhour, D. J., I’Anson, H., &
Roberts, L. S. (2019).

Hickman, Integrated Principles of Zoology, 2020, 18e, Student Edition (High School). McGraw-
Hill Companies.

Miller, S. A., & Tupper, T. A. (2018). Zoology 11e.

Molnar, C. (2015, May 14). 22.3. Excretion systems. Pressbooks.

Pechenik, J. A. (2014b). Biology of the invertebrates.

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