PARASITOLOGY  Size varies (largest common intestinal

nematode- Ascaris lumbricoides)

METAZOA  Body cavity is pseudocoel, lack circulatory
system
 Digestive system is complete (one way)
 Different nematodes have different mouth
 Reproductive system is complete
 Males are generally smaller than females
 Males’ posterior end is curved ventrally
 Males have copulatory spicules
Protozoa  Male and female reproductive organs are
o Unicellular parasites complete
o Amoeba, flagellates, ciliates and sporozoa

Metazoa/Helminthes
o multicellular animal parasites
o Nemathelminthes
Nematodes- roundworms
o Platyhelminthes- flatworms
Trematodes- flukes
Cestodes- tapeworms Three basic morphologic forms of Nematodes:
o Eggs
Helminthes -eggs vary in size and shape
 Large multicellular organisms that are -female sex cells fertilize
generally visible to the naked eye in their o Larvae/juvenile worms
adult stages -typically long and slender
 Either free living or parasitic in nature -growing larva complete the maturation
 In adult form, they cannot multiply in humans process
 Two phyla: Platyhelminthes and o Adult worms
Nemathelminthes -larva result into emergence of adult worms

Female nematodes
Nematodes A. Vivaparous- gives birth to larva
 Class under Nemathelminthes B. Oviparous- lay eggs
 Two major categories: Intestinal and Tissue o Unsegmented eggs
Nematodes o Segmented eggs
o Embryonated eggs
C. Ovoviviparous- lay eggs and hatch
immediately

Egg (3 Layers)
 Vitelline membrane
 Chorionic (true shell) or chitinous layer
 Albuminous layer

Larva
 Rhabditoid
 Filariform
Nematodes
 The largest number of helminths parasitizing Adult
man  Male
 Unsegmented worms, elongate and  Female
cylindrical , both ends are often pointed
Mode of Transmission Eggs
 Ingestion  Oval eggs, flattened on one side (D-shaped)
 Skin penetration  Consists of a developing larva surrounded by
 Inhalation a conspicuous double-layered, thick-walled
 Blood sucking insects/vectors colorless shell
 Inside the egg is a tadpole-like embryo that
Portal of Exit becomes fully mature outside the host within
 Feces 4-6 hours
 Blood
 Sputum Adults
 Urine Adult female
 Yellowish-white equipped with primitive
Clinical Symptoms organ systems, including a digestive tract,
Three possible factors may contribute to the ultimate intestinal tract, and reproductive structures
severity of a nematode infection:  Possesses a clear, pointed tail that resembles
1. The number of worms present a pinhead
2. The length of time the infection persists
3. The overall health of the host

*Some infections with Nematodes have been known

to last up to 12 months or longer, others for 10-15
years or more.

Typical clinical manifestations: abdominal pain, Adult male

diarrhea, nausea, vomiting, fever, eosinophilia, skin  Smaller than the adult female
irritation/formation of skin blisters, muscle
involvement Infective stage: embryonated eggs
Habitat: large intestine (cecum and appendix)
Parasitic infection-increase in eosinophils
Bacterial infection- infection in neutrophils
Viral infection- Increase in lymphocytes
Allergies- increase in either eosinophils/basophils

Enterobius vermicularis
 Common names: pinworm (females),
seatworm (males)
 Common associated disease and condition
names: Enterobiasis, pinworm infection,
oxyuriasis
 Oviparous
 Clinical Manifestation
 Anal itch (pruritus ani)
 Inflammation of the anal and/ or vaginal
areas

Laboratory Diagnosis
Graham’s scotch adhesive tape swab (perianal
cellulose tape swab)
o Gives the highest percentage of positive
results
o Low-cost diagnostic method
o Easy to perform
o Very sensitive and specific

Prevention and Control

1. Gravid female E. vermicularis would deposit
 Practicing proper personal hygiene
eggs in perianal folds of an individual
 Applying an ointment to an infected perianal
2. Infection would occur via self-inoculation
area to help prevent egg dispersal into the
(transfer of eggs to the mouth with the use of
environment
hands) or through exposure of eggs to
 Avoid scratching the infected area (to avoid
environment
autoinfection)
3. Larvae would hatch in the small intestine
(cecum and appendix),
Ascaris lumbricoides
Time interval of the infected eggs being
ingested and the oviposition-1 month  Common names: Large/giant intestinal
Adult life span- 2 months roundworm, roundworm of man
4. Gravid female would migrate nocturnally  Common associated disease and condition
outside the anus and it’s the time it would lay names: Ascariasis, roundworm infection
eggs while crawling on the skin of perianal  Oviparous
area
5. The larvae contained in the eggs would then Unfertilized eggs
develop in 4-6 hours under optimum o Typical oblong egg with a thin shell
conditions o Egg is usually corticated (has outer
mammilated, albuminous coating)
Modes of Transmission
 Anus to mouth by finger contamination
 Infected or contaminated fomites
 Inhalation
 Retroinfection
 Autoreinfection
 Infective stage: embryonated egg containing 3rd
Fertilized eggs stage rhabditoid larva
o More rounded than the unfertilized egg Habitat: small intestine
o Egg is usually decorticated (no
mammilations) Mode of infection: ingestion of infective eggs

Clinical Manifestations (Ascariasis)

 Abdominal pain, vomiting, fever, distention
 Mature worms may obstruct the intestine,
appendix, liver, or bile duct
 Worms in the lungs may cause low-grade
fever, cough, eosinophilia, and/or pneumonia

Laboratory Diagnosis: stool exam

Prevention and Control

 Avoidance of using human feces as fertilizer
 Proper sanitation and personal hygiene
practices

Adults
 Creamy white color with a tint of pink
 Fine striations are visible on the cuticle
 Largest known intestinal nematodes
Male- slender and possesses a prominent incurved
tail

1. Adult worms male and female live in the

Female- tail resembles a pencil lead in thickness
lumen of the small intestine
2. A female would produce approx. 200,000
eggs per day which are passed with the feces
3. Unfertilized eggs may be ingested but are not
infective while fertilized eggs develop into
infective stage. Larvae would developed to
infectivity within the fertile eggs after 18 days
to several weeks
4. After infective eggs are swallowed, the larva
would hatch
5. It then enters the circulation and migrate to
the lungs and mature further for 10-14 days
 6. It would pass to the throat and go to the small
intestine and develop into adult worms.
Between 2-3 months, they would oviposit

Hookworms
Necator americanus
Common name: New World hookworm Adults
 Grayish-white to pink in color with a thick
Ancylostoma duodenale cuticle
Common name: Old World hookworm  Have hooks on their anterior end/mouth

Common associated disease and condition names: Males- equipped with a prominent, posterior,
Hookworm infection, ancylostomiasis, necatoriasis umbrella-like structure that aids in copulation,
known as a copulatory bursa

Eggs Buccal capsule

 May be unsegmented or show a visible  N. americanus- contains a pair of cutting
embryonic cleavage (two-, four-, or eight-cell plates
stage)
 Thin, smooth, colorless shell provides
protection for the developing worm

Rhabditiform Larvae- actively feeding larva

o Presence of a long oral cavity known as a
buccal cavity or buccal capsule and a small
genital primordium  A. duodenale- consists of actual teeth

Filariform Larvae- infective, nonfeeding larva

o Emerges after the rhabditiform larva
completes its second molt Infective stage: filariform larva
o Has a distinct pointed tail
Habitat: small intestine

Mode of infection: skin penetration of filariform

larva

Clinical Manifestation
 Ground itch (allergic itching at the site of
hookworm penetration)
  Larvae migration into the lungs: sore throat,
bloody sputum, wheezing, headache, mild
pneumonia with cough
 Early infection: abdominal pain or other
gastrointestinal symptoms during
 Iron deficiency anemia
Laboratory diagnosis: stool exam
Prevention and Control
 Proper handling and disposal of fecal
material
 Adequate protection of the skin from
contaminated soil
 Prompt and thorough treatment of
infected persons is essential
1. Eggs are passed in the stool under favorable
conditions (moisture, warmth and shade)
2. Larvae would hatch in 1-2 days
3. After it hatches, rhabditoid larva are released
4. After 5-10 days usually after 2 molds, they
become the filariform larva
5. Filariform larva then penetrate to the skin
6. This would survive 3-4 weeks in favorable
environmental conditions
7. They are carried to the blood, vessels, heart,
lungs and go to the small intestine
Trichinella spiralis (Intestinal & Tissue Nematodes)
 Common name: Trichina worm, threadworm
 Common associated disease and condition
names: Trichinosis, trichinellosis
 Viviparous
Larva
 As a burrowing tip (spear like)
 Mature larva has digestive tract
 Not fully developed reproductive organ
Adult
 Small worm with a slender anterior
Infective stage: Encysted larvae
Diagnostic stage: Encysted or non-encysted larvae
in biopsy or autopsy specimens
Habitat: small intestine
Mode of infection: eating raw or undercooked meat
of animals infected with the larvae
Clinical Manifestation
 Primary symptoms: nausea, diarrhea,
vomiting, fatigue, fever, and abdominal pain
 Secondary symptoms: headaches, fevers,
chills, cough, swelling, of the face and eyes,
aching joints and muscle pains, itchy skin,
diarrhea or constipation
Laboratory Diagnosis
 Muscle biopsy
 Bachman’s test (intradermal skin test)
Prevention and Control
 Thorough cooking of meat
 Proper storage of meat (i.e., -15 C (59 F) for
20 days or -30 C (86 F) for 6 days)
 Avoid feeding pork scraps to hogs
Filariae
Tissue Nematodes (live in tissue/lymphatic system)
Wuchereria bancrofti
 Common name: Bancroft’s filaria
 Common associated disease and condition
names: Bancroft’s filariasis or elephantiasis
Definitive host: humans
Intermediate host: mosquitoes
Microfilariae
  Thin and delicate sheath surrounds the
organism
 Numerous nuclei are contained in the body
 Cephalic or anterior end is blunt and round
 Posterior or tail end culminates in a point that
is free of nuclei

Adult
1. Mosquito takes a blood meal and the infected
 White and assume a threadlike appearance
mosquito would introduce the 3rd stage
filarial larvae onto the skin of the human host
Infective stage to man: third-stage infective larvae
where they penetrate into the bite wound
2. They developed in adults that commonly
Infective stage to the mosquito: microfilariae
reside in the lymphatics
3. The microfilariae would migrate into the
Habitat: The adult parasites reside in the lymphatics
lymph and blood channels moving actively
of the human host
through lymph and blood
4. Mosquito takes a blood meal and it would
Mode of infection: bite of an infectious mosquito
then ingest the microfilariae
5. After ingestion, the microfilariae would lose
Clinical Manifestations
their sheaths and some of them work their
 Fever, chills, and eosinophilia, formation of
way through the wall of mosquito’s midgut
granulomatous lesions, lymphangitis,
and the others would develop into 1st stage
lymphadenopathy, elephantiasis (swelling of
larva. They would migrate to the thoracic
the lower extremities, genitals, breast)
muscles and develop into 1st stage larva
6. It would then develop to 3rd stage infective
Laboratory Diagnosis: fresh Giemsa-stained blood
larvae
7. The infective larvae would migrate to the
Prevention and Control
mosquito’s proboscis
 Personal protection when entering known
8. Eventually it could infect another human
endemic areas
when the mosquito takes a blood meal
 Destroying breeding areas of the mosquitoes
 Using insecticides when appropriate
 Avoid mosquito infested areas
 Mosquito netting and insect repellants