PHYSIOLOGY AND TOXICOLOGY
INSECT STAGES, GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT
Ecdysis/Molting
An insect’s skeleton is on the outside of its body is called
Exoskeleton. It serves as a support for muscles and internal organs as
well as covering. As the insect’s rigid exoskeleton cannot expand, it
must be shed and replaced with a larger one as insect grows. This
process is called molting.
Molting and culticle secretion are governed by a steroid
hormone called, ecdysone. The hormone is secreted by the
prothoracic gland in the thorax, which in turn controlled by a
hormone from the brain. Whenever the brain receives the appropriate
stimulus, the insect will molt. A new cuticle forms under the old one,
then the old exoskeleton splits and the insect wriggles
its way out. The new cuticle is soft at first. The insect may swallow
air to expand its own volume and stretch the new exoskeleton before
in hardens, usually within about an hour.
The molting may occur depending on type of insect growth.
Those that show determinate pattern of growth have a fixed number
of molts, whereas those that have indeterminate growth continue to
molt indefinitely. The developmental stage of an anthropods between
molts is called instar.
The stages of molting
1. Apolysis
Molting hormones are released into the haemolymph (is a fluid tissue
found in organisms with open circulatory systems which contains
nutrients, biomolecules, and ions) and the old cuticle separates from
the underlying epidermal cells. The epidermis increases in size due to
mitosis and then the new cuticle is produced. Enzymes secreted by the
epidermal cells digest the old endocuticle, not affecting the old
sclerotised exocuticle.
2. Ecdysis
This begins with the splitting of the old cuticle, usually starting in the
midline of the thorax’s dorsal side. The rupturing force is mostly from
haemolymph pressure that has been forced into thorax by abdominal
muscle contractions caused by the insect swallowing air or water.
After this the insect wriggles out of the old cuticle.
2. Sclerotisation
After emergence the new cuticle is soft and this a particularly
vulnerable time for the insect as its hard protective coating is missing.
After an hour or two the exocuticle hardens and darkens. The wings
expand by the force of haemolymph into the wing veins.
THE TYPES AND STAGES OF INSECTS
Metamorphosis is a process by which animals undergo extreme,
rapid physical changes some time after birth.
Ametabolous: Little or No Metamorphosis
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-these insects are primitively wingless where the only difference
between adult and nymph is size.
When they emerge from the egg, immature ametabolous
insects look like tiny versions of their adult counterparts. They
continue molting and growing until they reach sexual maturity.
Ex. springtails, silverfish, and firebrats
Hemimetabolous: Simple or Gradual
-Incomplete metamorphosis (Hemi
means part)
-the terrestrial young are called
nymphs ans the aquatic young are
called naiads.
- it is marked by three life stages:
egg, nymph, adult
Growth of hemimetabolous insects occurs during the nymph
stage. Nymphs resembles the adults in most ways, particularly in
appearance, exhibit similar behaviors, and typically share the same
habitat and food as adults. In winged insects, nymphs develop
external wings as they mold and grow. Fully-formed wings mark their
emergence into the adult stage of the life cycle.
Ex. Grasshopper, mantids, cockroaches, termites, dragonflies,
true bugs
Holometabolous: Complete Metamorphosis
- It is marked by four life
stages: egg, larva, pupa,
adult--- which exhibit
distinctly different
appearance
The larva of holometabolous insect bear no resemblance to their adult
counterparts. Their habitats and food sources may be entirely different
from adults as well. Larva grow and molt, usually multiple times .
The pupal stage is usually considered a resting phase, although many
active changes are occurring internally. The larval tissues and organs
break down entirely, then reorganize into the adult form. After
reorganization is complete, the pupa molts to reveal a mature adult
with functional wings.
Ex. Butterflies, moths, ants, bees, bettles
INSECT REPRODUCTION
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Reproduction
- a biological process by which new individual organisms are
produced from their parents.
- a fundamental feature of all known life
TYPES OF REPRODUCTION IN INSECTS
1. Parthenogenesis- It is the ability of the females to reproduces
without fertilization/ copulation with males. This usually occurs due
to the genetic characters, due to heredity, failure in finding mate,
hormonal changes within the body and weather factors.
Classification of parthenogenesis
Sporadic - occurs occasionally (ex. Silkworm)
Constant- occurs regularly (ex. Thrips)
Cyclic- alternation of generation where parthenogenesis occur in
alternation with sexual reproduction (ex. Aphids)
Parthenogenesis can occur naturally in several orders of insects, and
can conveniently be classifies according to the sex of offspring which
develop from unfertilized egg:
Arrhenotoky- only males are produced (ex. Hymenoptera)
Thelytoky- only females are produced (ex. Acridid)
Amphytoky- both females and males are produced (ex.
Hymenopterans)
2. Oviparity - insect reproduce by laying eggs by the female or any
substrate either singly in mass or in group which later hatch and
produce young ones. (ex. Moths and butterfly)
3. Viviparity- Eggs complete their embryonic development and hatch
within the body of the female. The female gives birth to the young
ones.
Four types of viviparity
 Ovo-viviparity - insect retain the eggs within the genital track
until the eggs are ready to hatch or giving birth to the young ones.
However, immediately after hatching, the young ones will be released
outside (ex. Thysanoptera)
 Adenoparous viviparity - eggs have sufficient yolk, complete
their embryonic development and retain in the uterus. Eggs hatch and
the young ones get nourishment from milk glands (a milk contains
lipids and proteins). When young ones are fully developed, it emerges
from the mother and forms into a pupa within a short time and no
feeding phase is seen.
 Pseudoplancental viviparity- it is a phenomenon where insect
have eggs with little or no yolk. Hatching takes place within the
mother and the nourishment for the young one is received through
embryonic maternal structure called pseudoplacenta
 Haemocoelous viviparity - eggs are retained within the
haemocoel and the embryonic development as well as the
nourishment of young ones takes place through the transfer of nutrient
from the haemolymph of mother. After development, young ones
comes out either through genital canal or by the ruoture in the wallsof
the parent.
4. Polyembryony- type of reproduction where insects reproduce by
giving birth to 2 or more young ones from a single egg.
5. Hermaphroditism- is a type of reproduction where both male and
female gonads are present in the same individual.