MODULE 1: PLANT HORMONES, RESPONSES, AND  Phloem

FEEDBACK MECHANISM - composed of sieve tubes, which are closely

 Growth associated with companion cells to facilitate the
- is defined as the progress of a person in weight, movement of materials across the cell cytoplasm
age, size, and habits. PLANT HORMONE
- is considered as the increase in the size of an organ - a naturally-occurring compound that regulates
or cell change in physiology, growth, or development of the
 Development plant.
- refers to overall changes in a physical organ or the TYPES OF PLANT HORMONES
structure that results in improved functioning of the 1. Auxin (Produces Roots)
physical organ - Growth of plant in response to the environment,
OPEN FORM OF GROWTH production of roots
- the growth where the new cells are always added Tropism: a plant’s response to environment
to the plant body by the activity of the meristem  Phototropism - response to light
PLANT STRUCTURE  Geotropism - response to gravity
 stem  Thigmotropism - response to touch
– support the leaves and flowers 2. Cytokinin
- main pathway for the transport of water and - Mitosis of new cells;
nutrients to other plant parts Stimulates seed germination and new shoot growth
PARTS OF THE SHOOT SYSTEM 3. Gibberellin
 apical meristem - Controls yearly cycles (flowering/bolting, seeding
– located at the tip of the main stem and site of new and dormancy exiting) Rapid growth of stems and
growth (terminal bud) seeds.
- primary growth because it increases the length of Why is it called Gibberellin?
the stem and makes the plant taller Japanese rice farmers discovered a fungus
 lateral meristem (Gibberella fujikuroi) that caused an increase in this
– surrounds the stem and is responsible for the stem hormone.
secondary growth (width and thickness) They named this hormone, “Gibberellin”, after the
Plant growth is indeterminate fungus.
 Meristems 4. Abscisic Acid
- region of cells capable of division and growth in - triggers the plant to enter dormancy.
plants - The flowers, seeds, and leaves fall from the trees
CELLULAR RESPONSE AND MOLECULAR 5. Ethylene (Death Hormone)
INTERACTION - stimulates fruits to ripen
response of plant cells varies depending on the - only plant hormone that exists in a gas form.
amount of water present in their surroundings - It can be synthesized from anywhere in the plant.
 Hypotonic solution REPRODUCTION AND MODERN
- If a cell is placed in a , there will be a net flow of BIOTECHNOLOGICAL APPLICATION
water into the cell, and the cell will gain volume.  Agrobacterium tumefaciens
 isotonic solution - causes crown gall disease on various plant species
- If a cell is placed , there will be no net flow of water by introducing its T-DNA into the genome
into or out of the cell, and the cell’s volume will
remain stable. MODULE 2.1: ANIMAL FORMS AND REPRODUCTION
 hypertonic solution ANIMAL REPRODUCTION
- If a cell is placed in a , there will be a net flow of Two modes of reproduction
water out of the cell, and the cell will lose volume. 1. Asexual Reproduction
PHOTOSYNTHESIS EQUATION - does not involve the union of gametes
- exact clones of the parents
DIFFERENT OF ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
 Budding
TRANSPORT SYSTEM IN PLANTS - a new organism develops from an outgrowth called
 Xylem bud that grows in the specific site of the body
- composed of dead lignified cells connected end to
end
- this allows the transport of water and minerals in
the upward direction  Binary fission
- replication of genetic material by splitting into two
genetically identical cells
 Fragmentation - a process in which the neural plate bends up and
- new organism grows from fragment called later fuses to form the hollow tube that will
autotomy eventually differentiate
 Regeneration
- ability to grows back the missing parts MODULE 2.2: DIVERSITY OF DIGESTIVE ENZYMES
2. Sexual Reproduction Intracellular vs Extracellular Digestion
- a process which involves the union of gametes 1. intracellular digestion
- involves the gametes of two parents - occurs inside the food vacuoles within the cell
 Fertilization  Phagocytosis
- union of the male and female gametes to produce - process by which certain living cells called
fertilized eggs phagocytes ingest or engulf other cells or particles
EUKARYOTIC CELLS 2. extracellular digestion
- composed of nucleus and membrane-bound - occurs outside the cell in the lumen of the
organelles alimentary canal or on the decaying organic
 Isogamy materials
- Isogamy is a type of sexual reproduction where  Gastrovascular Activity
male and female gametes are similar in size and - food goes in and waste comes out that same
shape, opening, making it a two-way digestive tract
 Anisogamy  Alimentary Canal
- describes a form of sexual reproduction wherein - muscular hollow continuous tubular organ that
males and females produce sex cells, or gametes, of starts at the mouth and terminates at the anus and
different sizes is responsible for the digestion
SOME ORGANISMS CHANGE GENDER! HOW DOES FOOD TRAVEL IN ____
 Protandry  Annelids
- male to female - in earthworms, the pharynx pumps (peristalsis)
 Protogyny food and soil into a tube called the esophagus. The
- female to male food moves through the crop where it can be stored,
ANIMAL REPRODUCTIVE DEVELOPMENT and through the gizzard, where it is ground into
1. Direct Development smaller pieces.
- involves when an embryo develops into a mature  Nematodes
individual without proceeding into larval stage - move by contraction of the longitudinal muscles.
 Eutherian Mammals  Arthropods
- also known as placental mammals, like humans - ingest food through their mouth using chelicerate
 Monotremes and mandibulae
- egg laying mammals such as platypus and echidnas  Chelicerates
- also known as oviparous mammals - have a pair of chelicerae and lack mouthparts for
 Marsupials chewing food.
- also known as viviparous mammals  Mandibulates
- a type of mammal where babies are born before - have appendages called mandibles that can be
they are fully developed used to chew food.
2. Indirect Development CIRCULATION AND GAS EXCHANGE
- involves one or more intermediate larval forms TERRESTRIAL ANIMALS
before the adult form is attained - have their respiratory surfaces inside the body and
 Gametogenesis connected to the outside by a series of tubes
- formation of the gametes.  Tracheae
 Fertilization - these tubes that carry air directly to cells for gas
- male and female gametes fuse to form a zygote exchange.
 Blastula  Lungs
- a hollow ball of cells that forms between 5-8 days - found mainly in vertebrates
after fertilization. This will attach to the lining of the - found inside of the body wall and connect to the
uterus cell division continues. outside by a series of tubes and small openings.
 Gastrula
- The hollow ball of cells known as the blastula
begins to fold inward on one side.
 Organogenesis AQUATIC ANIMALS
- process of cell differentiation and formation of all - Oxygen is already dissolved in the water
major organs once the germ layers have formed - Oxygen has low solubility in water
 Neurulation
- The challenge is to provide sufficient surface area BLOOD CELL
for exchange Blood Type Groups
 Gills
- very efficient at removing oxygen from water
- greatly increase the surface area for gas exchange.
- are folded outgrowths containing blood vessels
covered by a thin epithelial layer.
ANIMAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
Functions of the Nervous System
- Control center for all body activities
- Responds and adapts to changes that occur both
 Rhesus (Rh) factor
inside and outside the body
- is an inherited protein found on the surface of red
 Neurons
blood cells
- microscopic nerve cells that make up the brain,
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
spinal cord, and nerves
- an integrated system of organs / glands which
- the basic cell of the nervous system
involve the release of extracellular signaling
Parts of Neurons
molecules known as hormones.
 Cell body
 Hypothalamus (Oxytoxin)
- with nucleus
- It controls heartbeat, temperature, water balance,
 Dendrites
as well as glandular secretions of the pituitary gland.
- fibers that receive messages from other neurons
 Pineal Gland (Melatonin)
 Axons
- It appears to play a major role in sexual
- fibers that send messages to other neurons
development, hibernation in animals, metabolism,
TWO DIVISION OF NERVOUS SYSTEM
and seasonal breeding.
 Central Nervous System (CNS)
Melatonin
- includes the brain and spinal cord
 Adrenal Gland
 Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
- chiefly responsible for regulating the stress
- includes all of the nerves that branch out from the
response through the synthesis
brain and spinal cord
 Pancreas
TWO MAJOR PART OF CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
- Insulin and glucagon work together to maintain a
 Brain: a mass of 10 - 100 billion neurons located
steady level of glucose, or sugar, in the blood
inside the skull
 Testes/Ovary
 Spinal Cord: Column of nerves from the brain to
- These organs are responsible for producing the
tailbone – protected by vertebrae of the spine
sperm and ova
THREE DIVISION OF BRAIN
 forebrain
The gonads, the primary reproductive organs, are
- is home to sensory processing,
the testes in the male and the ovaries in the female
 Midbrain
- plays a role in motor movement and audio/visual
HOMEOSTASIS
processing.
homeo- = "like, resembling, of the same kind";
 hindbrain
stasis = “standing still”
- is involved with autonomic functions such as
- means to maintain body functions within specific
respiratory rhythms and sleep.
livable ranges, adjusting to internal and external
TWO MAJOR DIVISION OF PERIPHERAL NERVOUS
changes
SYSTEM
Function
 Somatic Nervous System
- responding to changes in the body's environment
– control such as skeletal muscle and sensory
- exchanging materials between the environment
neuron skin (conscious)
and cells
 Autonomic Nervous System
- metabolizing foods
– involuntary muscles such as breathing and
- integrating all of the body's diverse activities
digestion

RESPONSIBILITIES OF PNS
STIMULUS, OR PHYSIOLOGICAL VARIABLE
 Sensory nerves
- A detectable change happens in the environment
- carry messages from body to brain (pain, pressure,
 Receptors
temperature)
- convert environmental stimuli into electrical nerve
 Motor nerves
signals
– carry messages from brain to body to respond
- is the body structure that determines the normal
range of the variable, or set point
 Effector
- is the cell, tissue, or organ that responds to signals
from the control center, thus providing a response to
the stimulus
1ST MECHANISM: POSITIVE FEEDBACK
- is a mechanism that intensifies a change in the
body’s
- physiological condition rather than reversing it
Ex: Fruit Ripening and Blood Clotting

2ND MECHANISM: NEGATIVE FEEDBACK

- prevents a physiological variable or a body function
from going beyond the normal range.
- It does this by reversing a physiological variable
change (stimulus) once the normal range is exceeded
Ex: Temperature Regulation and Osmoregulation

MODULE 3:
HOW PROTEIN IS MADE USING INFORMATION
FROM DNA
 DNA Molecule
- located inside the nucleus of a cell
- tightly coiled molecule contain genes
- double strand
COMPONENTS OF A DNA MOLECULE
- one phosphorus with four oxygen (phosphate
group)
- a five-carbon sugar (deoxyribose)
- a nitrogen-containing base (either pyrimidine or
purine)
 Chargaff’s Rule
- there is always equality in quantity between the
bases of –
A and T (A is adenine, T is thymine)
G and C. (G is guanine, and C is cytosine)
 RNA Molecule
- single strand
- has a backbone made of alternating sugar (ribose)
and phosphate groups. Attached to each sugar is one
of four bases--adenine (A), uracil (U), cytosine (C), or
guanine (G)
 Genetic Code
- term we use for the way that the four bases of
DNA--the A, C, G, and Ts--are strung together in a
way that the cellular machinery,
CENTRAL DOGMA OF MOLECULAR BIOLOGY
1. DNA Replication
- semi-conservative process whereby pre-existing
strands act as templates for newly synthesised
strands
 helicase and DNA polymerase
- The process of DNA replication is coordinated by
two key enzymes
2. Transcription
- the process by which an RNA sequence is produced
from a DNA template
3. Translation
- is in which the genetic information encoded in
mRNA is translated into a sequence of amino acids
on a polypeptide chain
MENDELIAN AND NON-MENDELIAN
INHERITANCE
Unlocking of Terminologies
 Genes
– are units of information about specific traits, and
they are passed from parents to offspring. Each gene
has a specific location (locus) on a chromosome.
 Diploid cells
– have a pair of genes for each trait, on a pair of
homologous chromosome.
 Alleles
– the different molecular (contrasting) form of a
gene. Although both genes of a pair deal with the
same trait, they may vary in their information about
it.
 Homozygous condition
– if it turns out that the two alleles of a pair are the
same.
 Heterozygous condition
– if the two alleles of a pair is different.
 homozygous recessive
- individual has a pair of recessive alleles (aa) for the
trait.
 Heterozygous
- individual has a pair of nonidentical alleles (Aa) for
the trait.
Two terms help keep the distinction clear between
genes and the traits they specify.
 Genotype
– refers to the particular genes that are present in
an individual.
 Phenotype
– refers to an individual’s observable traits.
When tracking the inheritance of traits through
generations of offspring, these abbreviations apply:
- P parental generation
- F1 first-generation offspring
- F2 second-generation offspring
 Monohybrid Cross
- a cross between first-generation offspring of
parents who differ in one trait
 Dihybrid Cross
- cross between first-generation offspring of parents
who differ in two traits
 X-linked Dominant
- Fathers cannot pass X-linked dominant conditions
to their sons, but all daughters of affected fathers
will be affected with the condition and can pass it on
to their children.
 X-linked Recessive
- If only the father or the mother has the mutated X-
linked gene, the daughters are usually not affected
and are called carriers because one of their X
chromosomes has the mutation but the other one is
normal (kailangan 2 x ung affected)
 Y-linked traits
- Y-linked if the altered gene that causes the disorder
is located on the Y chromosome, one of the two sex
chromosomes in each of a male's cells.
- manifestaton father to son
 Sex-Influenced and Sex-limited traits
- It pertains to traits that are phenotypically
expressed depending on whether the individual is
male or female. Even in a homozygous dominant or
recessive female, the condition may not be
expressed fully.
ATYPICAL AND NON-MENDELIAN INHERITANCE
 Mosaicism
– it is the presence of two or more genetically
different cell lines in an individuals, all derived from
a single zygote
 Triple X syndrome
a condition caused by an extra X chromosome in
each of a female’s cells.
 Genomic Imprinting
– certain genes are differentially ‘inactivated’ or
‘switched off’ during gametogenesis
 Mitochondrial diseases
- are chronic (long-term), genetic, often inherited
disorders that occur when mitochondria fail to
produce enough energy for the body to function
properly.
PEDIGREE CHART AND ANALYSIS
- It is the presentation of family information
summarized in a chart using standardized set of
symbols