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Renewable Energy & Wastewater
Treatment
By
DR HO SOON MIN
2018
Ideal International E – Publication Pvt. Ltd.
www.isca.co.in
427, Palhar Nagar, RAPTC, VIP-Road, Indore-452005 (MP) INDIA
Phone: +91-731-2616100, Mobile: +91-80570-83382
E-mail: contact@isca.co.in , Website: www.isca.co.in
Title: Renewable Energy & Wastewater Treatment

Author(s): DR HO SOON MIN
Edition: First
Volume: I
© Copyright Reserved
2018
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored, in a
retrieval system or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic,
mechanical, photocopying, reordering or otherwise, without the prior
permission of the publisher.
ISBN: 978-93-86675-44-6
Renewable Energy & Wastewater Treatment iii
Table of Contents
Chapter Author Page

No
Renewable Energy Technologies Ho Soon Min, Sumit Wagh, Abudukeremu 1
Kadier , Irfan Ahmad Gondal, Nur Azha Putra
Bin Abdul Azim, Mukesh Kumar Mishra
Review of chalcogenide based Ho Soon Min, Mohammad Junaebur Rashid , 32
thin film solar cells
K. Mohanraj
Removal of heavy metals from Kumaravel Karthick 45
water using activated carbon
Removal of toxic chemicals by Meenakshisundaram Swaminathan 55
nanophotocatalysts
Removal of heavy metals from Ho Soon Min, Kushal Qanungo, Rabia Nazir 65
waste water using alumina and
fly ash: review
Ideal International E- Publication

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Renewable Energy & Wastewater Treatment 1
CHAPTER 1:
Renewable Energy Technologies
Ho Soonmin1*, Sumit Wagh2, Abudukeremu Kadier3, Irfan Ahmad

Gondal4, Nur Azha Putra Bin Abdul Azim5, Mukesh Kumar Mishra6
1Centre for Green Chemistry and Applied Chemistry, INTI International University, Putra
Nilai, 71800, Negeri Sembilan, Malaysia.
2Department of Mechanical Engineering, G.H.Raisoni College of Engineering, Nagpur,

Maharashtra, India.
3Department of Chemical and Process Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and Built

Environment, National University of Malaysia, 43600 UKM Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia.
4US-Pakistan Centre for Advanced Studies in Energy, National University of Sciences &
Technology, Islamabad, Pakistan.
5Energy Studies Institute - Energy Security Division, National University of Singapore
6 Department of Mechanical Engineering, S.V. Polytechnic College, Bhopal, M.P. India.
*Corresponding author, Tel: + 6067982000, email: soonmin.ho@newinti.edu.my

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Introduction:
Renewable energy technologies such as solar energy [1, 2], hydropower energy [3, 4],
nuclear energy [5, 6], geothermal energy [7, 8], wind energy [9,10] and bio mass energy [11,
12] can be used in order to improve living conditions. Generally, renewable energy has a lot
of advantages than fossil-based oil and coal due to clean the air, can reduce air pollutants
and carbon emissions. Currently, there have been a great number of studies on the
renewable energy from all over the world. Researcher aims to make these technologies
move from pilot facilities to commercial scale applications and have important share in the
electricity of the future all over world.
In the present scenario of world, the increasing consumption of electricity controls

the progress of different forms of energy use around the world. Mostly the energy demand
of the world is fulfilled by fossil fuels. As fossil fuels harm the environment to extreme level
it has been need of must to us, to find an alternative for fossil fuel to generate energy. This
alternative must be eco-friendly source of energy generation in order to control the
pollution and to produce green environment. The sources which satisfy the above
conditions are renewable energy resources such as tidal, geothermal, solar, wind and
hydroelectric generation etc.
Energy is vital for the progress of a nation and it has to be conserved in a most
efficient manner. Not only the technologies should be developed to produce energy in a
most environment-friendly manner from all varieties of fuels but also enough importance
should be given to conserve the energy resources in the most efficient way. Energy is the
ultimate factor responsible for both industrial and agricultural development. The use of
renewable energy technology to meet the energy demands has been steadily increasing for
the past few years, however, the important drawbacks associated with renewable energy
systems are their inability to guarantee reliability and they are lean in nature. Import of
petroleum products constitutes a major drain on our foreign exchange reserve. Renewable
sources are considered to be the better option to meet these challenges. It is obvious that
the known resources of fossil fuels in the world are fast depleting. The importance of

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renewable energy sources was recognized in the early 18th century. During the past three
decades, a significant effort has gone into the development, trial and induction of a variety
of renewable energy technologies for the use in different sectors. Energy consumption has
been growing rapidly in developing countries like India where, about 15% of the world’s
population live. But the consumption of energy is still a small fraction of the global energy
production in comparison with rising energy needs of the developing world and limited or
declining non-renewable resources.
The utilization of solar, wind and other renewable energy resources becomes very
important especially for the rural and remote areas where access to power lines is difficult.
Renewable energy resources such as solar thermal, photovoltaic, wind, hydro, geothermal,
biomass and ocean thermal can play a significant role in providing energy needs as well as
sustaining the environment resources. These resources, along with fuel economy measures
will certainly become the proper choice of appropriate technology option for an effective
energy management. The major areas where renewable energy technologies can be
profitably employed are the solar photovoltaic, wind, micro-hydro power and biomass
energy conversion.
Some examples (solar energy, nuclear energy, geothermal energy, and hydropower
energy) of renewable energy sources were discussed as stated in the objective of this book
chapter. Advantages and limitation of these renewable energy were highlighted also.
Hydropower energy:
Hydropower (HP) or water power is commonly referred to hydroelectric energy or

hydroelectric power, is energy derived from the movement of water. HP is obtained by
harnessing the potential energy or the gravitational force of flowing water stream. In order
to harness HP energy, a HP plant needs to be constructed in an area with flowing water
(Figure 1). Basically, the main components of a HP are dam or reservoir, penstock pipe,
water turbine and generator. The working principle of HP is that the water is stored in a
dam or reservoir and is released downstream through a pipe called the penstock, the

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produced potential energy is used to do work. While, the water then hits the blades of the
turbine and rotate the mechanical shaft, which converts potential energy to mechanical
energy that drives a generator at the power house and subsequently generating
electricity/power [13-15].
Hydropower is one of the cleanest, cheapest and most reliable sources of electricity
which plays an essential role in many regions through-out the globe with more than 160
countries generating hydro-electric power and providing approximately 20 % of the world’s
total electricity supply [16]. It is a mature, well advanced technology with more than a
century of experience. Hydro power, a renewable source of energy, is the third most
important source of electricity generation after coal & gas. It constitutes more than 67 % of
electricity generated from renewable resources worldwide [16].
Figure 1: a typical layout of a hydropower (HP) plant and its main components.
HP is a well-established and the most important renewable energy source worldwide

as HP contributes roughly 20 % (one-fifth) of world electricity generation from both large
and small scale power plants [17-19]. In fact, HP is the only domestic energy resource for
well-resourced countries, for instance, Paraguay nearly 100 % of the electricity comes from

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HP, and Paraguay is one of the world's largest exporters of HP, 90 % of generated energy
is exported. Compared to other renewable energy sources such as solar, wind, biomass and
geothermal, hydropower is one of the cheapest, environment friendly mature renewable
energy sources [20-22]. HP plants have been developed to almost full potential in developed
countries [23] due to their superior characteristics and many more are being installed by
developing countries such as China, Brazil and India.
In hydroelectric power plants, power is derived from the energy of water moving
from higher elevation to lower elevation may be from the rivers, waterfalls, dams and canals.
A turbine converts water pressure into mechanical shaft power which drives an electricity
generator [24]. Hydro power is the combination of head H and flow Q and is proportional to
product of both of these. Therefore, accurate measurement of head and discharge is
essential to assess potential of the site, select appropriate turbine and design the power
plant. The general formula for any hydro system’s power generated is [25]:
P= η ρ g Q H [equation 1]
Where:
P is the mechanical power produced at the turbine shaft,
η is the hydraulic efficiency of the turbine,
ρ is the density of water
g is the acceleration due to gravity,
Q is the volume flow rate passing through the turbine,
H is the effective pressure head of water across the turbine.
The technically feasible potential of hydro power in the world is 3721 GW. Out of
this, 1246 GW has been implemented which generated 4,102 GWh electricity (in 2016) [26].
Table 1 gives top 5 countries based on installed hydro power capacity as of 2016.

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Table 1: Top 5 countries based on installed hydro power capacity as of 2016 [27]
No Country Installed Capacity in GW
1. China 331.1
2. United States 102.5
3. Brazil 98.0
4. Canada 79.3
5. India 52.0
Pump hydro is like a conventional plant except the same water can be used over and
over again. Excess energy is used to pump water to an upper reservoir during the time of
low electricity demand. It plays an important role in electricity generation as they provide
balancing power, in particular for various renewable energy sources (solar & wind).
HP is the most widely used form of renewable energy due to the many advantages
associated with it. However, nothing is perfect or perfectly efficient. There are some major
drawbacks associated with HP as well.
Advantages:
 Clean and Renewable: HP does not cause air pollution. HP energy works without the
use of any types of fossil fuels, such as coal, oil, uranium and therefore there are no
harmful emissions as a result. Moreover, there is no production of any radioactive
hazards in generation of HP energy process. Besides, water is a renewable energy
source that will never run out [28].
 Reliable and Efficient: HP is widely considered both a reliable and efficient electricity
source. Providing an adequate supply of water, HP production can be constant and
some countries have been successful in producing a large amount of their total
electricity capacity from HP. For instance, Paraguay has been able to produce nearly
100% of its electricity supply with HP. Generally, HP plants have a very long life of

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approximately 50- 100 years which is much longer than that of even Nuclear Power
Plant, which means that HPs are highly profitable.
 Inexpensive: HP is very economical to produce once the initial HP dam has been
constructed. HP dams have very low operating and maintenance capital costs when
compared to those of traditional power stations [29-32]. Besides, minimal man
power is required to run a HP station, as most of them run on automated machines,
this further makes HP electricity inexpensive.
 Flexible: HP plants have a degree of flexibility when it comes to meeting real-time

energy demands. Compare to other alternative renewable sources of electricity
generation such as solar, wind, HP energy can be used for generating a continuous
supply of electricity. Thus, the amount of electricity produced by HP is stable and can
be controlled [33]. When high or low volumes of electricity are demanded, operators
of HP dam can adjust the water intake to increase or decrease the flow of water into
the dam thus generating the appropriate amount of electricity. Moreover, HP can be
generated in almost any size from 1 MW to 10000 MW which makes HP technology
very versatile, depending on the source of water.
 Additional Uses: The water after generating electrical power by HP plants is

available for irrigation and other purposes. HP dams are often designed to create a
large dam or reservoir to one side of the dam wall. This water is commonly used for
not only producing electricity via the dam but also for providing a water supply to
surrounding villages and cities. This reduces the cost of constructing a separate
reservoir to domestic water supply.
 Tourism: The larger, more noticeable HP dams can become landmarks for a country
or region helping to bring in large number of tourists each year providing a boost to
the local economy.

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 High technically feasible potential: The 3721G W potential is widely spread

geographically in 160 countries. Out of this, about 67 % of the economically feasible
potential is yet untapped, mostly in developing countries.
 Matured technology: It is a mature, well advanced technology with more than a

century of experience. Modern power plants operate with more than 90% efficiency.
Further, hydro power has verity in project scale and size (5KW to 20GW) which gives
it ability to meet large urban and industrial needs as well as decentralized rural
needs [34, 35].
 Water management: Hydropower acts as a catalyst for economic and social

development by providing both energy and water management. Hydro power
contributes to fresh water storage. As part of a multipurpose scheme, it helps to
subsidies other important functions such as irrigation water supply, navigation
improvements and recreation [36].
 Suitability to meet peak demand: It is required for meeting peak power demand and
is vital for the best use of base-load power from other less flexible electricity sources.
It helps in improving the stability and reliability of electrical grid [37].
 CO2 emission reduction: Hydropower has significant potential for CO2 emission
reduction from power sector. It is a renewable energy source and does not produce
CO2 emission, other than those associated with materials and construction. However
recent research has raised concerns about GHG emissions from reservoirs [38].
 Long life: Hydroelectric power plants have Long life span between 50 to 100 years.
 Low operating cost: Although initial investment can be relatively higher, they have
low O & M cost and requires few replacements as there are few parts in it. Annual O

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& M cost for a typical hydropower plant ranges 1% to 4% investment costs per years
[39].
Disadvantages:
 Longer gestation period and capital intensive nature of the projects: Hydro projects
take longer time of completion (5-10 years) due to large infrastructure development
involved in these projects such as dam structure, water conductor system, power
house, tailrace, road development etc and also due to various clearances, delay in
land acquisition, settlement of local disputes etc. Also, the hydro power involves
large investment [40]. Refining project- financing mechanism to make them more
appropriate to the specific characteristics of hydro- development is needed.
 Policy environment: As the investment in hydro power is long-term activities,

inconstancies in policies and market are barriers to hydropower development,
especially in developing countries. Long approval cycle and stringent environment
standards for water management also hampers hydro power development.
Coherent policies and simplified administrative procedures are needed for speedy
development of hydro power.
 Environmental impact and rehabilitation issues: Dislocation of the people from

their houses, field and workplaces etc. and their resettlement is a sensitive issue,
which involves a lot of time and money and many times leads delay in project
execution. Public involvement during project planning is often ignored. Hydropower
projects have impacted fish, fisheries and water quality in a number of ways [41].
 Site access, evacuation: Difficult terrain & poor accessibility of the site takes lot of
time & money to develop and maintain the infrastructures like road, communication,
establishments, etc. causing the delay in completion of hydro projects.
Sedimentation problem of the dams has to be considered at planning stage. Further,
qualitative geological and sedimentation data for designing the plant is not available.

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 Negative environmental effects: When a HP dam is built, a reservoir is formed

behind one face of the dam wall. Depending on the size of the dam, this can have an
impact over a large area as land is flooded as the reservoir fills which brings
disastrous consequences for aquatic eco-system, wildlife, fish and even plants [42].
The damage caused by this process is considered to more harmful than the forest
which would have decayed naturally. Also, the river environment is affected changes
in river levels, flow patterns and water temperature.
 Dislocation of People: Often, large-scale human and ecology relocation occurs when
the large dams are built. Villages and even small towns may have to dislocation to
make way for a dam, destroying communities in the process [43]. Although financial
incentives are often provided to persuade people to relocate, however, in the
absence of inappropriate compensation, oppositions and major disagreements
become obvious results.
 Limited Places to Build: This disadvantage of HP is present with other forms of

energy as well. For instance, you can’t build a nuclear plant on top of an earthquake
prone region, and a wind farm near the dead sea. HP can only be built in particular
areas with the perfect conditions such as landscape, and precipitation levels [44].
Nowadays there are limited places to build new dams. Furthermore, HP plants are
impacted by drought. When water is not available, the HP plants can't produce
electricity.
 Economic impact: HP dams are notoriously expensive to build. It requires lots of

planning, engineering and construction before a dam can start producing electricity
to start paying for itself. Apart from that, the time to construct a large HP project can
take between 5-10 years which leads to time and cost overruns.
 Safety Concerns: Although the safety levels of HP dams are considered good,
however, there are still fears over the safety of older dams. The failure of a HP dam
results in massive losses of human life and cause widespread devastation. There
have been numerous disasters relating to hydropower dam failure, the most notable
taking place in China in 1975 which killed 171,000 people. In addition, large HP dam

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construction has been linked to increased propensity of Earthquakes. Massive

Earthquakes in China and India were linked to the building of massive HP dams in
these countries.
Solar energy:
Solar energy is a very large, inexhaustible source of energy [45]. The power from the
sun intercepted by the earth is approximately 1.8 x 1010 MW, which is thousands of times
more than the present rate of energy consumption on earth. Solar energy could supply all
the present and future energy needs of the world on a continuous basis, which is one of the
most promising nonconventional energy sources and it is an environmentally clean source
of energy that is available over almost all parts of the world. The sun provides the basis for
life on earth and sufficient energy to meet all our needs. Photovoltaic is a technology to
convert sunlight directly into electrical energy. It has many advantages like, no noise and
wear due to absence of moving parts, environmentally benign operation, suitable source for
remote applications. Photovoltaic systems are prominently suitable for remote places
where there is no grid power supply. Also space programmers have proved the technical
feasibility of photovoltaic system, because of its high performance and reliability.
Photovoltaic generation is gaining an increased importance as renewable energy

source due to its innate advantages like absence of fuel costs, fuel supply problem and
system reliability with little or no maintenance. Performance and reliability of photovoltaic
systems have been demonstrated in a large variety of small and medium scale standalone
application as well as MW grid connected power stations. The main obstacle for using multi
MW scale photovoltaic system is the very high initial cost of the module. The solar
photovoltaic systems may be operated in several modes such as standalone system with or
without storage battery, hybrid and grid connected in accordance with their several
applications. The ultimate objective of the solar photovoltaic system design procedure is to
obtain the size of photovoltaic array and the battery bank, which can deliver power to load
without failure. The performance of the system exclusively depends upon the solar resource
at the site, system configuration and load parameters. The input energy for solar

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photovoltaic systems is the incident solar radiation, which depends on the location, time of
the day, day of the year as well as solar energy receiving angle and other relevant
environment conditions. The solar photovoltaic (SPV) array output also depends on the solar
cell operating temperature, which is affected by the ambient air temperature. These
parameters continue to change hourly, daily, monthly and yearly.
Advantages & Disadvantages of Solar Energy
Advantages:
 This energy is environment friendly & does not create any pollution.
 It is best for producing electricity as well as for cooking purpose.
 Solar energy helps to decrease harmful gases, acid rain, global warming.
 Silent energy supplier as solar photovoltaic cells do not create sound while
extracting heat from the sun and producing green electricity.
 Solar energy helps in reducing electricity bills.
 No maintenance is required for solar energy and also it does not have any
specific life span.
 Solar energy can be used for commercial and industrial purpose too.
Disadvantages:
 Solar energy can be used in only throughout daytime i.e. when sun is glowing
bright.
 Solar system like solar collectors, panels, solar cells are very expensive.
 In case of cloudy climate, there would be no sign of sun which is difficult [46].
 Solar batteries [47] that are need to be charged are very heavy and require
large storage space.
 Installation of solar energy requires large area so that the system can provide
better output.

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Experimental Results
Solar panel is use to convert solar radiation to the electrical energy [48]. The physical
of photovoltaic (PV) cell is very similar to that of the classical diode with a p-n junction
formed by semiconductor material. When the junction absorbs light [49], the energy of
absorbed photon is transferred to the electron- proton system of the material, creating
charge carriers that are separated at the junction. The charge carriers in the junction region
create a potential gradient, get accelerated under the electric field [50], and circulate as
current through an external circuit. Solar array or panel is a group of a several modules
electrically connected in series parallel combination to generate the required current and
voltage [51]. Solar panels are the medium to convert solar power into the electrical power.
For achieving that much of load our PV system is consider. PV system is still not that much
efficient to generate maximum solar radiation into electric power. So in this project 40Wp
WAAREE solar panel is used for experimentation.
Table 2: Photovoltaic cell

Day Voltage Current
Solar radiation (W/m2)
Time (V) (A)
9
530 4.33 0.8
A.M
10
740 6.02 1.23
A.M
11
880 8.22 1.8
A.M
12
930 9.95 2.33
A.M
1
1012 10.37 3.1
P.M
2 980 9.98 2.37

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P.M
3
890 8.28 1.83
P.M
4
785 6.35 1.28
P.M
5
620 4.72 0.87
P.M
Table 2 shows the voltage and current output from solar panel. The readings are
taken on hourly basis for solar radiation. With help of pyranometer on hourly basis solar
radiations are noted down. For voltage and current measurement digital multi-meter is used.
Figure 2 shows the variation of power output from the solar system alone. The
nature of graph is dome shape which shows the peak at time of 1 P.M, this because of the
large amount of solar intensity incident on earth surface as the intensity of solar radiation is
less in the morning are the power output is less and same is the case afternoon. Multi-
meter was used in order to evaluate the amount of solar power received by earth surface in
single day.
40 Power Vs Time
Power (W)
30
20
10
Power
0
9 A.M 10 11 12 1 P.M 2 P.M 3 P.M 4 P.M 5 P.M
A.M A.M A.M Time
Figure 2: Power variation with respect to time

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Nuclear energy:
Introduction
The global prospect for civilian nuclear power energy appears to be on the rise since
the Fukushima Nuclear Power Accident in 2011. Public perception and support for nuclear
power dipped following the accident to the extent that several new build states such as
Germany decided to abandon its nuclear power programme altogether and turned its focus
towards renewable energy while others such as Japan and Vietnam decided to replace
nuclear with coal. The debate on the merits of nuclear power remains open. Nuclear power
and modern technology such generation III and IV reactors are supposed to be safer but the
risks from a nuclear power accident remain high and even the most optimistic and ardent
proponents of nuclear energy could not easily dismiss its hazardous long-term effect to
public health.
Global and regional prospects for civilian nuclear power
The Fukushima Daichi Nuclear Power Plant Accident in 2011 affected the global
optimism for civilian nuclear power energy to the extent that many nuclear newcomer and
new build states such as Germany and Japan decided to either reconsider or cancel their
nuclear power plans. However, it appears that the trend has reversed and the international
community is increasingly looking to add nuclear power into their national energy mixes. In
Europe, there are 12 reactors that are currently under construction, followed by 11 reactors
in South America, and 38 reactors in Asia. Of these, China is building the most number of
reactors at 20 followed by Russia (6 reactors) and India (6 reactors), Korea (4 reactors) and
UAE (4 reactors) (World Nuclear Association, 2018). In Southeast Asia (SEA), new build
states such as Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand, Vietnam and the Philippines have decided to
review their nuclear power plants but they continue to include nuclear power in their
national power development plans.
Despite the Fukushima accident, Vietnam decided to move on with the construction
of the Ninh Thuan 1 and 2 power plants but decided to cancel it in 2016 due to financial and
economic concerns [52]. Instead, Vietnam will continue with the construction of their

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second nuclear power research reactor with the help and financing from Russia [53].
Meanwhile, Indonesia now appears to be most the likely nation in SEA to construct and
operate the first nuclear power plant in the region. Indonesia has plans in place to begin
operating the region’s first experimental nuclear power plant by 2022 or 2023 and a
decision will be made by 2030 if the government intends to construct a full civilian nuclear
power plant [54]. Other than Indonesia, Malaysia appears to be the most likely state to go
nuclear followed by Thailand. Malaysia is expected to make its decision by the end of the
next decade [55] and Thailand is expected to make its decision by 2035 [56]. The Philippines
has also included nuclear power in its mid-term national power development plans [57] but
has not committed to any specific dates yet.
Two arguments can be made to explain the aspirations for nuclear power among
new builds and newcomer states. First, when seen through the lens of economics, the
civilian nuclear power projects require a huge financial outlay and thousands of man-hours
are needed to develop the regulatory and operational capacities of states. On average,
states require between $6 and $9 billion dollars to construct a single 1,100MWe power
plant [58]. The costs of construction could increase exponentially if the construction project
is delayed. However, states are willing to assume the risks since nuclear electricity is price
inelastic and will not be affected by the global energy price fluctuations. Therefore, nuclear
power is more resilient towards global economic conditions. Thus, nuclear power provides
long-term energy security.
Secondly, nuclear power provides clean energy and is sustainable in the long-run.
Unlike fossil fuels such as oil and coal, nuclear power has far less carbon emission. One of
the reasons why nuclear power was a popular fuel alternative in the pre-Fukushima era was
due to the global community’s determination to combat climate change by increasing the
global share of renewables and clean energy in place of fossil fuels. Additionally, there is an
abundance of uranium supply in the world. At the current rate of consumption, the global
supply of uranium is expected to last for at least 90 years [59]. More importantly, from an
energy security perspective, nuclear power is far more reliable when compared to
renewables such as solar, which is weather dependent and not financially viable for large-
scale deployment yet.

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Although civilian nuclear power provides energy security [60] and is clean and
sustainable in the long-run, it represents significant risks on two fronts. To date, there have
been three major nuclear power accidents, which are the Three-Mile Island (1979),
Chernobyl (1986) and Fukushima (2011). Of these three accidents, the Chernobyl accident
caused significant transboundary effect, while the Fukushima accident was largely contained
to the vicinity of the nuclear power plant and the immediate surrounding. As for the Three-
Mile Island, the danger was successfully contained and localized. In between these accidents,
there have other numerous incidents where plant workers were significantly affected. By
and large, nuclear power is considered safe but the inherent risks that it poses are such that
the effect of a nuclear power accident can be devastating.
Second, nuclear power due to its huge financial outlay is effectively deployed at an
opportunity cost and expense of other forms of clean and renewable energy such as biofuel
and solar, which requires substantial investments. Additionally, many newcomer states do
not have the financial resources of wealthy states such as the United Arab Emirates and
therefore have to rely on loans from nuclear power vendor states such as Russia and China.
These loans are typically accompanied by terms that favor the lending states such as the
right to deploy their own national construction companies and workers. The effect of such
terms is that it does not create favorable economic terms for the borrower state and there
is no certainty of the transfer of technology and knowledge.
Geothermal energy:
Geothermal is a combination of two words “Geo” meaning earth and “thermal”
meaning heat. Thus it is the heat contained in the earth. The inside of the earth i.e. the core
about 4000 miles deep, is very hot as much as reaching over 9,000 °F.

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Figure 3: The Earth’s interior
The geothermal heat continuously flows outward from the Earth’s core through
conduction by transferring heat to the adjacent layer of rocks called mantle. At extremely
high temperatures the rock layer melts to form magma and heat is transferred by
convection towards the earth’s crust by the rise of this less dense magma. As magma
reaches the surface of the earth, it is called lava and may erupt from sites of active
geothermal activity known as volcanoes. The earth’s interior is illustrated in Figure 3.
Most of the time the magma remains beneath the crust and transfers its heat to
groundwater, which on absorption of heat converts to steam and travels back to earth
surface resulting in the formation of hot springs and geysers. The heat contained within the
different forms of sub-surface media is sufficient enough for commercial utilization.
Although the heat contained within the earth’s surface is finite, the theoretical potential
estimated at 12.6 x 1024 MJ makes it a Renewable resource [61]. The utilization of different
forms of geothermal heat is categorized into different geothermal resources which are
presented in the next section.

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Figure 4: Schematic Depth Temperature plot for Geothermal resources [62]
Geothermal Resource Categorization

Geothermal energy resources are categorized by a number of parameters pertaining
to the resource. These include the temperature, depth of resource or by end-use.
Temperature beneath the surface of the earth increases gradually with depth and is known
as the temperature gradient. Figure 4 illustrates this temperature—depth relationship.
Geothermal resource classifications are generally based on this Depth-temperature plot.
Geothermal Energy Resources are broadly classified as deep geothermal reservoirs

and high enthalpy reservoirs. These reservoirs are mainly located in areas of high volcanic
activity and have a temperature range of 90-300 oC [63]. The intense heat available is used
to obtain steam for power generation through steam turbine plants and also for direct use
as will be discussed. These geothermal systems are characterized with minimal negative
environmental impact and high productivity [64]. Figure 5 depicts the process of power
generation in Deep Geothermal systems.

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Figure 5: Power Generation in Deep Geothermal Systems [64]
Low enthalpy reservoirs occur in the range at depths of 4,000 to 6,000 meters, with
temperatures ranging between 150 °C and 200 °C [65]. These are further classified as
hydrothermal systems and petrothermal systems. Hydrothermal systems use existing
aquifers in sediments in order to pump the hot water that occurs there naturally to the
surface. Profitable electricity generation requires aquifers with hot water with a
temperature of 100 °C or more (hot springs generally do not reach these temperatures).
Following extraction of the heat, the cooled water is sometimes pumped back into the
subsoil via a second borehole. Provided there is sufficient water flow at depth, only minimal
stimulation of the rock is generally necessary. Hydrothermal systems depend on existing
aquifers with adequate fissuring and sufficiently high temperatures, which is why they can
only be implemented at certain locations. Extensive seismic investigation is therefore often
a prerequisite for identifying a suitable location.
In petrothermal systems, tens of thousands of cubic meters of liquid (1 m 3=1,000

liters) – generally water – are injected over several days into the subsoil under high pressure,
typically into the crystalline basement rocks. The aim here is to reactivate the many fault
systems in the future reservoir. The permeability of the rock is permanently increased for
water, giving rise to an enhanced geothermal system (EGS). This system serves as an
underground reservoir in which liquid circulates and is heated. An artificial circuit is then

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created via a second borehole to pump heated liquid to the surface with the aid of
geothermal energy. The liquid circulates in an only partially closed circuit, with the reservoir
pressure and the flow being controlled by balanced feed and production rates.
Figure 6: Petrothermal versus Hydrothermal systems
The petrothermal system (Figure 6), is also referred to as the “hot dry rock” process
or “deep heat mining”. In order to be economically attractive, a commercial petrothermal
system should provide approximately 50 to 200 liters of water per second with a
temperature of 150 °C to 180 °C. In addition, the water temperature should fall only slowly
during the operating period of around 30 years.
Surficial geothermal energy uses with heat pumps
This type is also known as Shallow geothermal energy or Direct-use Geothermal

systems. Shallow geothermal energy includes geothermal probes or geothermal loop
systems and use of groundwater heat, as well as energy piles and geo-structures. Shallow
geothermal energy penetrates no more than 400 meters into the subsoil and makes use of
layers with temperatures of between 8 °C and 20 °C.

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Figure 7: Shallow Geothermal system in winter & summer
Geothermal probes are most frequently used to operate heat pumps that obtain
heat from the earth, air, or water. Shallow geothermal energy with geothermal probes can
be used to heat buildings and prepare hot water, whereby pumps of this kind additionally
require electricity. A heat pump is based on the principle of a reverse refrigerator, also
needing a supply of energy. Provided a depth of around 200 meters is not exceeded,
geothermal probes can also be used to cool buildings in summer [65]. Shallow geothermal
energy is further classified on the type of loops employed and the Heat pump installed [66].
A schematic of Shallow geothermal working in winter and summer season is presented in
Figure 7.
Geothermal energy Utilization
The growth of geothermal energy is increasing at a steady pace. According to the

2016 Annual US and global Geothermal production report, the global geothermal industry is
expected to reach about 18.4 GW by 2021. Besides power generation, geothermal energy
has several other advantages as well in the field of health, manufacturing, agriculture and
industry. However, the biggest and prime advantage is its ability to provide green power

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generation without any greenhouse effects and pollutants as produced by conventional

thermal power plants [67].
Advantages
Geothermal energy has several advantages in a variety of applications [68]. The most
common way of showing this is through the Lindal diagram (Figure 8) that shows the usage
of geothermal energy with respect to the temperature of the geothermal fluid.
 Geothermal energy is emission free as they consume no fossil fuels [69]. There
is little air or water pollution
 The deployment costs are relatively low. It is currently economically feasible in
high grade areas.
 Geothermal reservoirs are naturally replenished [70], hence It is considered a
Renewable source of energy all year round, irrespective of solar or wind
dependencies and is virtually inexhaustible.
 Once a geothermal power station is constructed [71], there is no cost of fuel
only maintenance and operation costs are involved.
 It has an enormous potential – upper estimates suggest a global potential of 2
terawatts (TW).
 It is very reliable for meeting the base load energy demand [72] (as compared
to other renewables such as wind and solar). The power plants have a high
capacity factor typically exceeding 95%.
 Equally good for heating and cooling – from district to even small households
can benefit.
 Harnessing geothermal energy does not involve any fuels, which means less
cost fluctuations and stable electricity prices.
 The geothermal systems have a small footprint on land – can be built partially
underground.
 Geothermal energy is available everywhere, although only some resources are
profitably exploitable.

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 Recent technological advancements (e.g. enhanced geothermal systems) have

made more resources exploitable and lowered costs.
Figure 8: Lindal Diagram
Disadvantages
 Small amount of pollutants is extracted, such as sulphur that has to be

removed before the fluid is fed in the turbine.
 Minor geological instability may occur in case of deep geothermal systems
leading to small earthquakes
 Geothermal energy requires specific locations with suitable sub surface
temperatures within 5 km of the surface.

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Conclusion
So far, fossil fuels are non-renewable and quickly depleting. Renewable energy such
as solar energy, wind energy, and hydro power energy are the promising alternatives for
greener future. Intensive research has been carried out by many scientists from all over the
world to ensure a sustainable future.
Acknowledgement:
INTI INTERNATIONAL UNIVERSITY is gratefully acknowledged for the financial
support of this work (HO SM).
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Renewable Energy Technologies

Chapter · July 2018

Ho Soon Min Sumit Wagh

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Abudukeremu Kadier Irfan Ahmad Gondal

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Title: Renewable Energy & Wastewater Treatment

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Renewable Energy Technologies

Ho Soonmin1*, Sumit Wagh2, Abudukeremu Kadier3, Irfan Ahmad

2Department of Mechanical Engineering, G.H.Raisoni College of Engineering, Nagpur,

3Department of Chemical and Process Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and Built

5Energy Studies Institute - Energy Security Division, National University of Singapore

6 Department of Mechanical Engineering, S.V. Polytechnic College, Bhopal, M.P. India.

*Corresponding author, Tel: + 6067982000, email: soonmin.ho@newinti.edu.my

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In the present scenario of world, the increasing consumption of electricity controls

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Hydropower (HP) or water power is commonly referred to hydroelectric energy or

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HP is a well-established and the most important renewable energy source worldwide

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 Flexible: HP plants have a degree of flexibility when it comes to meeting real-time

 Additional Uses: The water after generating electrical power by HP plants is

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 High technically feasible potential: The 3721G W potential is widely spread

 Matured technology: It is a mature, well advanced technology with more than a

 Water management: Hydropower acts as a catalyst for economic and social

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 Policy environment: As the investment in hydro power is long-term activities,

 Environmental impact and rehabilitation issues: Dislocation of the people from

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 Negative environmental effects: When a HP dam is built, a reservoir is formed

 Limited Places to Build: This disadvantage of HP is present with other forms of

 Economic impact: HP dams are notoriously expensive to build. It requires lots of

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construction has been linked to increased propensity of Earthquakes. Massive

Photovoltaic generation is gaining an increased importance as renewable energy

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Advantages & Disadvantages of Solar Energy

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Table 2: Photovoltaic cell

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Figure 2: Power variation with respect to time

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Global and regional prospects for civilian nuclear power

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Figure 3: The Earth’s interior

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Figure 4: Schematic Depth Temperature plot for Geothermal resources [62]

Geothermal Resource Categorization

Geothermal Energy Resources are broadly classified as deep geothermal reservoirs

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Figure 5: Power Generation in Deep Geothermal Systems [64]

In petrothermal systems, tens of thousands of cubic meters of liquid (1 m 3=1,000

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