Criminalistics

Criminalistics is one subdivision of forensic sciences. The terms criminalistics and

forensic sciences are often confused and used interchangeably. Forensic sciences
encompass a variety of scientific disciplines such
as medicine, toxicology, anthropology , entomology , engineering, odontology ,
and of course, criminalistics. It is very difficult to provide an exact definition of
criminalistics, or the extent of its application, as it varies from one location or
country to another.
However, the American Board of Criminalistics defines criminalistics as "that
profession and scientific discipline directed to the recognition, identification,
individualization, and evaluation of physical evidence by application of the
physical and natural sciences to law-sciences matters."
The California Association of Criminalistics provides a slightly different definition: "that professional
occupation concerned with the scientific analysis and examination of physical evidence, its
interpretation, and its presentation in court." These definitions are very similar to the ones used for
forensic sciences, as both disciplines have as a goal to provide scientific analysis of evidence for the legal
system.
It is also challenging to define a clear origin of criminalistics. The term comes from
the German word Kriminalistik, invented by Austrian criminalist Hans
Gross (1847–1915). While the field of criminalistics started long before Gross'
time, the first serious and well-documented applications of scientific principles to
a legal purpose, started in the middle of the nineteenth century.
The famous novel hero Sherlock Holmes, invented by Sir Arthur Conan Doyle ,
was probably the first fictional founder of criminalistics. The real recognition of
criminalistics as a science by itself can be attributed to Hans Gross who published
his book Handbuch fur Untersuchungsrichter als System der Kriminalistik in 1899.
The development of anthropometry (the stuphysical dimensions) by French
anthropologist Alphonse Bertillon (1853–1914) and of fingerprint analysis in the
same period by Scottish scientist Henry Faulds (1843–1930), English
scientist Francis Galton (1822–1911), and English Commissioner Sir Edward Henry
(1850–1931), also contributed to the reinforcement of criminalistics.
The progress made in forensic photography by Swiss criminalist Rodolphe-
Archibald Reiss (1875–1929) was also a major contribution to the world of
criminalistics. Finally, the beginning of the era of modern criminalistics is
attributed to French criminalist Edmond Locard (1877–1966) and some of his
pupils such as Swedish criminalist Harry Söderman (1902–1956). In the United
States, the work of American criminalist Paul Kirk (1902–1970) reinforced the
predominant position of criminalistics in forensic sciences.
As an integral part of the forensic sciences, criminalistics encompasses the
broadest variety of disciplines. These commonly include the examinations of tool
marks, firearms , fingerprints, shoeprints , tire tracks , soil, fibers , glass , paint,
serial numbers, light bulbs, drugs of abuse, questioned documents , fire and
explosion, biological fluids , and last but not least, crime scenes.
Criminalistics also typically includes physical evidence that is not directly studied
by another field of forensic sciences. The main goal of criminalistics is to apply the
principles of sciences to the examination of evidence in order to help the justice
system determine that a crime has been committed, to identify its victim(s) and
perpetrators, and finally, determine the modus operandi, or method of
operation.
Criminalistics uses other scientific disciplines to examine physical evidence.
Among these are chemistry, biology, physics, and mathematics. People
performing criminalistics are referred to as criminalists.
Crime scene investigation consists of the detailed examination of a crime scene,
and detection, recognition, and collection of pertinent evidence, as well as
permanent documentation of the scene. Fingerprint examination consists of
detection and revelation of fingerprints from different surfaces and comparison
with other fingerprints, such as those provided by a suspect, in order to establish
a link.
Tool marks, shoeprints, and tire tracks examination consists of recording and
observing impressions in order to establish links with a potential tool, shoe, or
tire. Drug analysis consists of the identification and quantification of a drug of
abuse.
The examination of biological fluids, also referred to as forensic serology, consists
in the detection, recognition, and collection of body fluids and their subsequent
analyses in order to identify the person from whom they originate.
Trace evidence encompasses a large variety of minute pieces of evidence such as
fibers, glass, soil, and paints. Traces are examined and compared to potential
sources of origin in order to identify their origin. Questioned documents consist of
the examination of documents to determine their authenticity or to identify
forgery or counterfeiting, and of handwriting and signature analysis to identify the
person who wrote them.
The examination of serial numbers consists of the determination of their
authenticity and the restoration of the ones that have been erased. The study of
light bulbs consists of determining if they were on or off at time of their breakage.
This is particularly helpful in road accident investigation.
DNA and Serology
In the mid 1980s, deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) analysis techniques began to be
applied to forensic cases. Tissue and fluids from the body carrying the genetic
code of DNA may be used to compare to a known standard. This can possibly
allow blood and other biological material to be associated with an individual.
Databases of DNA profiles (CODIS) have been compiled to aid in identifying
criminals and have been used to solve cases many years old, where samples were
properly preserved and re-analyzed. In some cases, innocent persons have even
been released from prison based on the re-analysis of DNA evidence.
Drugs, Alcohol and Toxicology
The criminalist uses a battery of analytical tools and their knowledge of chemistry
to identify controlled substances in powders, pills, liquids, and body fluids. A
criminalist may be called to a clandestine laboratory by investigators, where
illegal drugs are produced. Criminalists are frequently responsible for maintaining
breath alcohol analysis instruments and training laboratory technicians and police
officers who run the tests on drivers suspected of DUI. Sometimes, no controlled
substance is present and sometimes more than one kind of drug can be detected
in a sample.