CHEMISTRY is the study of matter and changes it OBSERVABLE PROPERTIES

undergoes. Density (ρ) rho - mass of a substance over its unit

volume
MATTER is anything that occupies space and has 𝑙𝑏𝑚
𝑚 𝑘𝑔
mass. ρ= 𝑣
( 3 ) 𝑜𝑟 ( 3 )
𝑚 𝑓𝑡

SUBSTANCE is a form of matter that has a definite

𝑔 𝑔 𝑔
composition and distinct properties. 3 for solids 𝑚𝐿
for liquids 𝐿
for gasses
𝑐𝑚
−3 −1 −1
MIXTURE is a combination of two or more substances g•cm g•mL g•L

in which the substance retain their distinct identities.

Specific Volume (𝑣𝑠) upsilon - volume per unit mass;
1. Homogeneous (solutions) – composition of the reciprocal of density
the mixture in the same throughout 𝑚 𝑚
3
𝑓𝑡
3
𝑣𝑠= ( 𝑘𝑔 ) 𝑜𝑟 ( 𝑙𝑏 )
Ex. saltwater, air, milk, alloys 𝑣 𝑚

2. Heterozygous (can be separated) –

composition is not throughout. Specific Weight (γ) gamma - weight of substance
Ex. pizza, concrete, salad per unit volume
𝑊 𝑘𝑁 𝑙𝑏𝑓
γ= ( ) 𝑜𝑟 ( )
PURE SUBSTANCE - always has the same composition 𝑉 3 3
𝑚 𝑓𝑡
𝑚•𝑔 1 𝑚
γ= = 𝑝•𝑔 = ( 𝑣 ) •𝑔 g = 9.807
ELEMENT – a substance that cannot be separated into 𝑉 2
𝑠 𝑠
the simpler substance by chemical means.
Weight (𝑊) - force on a substance due to gravity
- 114 elements have been identified
𝑊= m•g (𝑘𝑁, 𝑁, 𝑙𝑏𝑓)
- 92 occur naturally
- 34 are synthesized
Specific Gravity (𝑠𝑝. 𝑔𝑟.) - ratio of specific weight of
COMPOUND – a substance composed of atoms or substance to the specific weight of water at 4°C and
two or more elements chemically united in fixed 101.325 kPa; relative density
ρ 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑/𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 ρ 𝑔𝑎𝑠
proportions. sp.gr. = ρ𝐻2𝑂
𝑜𝑟 ρ 𝑎𝑖𝑟
𝑔
- Compound can only be separated into their Note: ρ𝐻2𝑂 = 1.0 3
𝑐𝑚
pure components (elements) by chemical 𝑔
ρair = 1.295
means 𝐿

Temperature (T) - measurement that indicates how

THREE STATES OF MATTER
hot or cold something is
SOLID - rigid and have definite shape
● Celcius (°C) - A. Celsius (Swedish
LIQUID - flows and assumes the shape of its container
astronomer)
to a given volume 5
°C = ( 9 )(°F - 32)
GAS - less dense than liquid and solid; occupy all
● Fahrenheit (°F) - G. Fahrenheit (German
parts of any vessel
instrument maker)
PLASMA - charged particles in gaseous state 9
BOSE-EINSTEIN CONDENSATE - are condensed atoms °F = ( 5 °C) + 32
acting as one Thermodynamic temperature scales
● Kelvin (K) - Lord Kelvin (knighted William
TYPES OF CHANGES Thiompson)

1. PHYSICAL CHANGE – does not alter the

composition or identity of a substance
2. CHEMICAL CHANGE – alter the substance or
identity of the substance(s) involved.
: EXTENSIVE PROPERTY
- depends on the amount of mass in a system
- mass, total volume
: INTENSIVE PROPERTY
- independent of the size of amount of mass in
a system
- color, melting point, volume, temp, pressure
K = °C + 273
● Rankine (R) - William Rankine (Scottish
mechanical engineer)
R = °F + 459
Pressure (P) - defined as the normal force exerted by
the fluid per area of the surface
ENERGY - capacity to do work or transfer heat - light
e., mechanical e., electrical e., heat e.
● Kinetic E. - the energy in motion
 ● Potential E. - energy an object possesses
because of its position, condition or
composition
LAWS GOVERNING MATTER AND ENERGY
Law of Conservation of Matter - no observable
change in the quantity of matter during chemical
reaction or during physical change
- cannot be created or destroyed, can only be
converted from one form to another.
- it is fixed
MASS – measure of the quantity of the matter (kg)
WEIGHT – force that gravity exerts on an object (N)
TYPES OF CHEMICAL FORMULAS
EMPIRICAL FORMULA - gives the relative number of
atoms of each element in a compound
ex. HO
MOLECULAR FORMULA - gives the actual number of
atoms of each element in a molecule of the
compound
ex. H2O2
STRUCTURAL FORMULA - uses lines to represent
chemical bonds and shows how the atoms in a
molecule are connected to each other
ex. H–O–O–H
SEPARATION TECHNIQUES OF MIXTURES
1. FIltration - to filter solid from liquid
● Decantation - used when the mixture
consists of substances of different
densities
2. Centrifugation - when one of the substances
consists of very fine particles suspended in a
liquid
3. Electrolysis - electric current separate water
into hydrogen gas and oxygen gas
4. Chromatography - separates substances
(dyes pigments) on the basis of differences in
solubility
● Paper Chromatography - Different
pigments are deposited at different
places on the paper.
5. Distillation - separating the components of a
liquid mixture through selective evaporation
and condensation.
6. Hand sorting - substances in a mixture can
be separated by just picking them out with
the help of hand from the mixture
7. Sieving - a method in which two or more
components of different sizes are separated
from a mixture on the basis of the difference
in their sizes.
8. Magnetic separation - separating
components of mixtures by using magnets to
attract magnetic materials.
9. Evaporation - to separate a soluble solid from
a liquid. The method drives off the liquid
components from the solid components. The
process typically involves heating the mixture
until no more liquid remain.
ACCURACY - measures how close results are to the
true or known value
PRECISION - measures how close results are to one
another
ERROR - the difference between the experimental
value and the accepted value
● Accepted value - the correct value of the
measurement based on reliable references
● Experimental Value - value measured in lab
Error = experimental value - accepted value
ex : Suppose you use a thermometer to measure the
boiling point of pure water at standard pressure. The
thermometer reads 99.1°C.
The true value of the boiling points of pure water is
100°C. The error is 99.1°C - 100°C
PERCENT ERROR - the absolute value of the measured
experimental value minus the accepted value,
multiplied by 100%
- will always be a positive value
ex: Substitute the equation for error, and then plug in
the known values.
𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 − 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
Percent error = 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
𝑥 100%
99.1°𝐶 − 100°𝐶
= 100°𝐶
𝑥 100%
0.9°𝐶
= 𝑥 100% = 0. 9%
100°𝐶
Significant Figures - consists of all the digits known
with certainty plus one final digit, which is uncertain or
is estimated
- The first digit is certain and the second digit
is uncertain because it is an estimate.
- It is significant even if it is not certain
 - The more significant digits a value has, the
more the accurate the measurement will be
RULES FOR SIGNIFICANT FIGURES
1. Any nonzero number is always significant
ex. 274 - 3 sig figs
Dimensional Analysis - the method of performing
calculations by multiplying a quantity by unity which
does not change the value of an expression.
- the reciprocal of any unit factor is also a unit
factor

25.632 - 5 sig figs

8.987 - 4 sig figs

2. Any zero between nonzero numbers is

significant

ex. 504 - 3 sig figs

60002 - 5 sig figs

9. 077 - 4 sig figs

3. Any zero before a nonzero number is not

significant

ex. 0.0002 - 1 sig figs

23
6.02 x 10 - 2 sig figs
ex. Express 1.0 gallon in milliliters.
100.000 - 6 sig figs
4𝑞𝑡 1𝐿 1000 𝑚𝐿 3
1.0 gal ( 1𝑔𝑎𝑙 )( 1.06 𝑞𝑡 )( 1𝐿
) = 3. 8 𝑥 10 𝑚𝐿
150000 - 1 sig figs
3
28,317 𝑐𝑚 3
1.0 gal ( ) = 3. 8 𝑥 10 𝑚𝐿
4. Any zero after a nonzero number is significant 7.4805 𝑔𝑎𝑙

only if there is a decimal in the number. 6

1 𝑥 10 𝑚𝐿 3
1.0 gal ( 264.17 𝑔𝑎𝑙
) = 3. 8 𝑥 10 𝑚𝐿
ex. 32.0 - 3 sig figs
Periodic trends
19.000 - 5 sig figs
- Atomic radius, metallic property, reactivity
105.0020 - 7 sig figs : decreases from left to right and increases
from top to bottom
Rule for Addition and Subtraction (Significant Figs)
- Ionization, electron affinity,
- your answer must show the same number of electronegativity
decimal places as the number in the : increases from left to right and decreases
calculation with the least number of decimal from top to bottom
places

ex. 369.3389 + 17.24 = 386.5789 ≈ 386.58

39.61 - 17.3 = 22.31 ≈ 22.3

Rule for Multiplication and Division (Significant Figs)

- your answer must show the same number of

significant digits as the measurement in the
calculation with the least number of
significant digits

ex. 6.99 x .25 = 1.7475 ≈ 1.7

Chemical Bonding
3.66÷.38 = 9.6315 ≈ 9.7
Ionic metal + non metal
 - Octet rule: electron in the outer shell must be Rule : if oxygen is the next element then the vowels in
8 each prefixes will be drop on the end like “tetra” –
- There’s a transfer of electrons from one atom “tetr”
to another.
Ex. HO; Hydrogen Monoxide

Covalent : nonmetal + nonmetal 1. N3O6 – Trinitrogen Hexoxide

- Sharing of electrons 2. H2O – Dihydrogen Monoxide
3. CCl4 – Carbon Tetrachloride
Metallic : all metal but doesn’t form bonds,
only clouds of electrons to create alloy.
NOTE!
Types of ionic How to use “ide” and “ate” in suffix

1. Binary (M+NM)
- Ide: Two elements
- Fe2+ (Fer OUS) = Iron (II)
- Ate: Three or more elements
- Fe3+ (Fe RIC) = Iron (III)
Ex.

Ide Ate

CaC2 CaCo3

Kl KlO3

FeS FeSO4
How to name?

- Na1+ Cl = NaCl (Sodium chloride) 4. Bases: (OH-) Hydroxide

3+ 2
- Fe S = Fe2S3 (Iron(III)Sulfide) or Ferric sulfide 1. Polyatomic ions: OH-, Na+ - NaOH
- Au3+ Br31- = Au (BrO3)3 (Gold(III)Bromate)or = Sodium Hydroxide (lye)
Auric bromate 2. Ca2+OH- - Ca(OH)2
= Calcium Hydroxide
Note! Note!
- Ous: when 2 or 1 - May Parenthesis ang “Polyatomic”
- Ric: when more than 2
- Suffix: ate, ide 5. ACID (H1+) Hydro
- Roman numeral: always based on list a. Binary acid – There’s 1H and 1 single
equation element
Ex. Au3 (Gold(III)) Fe2 (Iron(II)) 1. Prefix: Hydro
2. Stem + Suffix: “ic”
2. Pseudo – Binary (M + Polyatomic ions) 3. Acid
Ex. of poly: Co32-CO3
Criss Cross and naming Ex.
1+ 2 3
1. Na CO – Na2CO
3
1. H+1 Cl – HCl
- Sodium carbonate
: Hydrochloric Acid
2. Mg2+PO43 – Mg3(PO4)2
2. H1+ F2- - HF
- Magnesium phosphate
:Hydrofluoric Acid
3. Fe2+SO42- - Fe4(SO4)
3. H1+ S2 – H2S
- Ferrous sulfate or Iron(II) Sulfate
:Hydrosulfuric Acid

3. NonMetal – Nonmetal – Binary

b. Oxyacid – Acid + Polyatomic (acid with
Uses Greek Fixes:
oxygen)

1 mono 2 di 3 tri 4 tetra 5 penta

Ex.
6 hexa 7 hepta 8 Octa 9 nona 10 deca
1. H+CO32 -H2O3
= Carbonic Acid
2. H+S42 – H2S4
= Sulfuric Acid
 How to name?
1. Name the Non metal ( So di na kasali si
Hydrogen)
2. Suffix: ic
3. Acid

6. Series of Acids – All that ends with “ate” formed the

most common acid

Ex. Given Carbonic Acid or H2CO3

- H2CO4 PerCarbonic Acid

- H2CO3 Carbonic Acid Atomic weight
- H2CO2 Carborous Acid
- H2CO Hypocarbonous Acid ● Molar mass: g/moL
● Formula mass – when ionic (a.mu.)

Note! ● Molecular mass – covalent (a.mu.)

- Per ang pinaka mataas ● Atom mass (g)

- Hypo ang pinaka mababa ● Atomic mass unit (a.mu.)

Ex.
1. Hydrates
- Combination of Polyatomic ( 3 or more), Molecular mass and its covalent compound
Binary (2) ion, and hydrate
- Uses Greek prefixes

Ex.

1. Na2CO3 5H2O
= Sodium Carbonate Pentahydrate
2. C9(ClO3) 7H2O
= Calcium Chlorate Heptahydrate
3. LiHCO3 9H2O
= Lithium carbonate or Bi Carbonate
Nonahydrate
Percent composition
Chemical Reaction and Equations - Describe the composition by mass of various
substances
Reaction: A process where a substance - Formula:
𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡
x 100% = percent composition
𝑤ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑒
interacts with one another producing a
chemical change
Equation: Representation of chemical
reaction, symbols and formulas. Expression of
chemical reaction.
Symbols: Atoms and elements
Formulas: Compounds

2 Parts of chemical reactions

1. Reactant – reacts/interacts
- To yield, produce, to form
2. Product – Chemical Change

Empirical formula
Subscript – H2O
- the simplest whole number ratio of atoms
Coefficient - 2 H2O
present in a compound
Rule: never change the subscript, only
coefficient
A simple rhyme for a simple formula by Joel S. Compressibility - very compressible
Thomspon
Volume and Shape - assumes the shape and volume
Percent to mass
of the container
Mass to mole
Divide by small Molecular Motion - free motion; forming
Multiply ‘til whole homogeneous mixture with one another

Pressure (P) - the force the gas exerts on a given

Adjusting the ratio
area. SI unit (Pa) pascal.
What do you do if you get a ratio with something that
ends in? 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
pressure = 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎
- 0.5? multiply by 2
- 0.33 or 0.66? multiply by 3 ● Barometer - measures atmospheric pressure
- 0.25 or 0.75? multiply by 4 ● Manometer - measures contained gas
- 0.20, 0.40, 0.60, or 0.80? multiply by 6 pressure

Key Units at Sea Level

ex. Adipic acid

49.32 𝑔 𝐶 101.325 kPa (kilopascal) 1 atm

49.32% C, → 12 𝑔/𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶
= 4.11 mol/2.74 = 1.5 x 2 = 3

6.85 𝑔 𝐻
760 mmHg 760 torr
6.85% H, → 1 𝑔/𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐻
= 6.80 mol/2.74 = 2.5 x 2 = 5
14.7 psi (pounds per square inch)
43.84 𝑔 𝑂
43.84% O, → 16 𝑔/𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑂
= 2.74 mol/2.74 = 1 x 2 = 2
𝑁
kPa = 2
𝑚
empirical formula: C3H5O2 ratio: 3:5:2

Molecular Formula - specifies the actual number of

Volume (V) - three dimensional space inside a
atoms of each element in one molecule or formula 3
container holding the gas. SI unit (𝑚 ) or L
unit of the substance

ex. Adipic acid, the molar mass is 146g/mol Temperature (T) - always use absolute temperature
(K) when working with gasses.
3(12g)+5(1g)+2(16g)=73 g/mol

146 𝑔/𝑚𝑜𝑙
= 2 mol (then divide to the ratio of the Amount (n) - SI unit (mol) since we can’t count
73𝑔
molecules, we convert measured mass (kg) to the
empirical formula)
number of moles (n) using the molecular formula
3x2=6 weight of the gas.
5 x 2 = 10
GAS LAWS
2x2=4
A. Boyle's Law - states that a gas's pressure and
Molecular formula: C6H10O4
volume are inversely proportional. If the
A. Kinetic Molecular Theory volume increases, the pressure decreases.
- Robert Boyle - 1600s.
- have no volume
- are in constant, random, straight-line motion.
- don’t attract/repel each other

B. Characteristics of Gases
Formula: P1V2 = P2V2
- gases expand to fill any container
- gases are fluids (no attraction)
- gases have very low densities
- can be compressed (no volume)
- undergo diffusion and effusion (random ex. A sample of oxygen gas has a volume of 150 mL
motion) when its pressure is 0.947 atm. What will the volume
of the gas at a pressure of 0.987 atm if the
C. Properties of Gases
temperature does not change?
Density - low and highly variable based on T and P
P1 = 0.947 atm ex. At a constant volume, a gas has a pressure of 2.50
V1 = 150 mL atm at 32°C. Find the new pressure if temperature
P2 = 0.987 atm increases to 55°C.
V2 = ?
P1 =2.50 atm
𝑃1𝑉1 𝑃2𝑉2 𝑃1𝑉1
= → = 𝑉2
𝑃2 𝑃2 𝑃2 T1 = 32°C + 273 = 305 K

V2 = (0.947)(150)/.987) = 144 mL of oxygen gas P2 = ?

T2 = 55°C + 273 = 328 K

B. Charles Law - the volume of a given mass of 𝑃1𝑇1 𝑇2𝑃2 𝑃1𝑇1

𝑉2
= 𝑇2
→ 𝑇2
= 𝑃2
a gas is directly proportional to its pressure
at a constant temperature. If the P2 = (2.50 atm)(328 K)/(305 K) = 2.69 atm
temperature decreases, the volume
D. Combined Gas Law - combines the three gas
decreases.
laws: Boyle's Law, Charles' Law, and
- Jacques Charles - 19th century
Gay-Lussac's Law

𝑃1𝑉1 𝑃2𝑉2
𝑇1
= 𝑇2
→ P1V1T2 = P2V2T1
𝑉1 𝑉2
Formula:
𝑇1
= 𝑇2
3
ex. A gas occupies 7.84 𝑐𝑚 at 71.8 kPa & 25°C. Find its
volume at STP
3
V1 = 7.84 𝑐𝑚
P1 = 71.8 kPa
T1 = 25°C + 273 = 298 K
V2 = ?
3
ex. A gas occupies 473 𝑐𝑚 at 36°C . Find its volume at P2 = 101.325 kPa
94°C. T2 = 273 K
𝑃1𝑉1 𝑃2𝑉2
V1 = 473 𝑐𝑚
3
𝑇1
= 𝑇2
3
V2 = (71.8 kPa)(7.84 𝑐𝑚 )(273 K)/(101.325 kPa)(298 K) =
T1 = 36°C + 273 = 309 K 3
5.09 𝑐𝑚
V2 = ?

T2 = 94°C + 273 = 367 K E. Avogadro’s Principle/Law - the volume of a

𝑉1𝑇1 𝑇2𝑉2 𝑉1𝑇1

gas is directly proportional to the number of
= → = 𝑉2
𝑉2 𝑇2 𝑉2 moles of gas, when the temperature and
3 3 pressure are held constant
V2 = (473 𝑐𝑚 )( 367 K)/(309 K) = 562 𝑐𝑚
-

C. Gay-Lussac’s Law - The pressure and

absolute temperature of the gas are directly
proportional at a constant mass and volume. 𝑉1 𝑉2
Formula:
𝑛1
= 𝑛2
If the pressure increases the temperature also
increases.
- Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac

ex. A large bench ball has a volume of 4.60 L when

filled with 0.225 moles of air. If air leaks out so that the
𝑃1 𝑃2 volume decreases too 3.60L, how many moles of gas
Formula:
𝑇1
= 𝑇2 escaped?

𝑉1 𝑉2
𝑛1
= 𝑛2

𝑛1𝑉2 (0.225 𝑚𝑜𝑙)(3.60𝐿)

n2 = 𝑉1
= 4.60 𝐿
= 0. 176 𝑚𝑜𝑙
 𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑒𝑑 = 𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 − 𝑛𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 Ideas Gas Real Gas

= 0.225 mol - 0.176 mol = 0.049 mol Obey Always Only at very
PV=nRT low P and
high T

F. Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressure - the total Molecular Zero Small but
amount of pressure of a mixture in a given volume nonzero
volume equates to the sum of the partial
pressures of each gas in the mixture. Molecular Zero Small
attractions
𝑃𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝑃1 + 𝑃2 + 𝑃3 +... + 𝑃𝑛
Molecular Zero Small
ex. A sample of exhaled air contains four gasses with repulsions
the following partial pressures: 𝑁2(563 mm Hg), 𝑂2(118
mm Hg), 𝐶𝑂2(30 mm Hg) and 𝐻2𝑂 (50 mm Hg). What
The Development of the Atomic Theory
is the total pressure of the sample?
ATOMS- the building blocks of all substances and
𝑃𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 563 + 118 + 30 +... + 50
materials in the universe.

𝑃𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 761 𝑚𝑚 𝐻𝑔

G. Ideal Gas Law - the pressure, volume, and

temperature of the gas are related to the
number of moles.

𝑃𝑉 = 𝑛𝑅𝑇
𝑃𝑉 𝑛𝑅𝑇
𝑉
= 𝑉

Universal Gas Constant

● R = 0.08206 L⋅atm/mol⋅K
3 DEMOCRITUS
● R = 8.315 𝑑𝑚 ⋅kPa/mol⋅K

3
- A pupil of Leucippus.
ex. A 75 g 𝑂2 gas occupies 10.12 𝑐𝑚 at 25 °C.
- They believed that materials could be broken
Find its pressure. down into smaller pieces. However, there will
3
V = 10.12 𝑐𝑚 = 0.01012L → kaya naging 0.01012 come a point beyond which the particles can
3 no longer be divided.
kasi cinonvert 𝑐𝑚 to liters which is (10.12 x
1000) - He called the tiny particles ATOMOS

P=?
DEMOCRITUS' ATOMIC THEORY
T = 25°C = 298 K
- Atoms of each element are distinct in shape
mass = 75 g and size.

n = 75g/32 g/mol = 2.34 mol - Real substances are mixtures of atoms of

different elements in different proportions.
R = 0.08206 L-atm/mol.K
OTHER SCIENTISTS WHO SUPPORTED THE THEORY OF
𝑃𝑉 = 𝑛𝑅𝑇 DEMOCRITUS:

P(2.34mol)(0.08206L-atm/mol.K)(298K)/(0.01 ● Aristotle believed that matter was continuous,

012L) that matter exists in one piece.
● Robert Boyle- worked on the compressibility
of gasses
● Isaac Newton - used the idea of atoms to
describe and explain physical observations
Robert Boyle's theory - substances are made up of
simpler substances called elements and that two or
more elements may combine to form a complex
substances called a compound.
- The concept of the atom developed further in
the early 19th century.
John Dalton, an English school teacher, pointed out
that all materials were made up of atoms.
Dalton's Atomic Theory (1803):
- Matter is made up of very small
indestructible particles called atoms.
- Atoms of a given element are identical. They
are unique and unchangeable.
- Atoms are . neither created nor destroyed
- Atoms combine to form compounds. They
combine in a definite ratio of small whole
numbers.
LAWS OF CHEMICAL CHANGE
LAW OF DEFINITE COMPOSITION - states that when
two elements combine to form a compound, the ratio
of the combining masses is constant.
Example:
magnesium + oxygen = magnesium oxide
48 g 32 g 80 g
The fixed ratio at which magnesium reacts with
oxygen is therefore 48:32 or 3:2.
If 12 grams of magnesium is used instead,
magnesium + oxygen = magnesium oxide
12 g 8g 20 g
8 grams of oxygen is needed to completely react with
magnesium.
LAW OF MULTIPLE PROPORTIONS - states that when
two elements combine to form more than one
compound, the mass of one element which
combined with a fixed mass of the other is a ratio of
small whole numbers.

LAW OF CONSERVATION OF MASS - states that during
all chemical reactions, the mass of the atoms
involved does not change. This means that matter
can neither be created nor destroyed but is only
transformed.
SUBATOMIC PARTICLES
● THE DISCOVERY OF THE ELECTRON
- The term electron was suggested by George
J. Stoney, an Irish physicist, to identify this
negatively-charged part of an atom.
- The notable work of scientists E. Goldstein, W.
Crookes, and J.J. Thomson suggested the
existence of a negatively charged particle in
all forms of matter.
- The discovery of the electron, the first
subatomic particle, is credited to J.J.
Thomson. He discovered the electron through
his work with the discharge tube.
- The charge of an electron was determined by
an American scientist Robert A. Millikan in
1909. The charge is given a value of one
minus(1-).
THE PROTON
- In 1886 Eugene Goldstein observed rays
passing through the hole of a cathode in a
cathode tube. These rays are made up of
positive particles. These particles have a
charge equal in magnitude and opposite in
sign to that of the electron. This particle is
called the proton.
THE NEUTRON
- The total mass of an atom cannot be counted
for by its protons alone. Sir James Chadwick
learned about this when he discovered the
neutron in 1932. He found that the particle was
electrically neutral and its mass was
approximately the same as that of the proton.
DALTON'S MODEL
- He pictured an atom as a tiny indestructible,
indivisible sphere with mass.
THOMSON'S MODEL
- He proposed the raisin- bread model of the
atom.
- He said that the negatively charged
embedded electrons were in a positively
charged mass similar to the way raisins are
embedded in bread.
- The negative charge of the electrons and the
positive charge of the sphere cancel each
other out to form neutral atoms.
RUTHERFORD'S MODEL
- Ernest Rutherford proposed the nuclear
model of the atom.
 - He won a Nobel prize in 1908 for his discovery
of the nucleus. The nucleus is a tiny, positive,
central core of the atom where its mass is
concentrated.
- The electrons in the atom revolve around the
nucleus.

BOHR'S MODEL

- Niels Bohr presented a solar system model of

an atom.
- The electron in this model moved in definite
orbits around the nucleus.

THE MODERN ATOMIC MODEL

- It is a modified Bohr's model.

- The nucleus is surrounded by a dense area of
electron clouds.
- It is in the clouds that electrons move.

MORE ON PROTONS, NEUTRONS AND ELECTRONS

- The atoms of an element have a constant or

fixed number of protons.
- The atomic number gives the number of ex. Converting from the mass number and the atomic

protons in the nucleus of the atom. number to the number of neutrons

- For a neutral atom, the number of protons is

1.) An atom of calcium has a mass number of 42
equal to the number of its electrons.
and an atomic number of 20. How many
- The atomic number is often represented by
neutrons are there in its nucleus?
the symbol Z.
- Ions are a group of atoms that have an
- an atom of calcium with an atomic number of 20
electric charge. Ions with a positive charge
has 20 protons in its nucleus.
are called Cations. Ions with a negative
charge are called Anions . mass number = number of protons + number of
neutrons
Number of neutrons = mass number(A)- atomic
number(Z)
42 = 20 + 22 (number of neutrons)
Mass number (A) = number of protons + number of
neutrons 22 = number of neutrons
Atomic number (Z) = number of protons = number of
electrons An atom of calcium has 22 neutrons in its nucleus.
Protons = electrons
2.) The isotope oxygen-18 has the nuclide symbol
+ −
𝑃 = 𝑒 in uncharged atoms

+
z always equal to proton (𝑃 )
1. How many protons are there in atoms
𝑐
A (𝑛 + 𝑝) to get 𝑛 (A-P)
0
of oxygen-18?
2. How many neutrons are there in
(-) nagdadagdag (+) nagbibigay
atoms of oxygen-18?
3. What is the mass number of
oxygen-18
1. The bottom-left number is the atomic number.
Therefore, all atoms of oxygen-18 have eight protons.
2. The top-left number is the mass number.
mass number = number of protons + number of
neutrons.
18 = 8 + number of neutrons
= 10 ( kaya naging ten kasi sinubract ung mass
number sa number of protons)
All atoms of oxygen-18 contain 10 neutrons

3. The top-left number is the mass number. The mass

number of oxygen-18 is 18.