CHAPTER 4 LIQUIDS AND SOLIDS

LECTURE NO. 1 LIQUIDS

PREVIEW OF TODAY’S TOPICS
 Factors affecting London dispersion
 Liquids  Intermolecular Forces
Forces
LONG QUESTION
What are London dispersion Forces? Give factors affecting when specially for halogens
and hydrocarbons. (FSD 2021, BWP 2021-K.B)
SHORT QUESTIONS
• Name the factors which affect the London forces. (LHR 2021-U.B)
• What are Deby forces? (MTN 2021, DGK 2021-A.B)
LIQUIDS
Definition:
Those substance which has definite volume but not definite shape.
The intermolecular attractive forces in liquids are intermediate between gases and solids.
TYPE OF FORCE (INTERMOLECULAR FORCES)
• Intermolecular Forces
Attractive force present between the molecules of a substance.
Example: Vander Waal’s forces (Forces operate between all kinds of molecules when they are
sufficiently close.)
• Intramolecular Forces
Attractive force that holds the two atoms together within a molecule.
• Types of Intermolecular Forces
1. Dipole-Dipole Force
The force of attraction present between opposite poles of two dipoles.
Example: Hδ+⎯ Clδ- .......Hδ+ ⎯ Clδ− .......Hδ+ ⎯ Clδ−
Dipole-dipole force exist between permanent dipoles
Dipole-dipole forces are 1 % as effective as a covalent bond.
• Factors Affecting Dipole-Dipole Forces:
(a) Electronegativity difference
(b) The intermolecular distance
2. Dipole-Induced Dipole Forces (Debye Forces):
The force of attraction present between permanent dipole and induced dipole.
δ+ δ-
Example: H ⎯ Cl ..... Ar
• Dipole-induced dipole force exists between a polar and a non-polar molecule.

KIPS REVISION LECTURE NOTES – 1st YEAR (PUNJAB BOARD) 35

 CHAPTER 4 LIQUIDS AND SOLIDS
3. Ion-Dipole Forces:
Attraction between an ion and a dipole.
Example:
+
H
+ −
Na O
+
H
4. Instantaneous Dipole-Induced dipole forces (London dispersion forces):
The force of attraction present between oppositely charged end of an instantaneous dipole and induced
dipole.
(a) These forces were discovered by a German physicist, Fritz London in 1930.
(b) It is the only force that is present between non-polar molecules.
(c) London forces are present in all the types of molecules whether polar or non-polar but are very
significant between non-polar molecules like H2, Cl2, He, Ne, Ar etc.
Example: The forces of attraction between chlorine molecules
FACTORS AFFECTING LONDON DISPERSION FORCES:
1. Size of electronic cloud:
Large sized atom has greater electronic cloud, greater will be its polarizability and stronger
London force.
Example:
(a) The boiling points of noble gases increase down the group.
(b) The physical states of halogens change from gas to solid.
2. Number of atoms in a molecule (Atomicity):
Greater the number of atoms, greater is the polarizability and strength of London force.
Example:
Boiling point of C2H6 and C6H14 are -88.6oC and 68.7oC respectively.
STRENGTH ORDER OF INTERMOLECULAR FORCES
• Strength order of intermolecular forces by reference of average dissociation energies
Hydrogen bonding > Dipole-Dipole forces > Dipole-induced dipole forces > London dispersion
forces

KIPS REVISION LECTURE NOTES – 1st YEAR (PUNJAB BOARD) 36

 CHAPTER 4 LIQUIDS AND SOLIDS
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS
1. London dispersion forces are the only forces present among. (MTN 2021, BWP 2021-U.B)
a) The molecules of H2O in liquid state at high temperature
b) The atoms of Helium in gaseous state at high temperature
c) The molecules of hydrogen chloride gas
d) The molecules of solid iodine
2. Down the group polarizability generally (U.B)
a) Increases b) Decreases
c) Remains same d) None of these
3. The dipole-dipole forces are approximately _____________ percent as effective as
covalent bond (A.B)
a) 1% b) 5%
c) 10% d) 20%
4. Dipole-induced dipole forces are also called (K.B)
a) Debye’s forces b) Dipole-dipole forces
c) Hydrogen bonding d) London dispersion forces
5. The maximum polarizability among the following is (U.B)
a) F2 b) Cl2
c) Br2 d) I2
SHORT QUESTIONS
1. Define Polarizability. How it affect London dispersion forces (MTN 2019-A.B)
Ans: Polarizability is the quantitative measurement of the extent to which the electronic cloud
can be polarized or distorted i.e. separation of charges.
The main factor that affects the strength of London force is polarizability. Higher the polarizability
stronger will be the London Dispersion forces. The polarizability in turn depends upon the following
factors.
• Size of electronic cloud.
• Number of atoms in a molecule. (atomicity)
2. Explain Dipole-Dipole forces in chloroform (MTN 2021, BWP 2021-A.B)
Ans: The intermolecular force of attraction between positive end of a polar molecule (a dipole)
and the negatively charged end of neighbouring polar molecule (another dipole) is called as
dipole-dipole force.
Example:

KIPS REVISION LECTURE NOTES – 1st YEAR (PUNJAB BOARD) 37

CHAPTER 4 LIQUIDS AND SOLIDS
LECTURE NO. 2
PREVIEW OF TODAY’S TOPICS
 Properties and
 Explanation by Applications of
 Hydrogen Bonding
Examples Compounds Containing
Hydrogen Bonding
LONG QUESTIONS
Discuss role of hydrogen bonding in biological compounds OR (GRW 2021-A.B)
Explain structure of ice on the basis of hydrogen bonding (LHR 2021, DGK 2021, FSD 2022-A.B)
SHORT QUESTIONS
• Lower alcohols are soluble in water but hydrocarbons are insoluble. Give reason
(LHR 2018, SWL 2019-K.B)
• How soaps perform their cleansing action? (SGD 2019, SWL 2021)
HYDROGEN BONDING
Definition: O O
The force of attraction present between highly partial positive hydrogen and + + + +

H H H H
highly electronegative atom.
Example: H2O, Alcohol etc. O
1. It is a special type of dipole-dipole force. + +

2. It is much stronger than simple dipole-dipole force. H H

3. Its strength is 20 times less than that of a covalent bond. O O
Explanation by examples:
+ +

1. Hydrogen bonding in H2O: +

H H H
+

H
The force of attraction present between partial positive hydrogen atom and oxygen of another
water molecule. Two hydrogen bonds per H2O molecule.
2. Hydrogen bonding in HF:
The force of attraction present between partial positive hydrogen atom and
fluorine atom of another HF molecule. One hydrogen bond per HF molecule.
3. Hydrogen bonding in NH3:
The force of attraction present between partial positive hydrogen atom and
nitrogen atom of another NH3 molecule. One hydrogen bond per NH3
molecule.
PROPERTIES AND APPLICATIONS OF COMPOUNDS CONTAINING
HYDROGEN BONDING
1. Thermodynamic properties of covalent Hydrides:
Properties of covalent hydrides which depends upon
temperature or heat.
Example: Melting point and Boiling point etc.
Boiling points of covalent Hydrides
IV-A: SnH4 > GeH4 > SiH4 > CH4
V-A: SbH3 > NH3 > AsH3 > PH3
VI-A: H2O > H2Te > H2Se > H2S
VII-A: HF > HI > HBr > HCl
2. Solubility of hydrogen bonded molecules:
Soluble in water.
Example:
Lower alcohols and Lower carboxylic acid show hydrogen
bonding with water. So they are easily soluble in water.
Hydrocarbons being non-polar are completely insoluble in water.

KIPS REVISION LECTURE NOTES – 1st YEAR (PUNJAB BOARD) 38

 CHAPTER 4 LIQUIDS AND SOLIDS
3. Structure of Ice:
The molecule of water in ice has tetrahedral structure. The structure of ice is
like diamond. Due to empty spaces in the structure, ice occupies 9% more
space than liquid water. Density of ice is 9% less than liquid water. Ice floats
on surface of water.
4. Cleansing action of soaps and detergents due to hydrogen bonding:
Polar part of soaps and detergents are water soluble but non-polar parts remain
out side the water, because they are alkyl or benzyl portion and are insoluble
in water.
5. Hydrogen bonding in biological compounds and food materials:
(a) In Proteins
(b) In Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
(c) In Food Materials
(vi) Hydrogen Bonding in Paints, Dyes and Textile materials:
• Adhesive action of paints and dyes.
• Glue and honey as sticky substances.
• Rigidity and tensile strength of cotton, silk or synthetic fibres for clothing.
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS
1. Acetone and chloroform are soluble in each other due to
(BWP 2019, MTN 2019, 21, DGK 2022, SWL 2022-U.B)
a) Intermolecular hydrogen bonding b) Ion -dipole interaction
c) Dipole induced-dipole forces d) London dispersion forces
2. Among the given H-Bonding is maximum in (SWL 2021-K.B)
a) Alcohol b) Benzene
c) Water d) Diethyl ether
3. Density of ice is minimum at –4°C due to (LHR 2019, FSD 2022-U.B)
a) Empty spaces in structure of ice b) Tetrahedral shape of crystal of ice
c) Large bond lengths d) Large bond angles
4. The order of acidic strength (MTN 2021-A.B)
a) HF > HCl > HBr > HI b) HCl > HF > HI > HBr
c) HI > HBr > HCl > HF d) HBr > HF > HI > HCl
5. NH3 shows maximum boiling point among the hydrides of group VA elements due to
(LHR 2019, 22-K.B)
a) Very small size of nitrogen
b) Lone pair of electrons present on nitrogen
c) Enhanced electronegative character of nitrogen
d) Pyramidal structure of NH3
SHORT QUESTIONS
1. Why does ice float on water? (LHR 2018, MTN 2019, RWP 2022-U.B)
Ans: Due to hydrogen bonding molecules of water get arranged tetrahedrally so, empty spaces
are created in the structure of ice hence volume of ice increases 9% than liquid water Density of
ice is 9% less than liquid water that is why ice floats on surface of water.
2. Why water is liquid and H2S is a gas at room temperature? (FSD 2019, MTN 2019-K.B)
Ans: Water is liquid and H2S is room temperature because among water molecules strong
hydrogen bonding is found which is strongest intermolecular force while in H2S weak dipole -
dipole forces are present.

KIPS REVISION LECTURE NOTES – 1st YEAR (PUNJAB BOARD) 39

CHAPTER 4 LIQUIDS AND SOLIDS
LECTURE NO. 3
PREVIEW OF TODAY’S TOPICS
 Evaporation  Vapour Pressure  Boiling Point
LONG QUESTION
Describe manometric method for the measurement of vapour pressure of liquid.
(LHR 2018, SWL 2019, RWP 2019, BWP 2022, MTN 2022-A.B)
SHORT QUESTIONS
• Why boiling point of H2O is different at Muree hills and at Mount Everest
(LHR 2018-A.B)
• One feels sense of cooling under the fan after bath. Comment on it.
(SGD 2019, BWP 2022-A.B)
EVAPORATION
Definition:
The spontaneous change of liquid into vapours at any temperature. Evaporation causes cooling
Factors affecting the rate of evaporation:
1. Surface area:
Evaporation increases by increasing surface area.
2. Intermolecular forces:
A Evaporation increasing when weak inter molecular forces are present.
3. Temperature:
Evaporation increases by increasing temperature of the liquid.
VAPOUR PRESSURE
The pressure exerted by vapours on the surface of the liquid in equilibrium with the liquid at a
given temperature.
• Condensation: Vapours into liquid.
At dynamic equilibrium:
Liquid Vapours
Rate of evaporation = Rate of condensation, state of dynamic equilibrium
• Vapour pressure does not depend upon:
1. Amount of liquid
2. Volume of container
3. Surface area of liquid
Factors affecting the vapour pressure:
1. Intermolecular forces
Vapour pressure increases with decreasing strength of intermolecular forces and vice versa.
Example: Vapour pressure of water is 17.5 torr and ether is 44.2 torr at 20oC.

KIPS REVISION LECTURE NOTES – 1st YEAR (PUNJAB BOARD) 40

 CHAPTER 4 LIQUIDS AND SOLIDS
2. Temperature
Vapour pressure increases with the increase in temperature and vice versa.
Example: Vapour pressure of H2O is 4.578 torr at 0oC and 760 torr at 100oC.
• Measurement of Vapour Pressure: (Manometric method)

P = Pa + h
BOILING POINT
The temperature at which vapour pressure of liquid becomes equal to external pressure.
Example: Boiling point of H2O at one atm is 100oC.
• Molar heat of vaporization (Hv):
Amount of heat required to vapourize one mole of a liquid at its boiling point (Hv).
−1
Example: H 2 O( ) H 2O(g) = + 40.6 kJ mol
Factor affecting the boiling points:
1. Intermolecular forces
B.Pt.  intermolecular forces
Example: Boiling point of ether is 34.6 °C (weak dipole–
dipole forces) and boiling point of water is 100oC (strong
hydrogen bonding) at one atm pressure.
2. External pressure
B.Pt. External pressure
Example: Boiling point of H2O is 120oC at 1489 torr and 100oC at 760 torr (at sea level).
Practical applications of effect of external pressure on boiling point:
1. Pressure cooker: Boiling point of water increases under increased pressure
2. Vacuum distillation: Boiling point decreases under reduced pressure
Example: Glycerine boils as well as decomposes at 290oC and 760 torr (1atm). Hence, it cannot
be distilled at 290oC. It can be distilled without decomposition at 210oC under reduced pressure
of 50 torr. As a result, it can be purified easily.
Advantages of vacuum distillation:
1. It decreases the time for distillation.
2. It is economical as it consumes less fuel.
3. The decomposition of many liquids can be avoided.

KIPS REVISION LECTURE NOTES – 1st YEAR (PUNJAB BOARD) 41

 CHAPTER 4 LIQUIDS AND SOLIDS
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS
1. The boiling point of water at Murree hill is (GRW 2018-U.B)
a) 99.8°C b) 98°C
c) 100°C d) 89°C
2. Evaporation is a (U.B)
a) Spontaneous process b) Cooling process
c) Endothermic process d) All of these
3. Vapour pressure is not affected by (U.B)
a) Nature of liquid b) Temperature
c) Intermolecular forces d) Amount of liquid
4. The highest vapour pressure at 20°C is for (A.B)
a) Glycerol b) Diethyl ether
c) Chloroform d) Carbon tetrachloride
5. A pressure cooker reduces cooking time because (A.B)
a) Heat is uniformly distributed b) Boiling point of water rises
c) Boiling point of water decreases d) Vapour pressure of liquid decreases
SHORT QUESTIONS
1. Define vapour pressure. Name the factors which affect vapour pressure (GRW 2019-K.B)
Ans: The pressure exerted by the vapours of a liquid at the dynamic equilibrium between the
vapours and liquid is called vapour pressure. This depends upon
1. Temperature (directly related)
2. Intermolecular forces (inversely related)
Vapour pressure of a liquid is measured by manometric method.
2. Why boiling needs a constant supply of heat? (BWP 2019-U.B)
Ans: Before boiling point, the heat supplied increases the K.E. of the molecules so temperature
increases as average K.E. varies directly with temperature. At boiling point, the K.E. of the
molecules becomes maximum or saturated, so the temperature also becomes constant. Now the
heat supplied is only used to break intermolecular forces and convert liquid into vapours. So
boiling needs constant heat supply.

KIPS REVISION LECTURE NOTES – 1st YEAR (PUNJAB BOARD) 42

 CHAPTER 4 LIQUIDS AND SOLIDS
LECTURE NO. 4
PREVIEW OF TODAY’S TOPICS
 Energetic of Phase  Change of State and
 Liquid Crystals
Changes Dynamic Equilibrium
LONG QUESTION
What are liquid crystals? Give their uses in daily life. (MTN 2021, BWP 2021-K.B)
SHORT QUESTIONS
• How liquid crystal act as temperature sensor (FSD 2019-A.B)
• Define molar heat of diffusion. With example (GRW 2019-U.B)
ENERGETIC OF PHASE CHANGES
Definition:
Energy changes at constant pressure during phase change.
Enthalpy change (H):
The heat change during a physical or chemical change at constant pressure. Units are kJ/mol or
kcal/mol.
1. Molar heat of vapourization (∆Hv):
The amount of energy required to convert one mole of liquid into its vapours at boiling point
2. Molar heat of Fusion (∆Hf):
The amount of heat required to convert one mole of a solid into liquid at melting point
3. Molar heat of sublimation (∆Hs)
The amount of heat required to convert one mole of a solid into its vapours.
All these enthalpy changes are positive because they are endothermic processes.
Energy changes and intermolecular attraction:
1. ∆Hv of a substance is greater than ∆Hf
2. ∆Hs of a substance is greater than ∆Hv
So, Hs > Hv > Hf
Comparison of enthalpy change of vapourization of some substances:
Hv for I2 is highest among halogens (F2, Cl2, Br2) due to greatest polarizability and strongest
London dispersion forces between its molecules.
CHANGE OF STATE AND DYNMAIC EQUILIBRIUM
Dynamic equilibrium is a situation when two opposing changes occur at equal rates. Dynamic
equilibrium is the rate or the ultimate goal of all the reversible chemical reactions and all the
0 C
physical changes. Ice water
LIQUID CRYSTALS
The turbid liquid phase of a solid that exists in between the melting and clearing temperature.
Discovery:
In 1888, Frederick Reinitzer, an Austrian botanist discovered the liquid crystals.
Liquid crystals have properties like:
1. Liquids: Viscosity, surface tension, fluidity etc.
2. Crystals: Optical properties. Molecules posses some degree of order.
3. Isotropic nature: Always isotropic.
Crystal Liquid crystal Clear liquid
Types:
1. Nematic 2. Smectic 3. Cholesteric
Applications and uses of liquid crystals:
1. As Temperature Sensors:
Example: Room thermometers.
2. In Electric Circuit: Locate the point of potential failure.
3. In Medical:
(a) Location of infected arteries and veins
(b) Diagnosis of Breast Cancer

KIPS REVISION LECTURE NOTES – 1st YEAR (PUNJAB BOARD) 43

 CHAPTER 4 LIQUIDS AND SOLIDS
4. As Display in Electrical Devices:
Example: Digital watches, calculator and laptop computers.
5. In Chromatography: Solvents in chromatographic separations.
6. In Oscillography: Oscillographic and TV displays also use liquid crystal screens.
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS
1. Which of the following sequence is correct (U.B)
a) Hs > Hv > Hf b) Hv > Hs > Hf
c) Hf > Hs > Hv d) All have same enthalpy
2. On heating iodine changes its phase, the enthalpy change is represented by (A.B)
a)  Hs b)  Hv
c)  Hf d) Hsoln.
3. Which of the following types belongs to liquid crystal (U.B)
a) Nematic b) Smectic
c) Cholesteric d) All of these
4. Liquid crystals were firstly studied by (K.B)
a) Rutherford b) Faraday
c) Fredrick Reinitzer d) Fredrick Wholer
5. Which is not use of liquid crystal (U.B)
a) Temperature sensor b) LCD
c) Skin thermography d) Energy supply in electrical devices
SHORT QUESTIONS
1. How liquid crystals are used to locate veins, arteries, infection and tumor?
(SWL 2019-A.B)
Ans: Location of arteries and veins: In order to locate arteries and veins, specialists use the
technique of skin therapy to detect the blockages in veins and arteries. When liquid crystals are
applied on skin, the areas of arteries and veins show different colours because these are warmer
areas. Similarly, infections can be diagnosed.
Diagnosis of Breast Cancer: When liquid crystals are applied to the surface of breast, a tumor
shows up blue colour because it is hot.
Liquid crystals are used in the display of electrical devices like digital watches, calculator and
laptop computers. This use is based upon the fact that weak bonds holding the molecules
together in liquid crystals are easily affected by temperature, pressure and electro-magnetic
fields.
2. Explain the following order? (U.B)
(i) ∆Hs > ∆Hv OR Heat of sublimation is greater than heat of vaporization
(ii) ∆Hv > ∆Hf OR Heat of vaporization is greater than heat of fusion
(iii) ∆Hs > ∆Hf OR Heat of sublimation is greater than heat of fusion
Ans:
1. During sublimation, a solid having greater intermolecular forces is converted to vapours but
in vaporization, a liquid having less intermolecular forces is converted to vapours. So, more heat
is required for ∆Hs than ∆Hv.
2. ∆Hv is greater than ∆Hf because more heat is required to change a liquid into vapours
because of greater difference of energy of molecules than to change a solid simply into liquid.
3. ∆Hs is greater than ∆Hf because greater energy is required to convert solid into high energy
molecules of gas than that required to convert solid into low energy molecules of liquid.
Vapourization

Melting Boiling
Solid Liquid Vapour
Sublimation

KIPS REVISION LECTURE NOTES – 1st YEAR (PUNJAB BOARD) 44