NOTES IN
PHYSICAL SCIENCE: CHEMISTRY
I. NUCLEOSYNTHESIS AND THE ATOM
The natural elements primarily were formed from
three primary processes: (1) The Big Bang
Nucleosynthesis, (2) Stellar Nucleosynthesis, and (3)
Big Bang Nucleosynthesis. Heavier natural elements
were formed from the continuous process of nuclear
fusion.
Big Bang Nucleosynthesis: Hydrogen, Helium,
Lithium and Beryllium. The proofs of the Big Bang
phenomenon are (1) Cosmic Microwave Background,
(2) Redshift of visible galaxies, and (3) steady
acceleration of the Universe’s expansion.
Stellar Nucleosynthesis (Low Mass): Hydrogen and
Helium to Carbon, Nitrogen and Oxygen
Stellar Nucleosynthesis (Big Mass): Hydrogen and
Helium all the way to Iron
Supernova Nucleosynthesis: All natural elements
heavier than Iron
All matter in the Universe are made up of small
indivisible particles called the atom. An atom has four
basic parts: (1) the center called nucleus where the (2)
positively charged proton and the (3) neutron, which
has no charge, can be found. Outside the vicinity of the
nucleus lie the negatively charged (4) electrons.
Elements can be written by using the electron
A 2. NON-POLAR Covalent bond: have equal or
notation Z X , where X is the element symbol, Z is the
atomic number and A is the mass number. The atomic
number represents the total number of protons in an
atom’s nucleus which also dictates the chemical
properties of an element, while the mass number
represents an atom’s total sum of protons and neutrons.
Electrons are found outside the nucleus in areas
called energy levels. Inside these energy levels are the
orbitals—sharp (s), principal (p), diffuse (d), and
fundamental (f).
Each electron in an atom has its own unique set of
quantum numbers. These are (1) the principal quantum
number (n), azimuthal quantum number (l), magnetic
number (ml) and spin quantum number (ms).
PRINCIPAL Q.N. n = 1 to 7
AZIMUTHAL Q.N. ls = 0, lp = 1, ld =2, lf = 3
MAGNETIC Q.N. s = 0
p = -1,0,+1
d = -2,-1,0,+1,+2
f = -3,-2,-1,0,+1,+2,+3
SPIN Q.N. ↑ = +1/2, ↓ = -1/2
II. CHEMICAL BONDS AND POLARITY
The elements of the periodic table can be split into
three basic parts:
1. METALS – shiny, ductile, malleable, good
conductors of heat and electricity, &c.
2. NON-METALS – complete opposite of metals
when it comes to properties
3. METALLOIDS – has properties that lie between
metallic and non-metallic
The metalloid elements form a stair-like pattern in
the periodic table—B, Si, Ge, As, Sb, Te, and At. The
elements to the right of the metalloids plus Hydrogen are
the non-metals, While all elements to the left of the
metalloids except Hydrogen are the metals.
The type of element between atoms in a molecule
dictates what type of chemical bond occurs between
them.
1. IONIC BOND: occurs between a metal and non-
metal
2. COVALENT BOND: occurs between non-metals
only
Furthermore, covalent bonds can be classified into
two types:
1. POLAR Covalent bond: has unequal distribution
of electrons in an atom. Examples are water, ammonia,
hydrochloric acid, hydrofluoric acid
symmetrical distribution of electrons, thus giving it no
dipoles charges. Examples are: oil, hydrocarbons like
Methane, Ethane, Propane, Butane
Covalent substances of different polarities are not
miscible or will not mix together. Polar substances are
miscible with polar substances only, and non-polar
substances are miscible to non-polar substances only.
The forces that occur between individual molecules
in a substance are called Intermolecular Forces of
Attraction (IMFA). These forces affect a substance’s
boiling point, melting point, vapor pressure, viscosity,
volatility, solubility, and surface tension. Strong IMFA
increases the boiling point, melting point, viscosity and
surface tension in a substance, while weak IMFA
increases a substance’s vapor pressure, volatility, and
solubility.
There are five main types of IMFA. From strongest
to weakest, these are: (1) Ion-Ion Interaction, (2) Ion-
Dipole Interaction, (3) Dipole-Dipole Interaction, (4)
Hydrogen Bonding, and (5) London Dispersion Forces.
III. BIOLOGICAL MACROMOLECULES
1. CARBOHYDRATES: The primary source of energy
for our body. These include sugars and starches.
Carbohydrates are found in table sugar, bread, rice, flour,
etc.
2. LIPIDS: Serves as the energy storage of our body.
Lipids also make up the cell membrane. Lipids can be
 found in oils, waxes, fats and steroids. Common medicine, technology, engineering, cuisine, and many
examples are cooking oil, butter, lard, and margarine. more.
3. PROTEINS: Also known as the building blocks of These useful consumer products are classified into:
life, proteins are used in diverse functions in our bodies. 1. ACTIVE INGREDIENTS: are chemical
The enzymes used in digestion, and the keratin in our compounds that have direct effects on our bodies once
hair, skin, and nails are some examples of proteins. applied or consumed. These are found in medicine and
4. NUCLEIC ACIDS: Are the carriers of genetic various food products.
information in our cells. These make up our DNA 2. FOOD ADDITIVES: are used for enhancing the
(deoxyribonucleic acid) and RNA (ribonucleic acid). flavor of food. Examples of these are sugar, salt,
Nucleic acids are A (Adenine), T (Thymine), C monosodium glutamate (MSG), etc.
(Cytosine), G (Guanine) and U (Uracil). 3. COSMETICS: are used for beautification and
IV. RATE OF REACTION hygiene. These chemical compounds can be found in
The rate of chemical reactions between substances various beauty products, perfumes, and other personal
can be affected by the following factors: items.
1. TEMPERATURE: Higher temperature increases 4. CLEANING AGENTS: are used for cleaning
the rate of reaction, while lower temperatures decreases and disinfecting our surroundings. Examples of these are
it. alcohols, bleach (sodium hypochlorite), baking soda
2. CONCENTRATION: Increasing the (sodium bicarbonate), muriatic acid (hydrochloric acid),
concentration of the substances to be reacted also and many more.
increases the rate of reaction due to the higher possibility
of collisions between molecules.
3. SURFACE AREA: A higher surface area
increases the rate of reaction. This is the reason why
powdered or pulverized substances dissolves better in
liquids than large chunks of materials.
4. PRESENCE OF A CATALYST: A catalyst is a
substance that increases the rate of reaction by lowering
that reaction’s activation energy. If a catalyst is present
in a chemical reaction, that reaction will definitely
happen faster. A catalyst will remain unchanged after a
chemical reaction.
V. ENERGY RESOURCES
Energy is extremely important to our everyday lives.
We use it in cooking, appliances, transportation, and
many more functions. Humanity harness energy from
various sources collectively known as Energy Resources.
Energy resources can be split into two types: Renewable
and Non-Renewable.
1. RENEWABLE: Can be replaced by natural
processes and can be reused multiple times. Renewable
resources do little to no damage to the environment.
Examples of renewable resources are solar, geothermal,
hydroelectric, biomass, and wind energy.
2. NON-RENEWABLE: Cannot be easily replaced
by natural means. These also cannot be reused nor
recycled, and they also cause harm to the environment
because of their polluting methods of acquisition and by-
products. Examples of non-renewable resources are coal,
petroleum, nuclear energy, natural gas, and fossil fuels.
Energy is harnessed through turbines or combustion
engines.
VI. CONSUMER PRODUCTS
Chemistry is useful in our everyday lives.
Discoveries made by various chemists through history
are now utilized in various purposes from health and