Thermodynamic Laws

In this presentation you will:

◼ explore the first and second laws of thermodynamics
Introduction

Thermodynamics is the
science of energy changes
involving work and heat.

The word "thermo" means heat

or energy. The word "dynamics"
stands for motion or change.

Together, they mean

"energy-changes" or
"energy-motion".

The laws of thermodynamics

describe these energy changes.
Energy

For anything to happen,

there has to be a transfer
or conversion of energy.

There could be a transfer

from one type of energy to
another type. Perhaps from
chemical to mechanical or
from potential to kinetic.

There could be a transfer

of energy from one system
to another system.
Heat and Work

Gas Turbine

Energy transfer = work

Energy transfer = heat

Energy, heat, and work are all related.

Heat is used to describe the transfer of thermal energy into or out of a system.

Work is used to describe the transfer of mechanical energy into or

out of a system.
First Law of Thermodynamics

The first law states that the

change in internal energy (ΔU) Q ΔU W
of an object is equal to the heat
added to the object (Q) minus
the work done by the object (W).

ΔU= (Q) – (W)

This law is basically a

different form of the law
of conservation of energy.

The law of conservation of

energy states that energy
cannot be created or destroyed;
it can only be changed from one
form to another.
Heat Engines

A heat engine converts Hot Source

thermal energy into
mechanical energy. Qh

W
Essentially, a heat engine Heat
uses the flow of heat from Engine

a hot source to a cold

sink and converts some Ql
of this to work.
Cool Sink

The hot source is

generally the burning Assuming ΔU = 0, then W = Qh- Ql
fuel. Heat Qh flows into
the engine.

The engine converts this

energy to work (W), and some
of the heat Ql is lost to the cold
sink, usually the atmosphere.
Gas Turbines

One simple example of a

heat engine is a gas turbine. Ql
Gas turbines are used to
power aircraft, ships, and W

increasing numbers of
electricity generating plants.

Qh

The fuel is burned inside the

turbine to create heat (Qh).

The hot gases turn the turbine

and work (W) is extracted to drive
the aircraft, ship, or generator.

Some of the heat (Ql) is lost

to the atmosphere as hot
gases are exhausted.
Efficiency

One measure of the

Qh = 1,000 J
performance of a heat engine
or any other thermodynamic
process is efficiency.
Heat
W = 500 J
Efficiency describes how Engine

much of the heat transferred

into the system is converted
into work.
Ql = 500 J

W
Efficiency =
Qh

Efficiency is usually expressed as a percentage.

W 500
Efficiency = =
Qh 1,000

Efficiency = 0.5 = 50%

Second Law of Thermodynamics

Gas Turbine

The second law of thermodynamics says that energy spontaneously

disperses from being localized to becoming spread out if it is not hindered
from doing so.
Second Law of Thermodynamics

These everyday phenomena are

evidence for the second law:

◼ Heat always naturally

flows from a hot region Gas Turbine
to a cold region.

◼ Energy transfers
always involve some
loss, so they are never
100% efficient.

◼ Cool objects do not

spontaneously heat up.
Second Law Example (Entropy)

The energy in a motor

vehicle comes from the
chemical energy stored
in the fuel.

As the fuel is burned, heat

is released in the engine.

The rest of the energy is

converted into the kinetic
energy of the vehicle.
Second Law Example (Entropy)

◼ 40 units are transformed into useful work to drive the

vehicle
◼ 33 units of heat from the exhaust
◼ 21 units of heat through the cooling water
◼ 5 units of heat into the oil
◼ 1 unit of heat is lost due to radiation

If 100 units of heat are released in the engine by burning the fuel, an
analysis shows where the transformation takes place.

All this heat spreads out into the atmosphere and can never be recovered.

This spreading out is known as entropy.

Entropy

Entropy is a measure of the

effect of the second law.

It is a measure of the energy

that has flowed from being
localized to being more
widely spread out.

Adding a colored dye to water is analogous to

how heat spreads out and entropy increases
Entropy provides a measure
of the amount of energy that
cannot be used to do work.

As energy spreads out,

the entropy increases.
Entropy

Imagine a cup of hot

coffee placed on a table.

The thermal energy is

concentrated in the hot
coffee, so the entropy
is low.

Slowly, the energy will

escape from the surface
of the liquid and the
walls of the cup. The
coffee will cool. The
entropy increases.
Entropy

Equilibrium at room

Entropy
temperature

Time

Eventually, the coffee will reach the same temperature as the room.

The thermal energy will have been dispersed into the air molecules in the
room. The entropy will have reached its maximum.

Analyzing the entropy graph shows what happens to the heat.

Entropy

The graph shows the

entropy of a small cup and Entropy
a large cup of hot coffee.
Large Cup

Small Cup

Analysis of the graph shows

that the small cup cools
more quickly and reaches its Time
maximum entropy first.

The large cup contains

more energy, so its
maximum entropy is
greater than the
smaller cup.
Summary

In this presentation you have seen:

◼ the first law of thermodynamics

◼ the second law of thermodynamics

◼ entropy, a measure of how much energy is spread out in a system

Heat Transfer

In this presentation you will:

◼ explore the concepts of thermal energy transfer, including conduction,
convection, and radiation
Introduction

Heat is defined as the

thermal energy
transferred into or out
of a body or system.

Heat (Q) is measured

in joules.

The transfer of heat

is very important in
many systems.

In some cases, we want

to reduce heat transfer;
in others, we want to
increase it.
Transfer of Heat

Heat can be transferred

into or out of a system in
three main ways:

◼ conduction

◼ convection

◼ radiation

These are the mechanisms

of heat transfer.
Conduction

Conduction is the transfer

of thermal energy through
a body from a hotter part
to a cooler part.

Conduction can happen in

solids, liquids, and gases
but is usually more
noticeable in solids.

Conduction occurs in
two ways:

1. Hotter atoms vibrate

more and pass energy to
their colder neighbors.

2. In metals, heat is carried by

free electrons, which are
also responsible for
electrical conduction.
Conduction

When a pan is heated on

a stove, conduction
occurs through the metal
of the pan, causing it to
get hot and transfer heat
to the food.

Heat will also be

transferred to the handle.

When a metal rod or poker is

held in a flame, heat transfer
by conduction occurs through
the metal, and you feel the
rod getting hot. Different
metals conduct heat at
different rates.
Convection

Convection only occurs in

fluids (liquids and gases).

It is heat transfer due to the

motion of fluids, which carry
the heat as they move.

The fluid motion can be

natural due to the hotter fluid
becoming less dense and
rising, or it can be forced
using a pump or fan.
Convection

A radiator heats the air

close to it. The air rises
due to convection and is
replaced by cooler air.

The moving air transfers the

heat from the radiator
around the room.

Ocean currents are driven by

the process of convection.

The surface water is heated

by the Sun. It flows north, is
cooled, and sinks. The deep
ocean currents flow back
towards the equator.

This process is a major driver

of the weather on Earth.
Radiation

Radiation is heat transfer

due to infrared
electromagnetic radiation.

All bodies emit infrared

radiation. The frequency and
energy levels depend on the
temperature of the body.

A hot body will emit much

more than a cool one.

Therefore, a hot body will

lose much more heat this
way than it gains from the
cooler bodies around it.
Radiation

Radiation is the only heat

transfer mechanism that can
travel through a vacuum.

Radiation does not require

matter to transfer the heat.
Radiation

All of the energy we

receive from the Sun Ultraviolet Light

travels millions of miles

through space to Earth via Visible Light
the process of radiation.

Infrared Light

Rescuers use a special

infrared imaging camera
to find the heat radiation
given off by the bodies
of people trapped after
an earthquake.
Summary

In this presentation you have seen that heat transfer occurs in three
main ways:

◼ conduction

◼ convection

◼ radiation
Temperature and Heat

In this presentation you will:

◼ explore the concepts of thermal energy, temperature, and heat
Introduction

The kinetic theory of

matter is based on the Atom

idea that everything is

made up of atoms.

A simple object like a cup

is made up of billions and
billions of atoms.

Matter has properties

like temperature, mass,
volume, and color.
These are known as
macroscopic properties.

Macroscopic properties
can be explained by
considering the motion
of atoms.
Energy

All atoms have energy

that makes them vibrate
and move about.

The more energy the

atoms have, the more
they move.

Atoms have:

◼ kinetic energy due to

their motion

◼ potential energy due

to their vibration
Solids and Liquids

In a solid, the atoms

have structure.

The atoms move, but

their motion is restricted
to vibration, so most of
the energy is in the form
of potential energy.

In a liquid, the atoms have

some freedom to move.

The atoms move and

vibrate through the body
of the liquid.

So, the atoms in a liquid

have a mixture of kinetic
and potential energy.
Gases

In a gas, the atoms

are completely free to
move around.

In a gas, the atoms

move in straight lines
until they collide with
another molecule or the
sides of the container.

The atoms in a gas

have mostly kinetic
energy.
Thermal Energy (U)

The term used to

describe how much
energy a body has is
Thermal Energy.

Fraction of atoms with a

given energy
The thermal energy of
a body is a measure of
the total kinetic and
potential energy of all
the atoms in the body. Energy

These two objects have a similar thermal energy

(the area under the graph)

Thermal energy (U) is

measured in joules.
Temperature (T)

Temperature is well Lighted match

known to be a measure
of how hot something
is, but what does that
actually mean?

Fraction of atoms with a

given energy
Temperature is related
to the average kinetic
energy of the atoms in
Average KE Average KE
a body.
T1 T2
Energy

The same two objects have different temperatures

A lighted match will have
(the average KE of each, T1 and T2)
a high temperature but a
low thermal energy
because it does not stay
alight very long.
Temperature (T)

A cup of coffee will have

a lower temperature
than a lighted match, but
it will have more thermal
energy because it has
more mass.
Cup of coffee

Fraction of atoms with a

given energy
Average KE Average KE
Consider how little a T1 T2
match would be able to Energy
heat a cup of coffee!
The same two objects have different temperatures
(the average KE of each, T1 and T2)
Temperature Scales

There are various

temperature scales that
have been developed, 212 °F 100 °C 373.1 K
including the
Fahrenheit, Celsius, and
Kelvin scales.

The Celsius scale uses

68 °F 20 °C 293.1 K
the freezing point of water
as 0 °C and the boiling 32 °F 0 °C 273 K
point of water as 100 °C.

In Physics, negative
temperatures don’t really
make sense, so we use
the Kelvin scale and
express temperatures in
kelvin (K).
Kelvin and Absolute Zero

The Kelvin scale has Temperature in K

the same size units as 106
the Celsius scale. 105

104

103
The scales are offset.
0 K is -273.15 °C, the lowest 102

temperature possible. 101

100

0
0 K is called absolute zero. Temp Liquid Earth Surface White Core
of space helium of Sun light of Sun

Absolute zero is the

temperature at which
the atoms stop
moving and vibrating
and have no energy.
Temperature and Energy

Temperature is related
to the average kinetic
energy per molecule.

A cup of water may only

be a few degrees above
freezing, but the
interactions between
molecules mean that
some will be moving
much faster than others.

In fact, some of the

molecules in water move
so fast that they fly right
out of the cup and into the
atmosphere.
Heat (Q)

Heat is the amount of

thermal energy that is
added to or extracted
from a body or system.

Adding heat will raise the

thermal energy of the T
+
body and also raise the
U
temperature.

Q
Heat and temperature
are not the same.

Heat (Q) is measured

in joules.
Specific Heat

When heat is added to

an object, the
temperature will rise.

The temperature rise will

depend on the size of
the object, the amount of
heat, and the material
from which it is made.
Oil
Temperature in K

Specific heat capacity Water

(c) is the property of a
material that
determines this.
Time in s
Specific Heat

Specific heat capacity

is the amount of
energy that must be
added to a 1 kg mass
of material to raise its
temperature by 1 K.

Oil
The unit of specific Temperature in K
heat is J/(kg K).
Water

Time in s
Specific Heat

You can calculate the

temperature change
of a material using
the formula:

Q = m c ΔT

Where:
Q = heat
m = mass of material
c = specific heat capacity
ΔT = temperature change
Specific Heat

Consider 1 kg of water
with a specific heat of
4,200 J/(kg K).

How much would the

temperature
rise if 84 kJ of heat was
added?

Q = m c ΔT
ΔT = Q/mc =
84,000/(1 × 4,200) = 20
ΔT = 20 K
Methods of Heating

When heating substances

in a laboratory
environment, it is
necessary to use the
correct equipment.

Particular attention should

be paid to personal safety,
as heating experiments
can be dangerous if not
carried out correctly.
Methods of Heating

Ensure the correct

equipment is being
used, and appropriate
personal protective
equipment is also used.

Consideration should be
given to the way the
substance is heated, how it
is contained, the apparatus
used to support it, how and
with what it is stirred, and
how it needs to be handled.
Hot Plates

To perform controlled
experiments with heat,
hotplates are often used.

A hot plate is a self-

contained table-top
device, similar to a
single ring on a stove.

Hot plates can use a

gas burner or, more
often, an electrical
heating element.

Some hot plates also

feature a magnetic stirrer,
allowing the heated liquid
to be stirred automatically.
Burners

Another way to heat

substances is to use a
Bunsen burner.

Additional equipment is
required to support the
substance, such as:

◼ Ring stand with ring

clamp or 4 inch ring
with boss – for
supporting a round-
bottomed flask
Burners

◼ Tripod with gauze –

for supporting a
beaker or flask

◼ Ring stand with ring

clamp and ring stand
screen – for supporting
a beaker or flask
Summary

In this presentation you have seen:

◼ Thermal energy – the total energy in a body or system due to the

kinetic and potential energy of the atoms. Thermal energy (U) is
measured in joules.

◼ Temperature – a value related to the average kinetic energy of the

atoms in a body. Temperature (T) is measured in kelvin.

◼ Heat – thermal energy transferred into or out of a body or system. Heat

(Q) is measured in joules.
Heat Calculations

E = m c ΔT

In this presentation you will:

◼ explore the calculations relating to calorimetry
◼ explore the experimental investigation of heat transfer
Introduction

Normally, when a
substance absorbs heat,
its temperature increases.

This is because the

average kinetic energy
of its atoms/molecules
has increased.
Heat Calculation

The amount of temperature

rise, ΔT, depends upon:

◼ the amount of heat supplied ΔT

◼ the mass of the substance

◼ the specific heat capacity c

of the substance
m
E = m c ΔT

Where: E is the energy in J

m is the mass in kg
c is the specific heat capacity in J/(kg K)
ΔT is the change in temperature in K

This assumes no heat is

lost to the surroundings.
Heat Calculation

The equation can be used

to determine the energy E = m c ΔT
produced by a reaction.

A container called a
calorimeter is used for
experimenting with
temperature change of
chemical reactions.

It should be constructed
to minimize heat loss to
the surroundings.

A simple expanded
polystyrene cup makes
an acceptable
calorimeter for solutions.
What is the Specific Heat Capacity?

Different substances
require different
amounts of energy to
raise their temperatures
by the same amount.

The specific heat

capacity of a substance is
the amount of heat, in
joules, required to raise
the temperature of 1 kg of
the substance by 1 K.

This makes the unit

of specific heat
capacity J/(kg K).
Worked Example

1. Suppose we start
with 30 cm3 of HCl in 22.5 °C
a polystyrene cup.

2. The temperature of
Hydrochloric acid (HCl)
the acid is measured and
to be 22.5 ºC. Sodium hydroxide
(NaOH)
Sodium solution
hydroxide
Hydrochloric acid

3. Quickly add 30 cm3 of

NaOH, which is also
at 22.5 ºC (room
temperature) and stir.
Worked Example

4. The final temperature

is measured to be 29.2 °C
29.2 ºC.

From tables, we know

the specific heat
capacity of the solution Hydrochloric acid (HCl)
is 4.2 × 103 J/(kg K). and
Sodium hydroxide
(NaOH) solution

How much thermal energy

has been produced?
Worked Example

ΔT = 29.2 ºC – 22.5 ºC = Experimental data:

6.7 ºC = 6.7 K 30 cm3 of HCl

30 cm3 of NaOH

1 cm3 of aqueous solution ≡ 1 g

E = m c ΔT
Initial temperature = 22.5 ºC

Final temperature = 29.2 ºC

E = 0.06 × 4.2 × Specific heat capacity = 4.2 × 103 J/(kg K)
103 × 6.7 J

E = 1,688.4 J

The amount of energy

produced is 1,688.4 J
Errors

There are sources of

error in this experiment,
but they are all small.

Some heat would be

absorbed by both the
thermometer and the
polystyrene cup.

More significantly, some

heat would be lost to
the air by convection.

In this experiment the

temperature rise was
small, so these losses
can be ignored in our
calculations.
Other Calorimeters

A simple polystyrene cup Thermometer

is a very useful type of
+ -
calorimeter for working Electrical
with solutions. leads
for igniting
sample

Stir rod

It would not be very Water

suitable for studying
combustion reactions.

Wires in Insulated
contact with container
sample

A bomb calorimeter is Sample Bomb

used instead.
Bomb Calorimeter

The sample is burned Thermometer

in the small container.
+ -
Electrical
leads
for igniting
sample

Stir rod

Water

The heat passes to the

water outside the small
‘bomb’. A lid is used to
Wires in
reduce heat losses by contact with
Insulated
container
convection. sample

Sample Bomb
Summary

In this presentation you have seen:

◼ how calorimetry can be used to measure heat transfer

Heat from Reactions

In this presentation you will:

◼ explore how energy is produced and needed for reactions

◼ identify how to determine whether a reaction is endothermic or

exothermic

◼ apply thermochemical energy equations

Introduction

When a chemical reaction

takes place, matter is not
lost or gained.

Therefore, the mass of the

reactants used up is always
equal to the mass of the
products formed. Reactants Products

Energy can never be created or

destroyed in a chemical reaction.
Introduction

However, energy can join

or leave the reactants when
the products are formed.

This energy normally takes

the form of heat, which is
Reactants Products
either given to, or taken
from the surroundings.
Chemical Reactions

Chemical reactions involve

the making and breaking of
chemical bonds.

Energy
A chemical bond is a
mechanism that chemically
combines atoms.

Energy
Energy is needed to
break chemical bonds.

Energy is given out when

chemical bonds are made.
Chemical Reactions

During a chemical reaction

there are energy changes.
Energy

The difference between the

energy taken in to break the
bonds in the reactant
molecules, and the energy
given out when the new bonds
are formed, gives us the net
energy change. Energy

The overall result is either

energy being given out or
energy being taken in.
Chemical Reactions

Energy changes during

a reaction can often be
detected as a
temperature change.

Energy can be given

out as heat, causing a
rise in temperature, or
the temperature could
fall due to energy being
taken in.
Chemical Reactions

Therefore the products of a

reaction can have more or less
energy than the original reactants.

These reactions can

be classified as:

◼ Exothermic – heat given out

◼ Endothermic – heat taken in

Bond Energies

Bond Bond Energy in kJ/mol

C-H 412
C=O 743
H-H 436
Cl-Cl 242
C-C 348
O-H 463
I-I 151
H-Cl 431
C-O 360
O=O 496
H-I 299
O-O 146

If we know which bonds have been broken and formed, then it is possible
to look up the bond energies involved.

Tables have been created and can be examined to show the bond energy
in kJ/mol.
Bond Energies – Example 1

Bond Bond Energy in kJ/mol

C-H 412
C=O 743
H-H 436
Cl-Cl 242
C-C 348
O-H 463
I-I 151
H-Cl 431
C-O 360
O=O 496
H-I 299
O-O 146

Let’s look at the reaction: 2HI(g) → H2(g) + I2(g)

Bonds broken = 2HI = 2 × 299 = 598 kJ/mol

Bonds created = H2 + I2 = H-H + I-I = 436 + 151 = 587 kJ/mol

Energy difference = energy needed to break bonds – energy given out when
bonds are made = 598 – 587 = +11 kJ/mol
Bond Energies – Example 2

Bond Bond Energy in kJ/mol

C-H 412
C=O 743
H-H 436
Cl-Cl 242
C-C 348
O-H 463
I-I 151
H-Cl 431
C-O 360
O=O 496
H-I 299
O-O 146

When burned with oxygen, methane gas gives out heat and light.

Methane is acting as a fuel. The chemical reaction taking place is:

CH4(g) + 2O2(g) → CO2(g) + 2H2O(l)

Bond Energies – Example 2

Bond Bond Energy in kJ/mol

C-H 412
C=O 743
H-H 436
Cl-Cl 242
C-C 348
O-H 463
I-I 151
H-Cl 431
C-O 360
O=O 496
H-I 299
O-O 146

CH4(g) + 2O2(g) → CO2(g) + 2H2O(l)

Bonds broken = 4C-H + 2O=O

= (4 × 412) + (2 × 496) kJ/mol = 1,648 + 992 = 2,640 kJ/mol
Bonds created = 2C=O + 4O-H = (2 × 743) + (4 × 463) = 3,338 kJ/mol
Energy difference = energy needed to break bonds – energy given out when
bonds are made = 2,640 – 3,338 = -698 kJ/mol
Reaction Profiles

Energy changes during a Exothermic

chemical reaction are usually Energy
shown by a reaction profile.
Reactants Heat given out

Products

Course of reaction
Exothermic and endothermic
reactions can be determined
from a reaction profile. Endothermic

Energy
Products

This is done by calculating Reactants

the energy contained in Heat is taken in (absorbed)
the reactants and the Course of reaction
energy contained in the
products of the reaction.
Reaction Profiles

From our two examples: Endothermic

Energy
Products

Example 1 is endothermic Reactants

because less energy is needed Heat is taken in (absorbed)
to form the new bonds than is
Course of reaction
released by breaking the old
bonds. It will absorb 11 kJ/mol.
Reaction Profiles

Example 2 is exothermic since Exothermic

more energy is needed to form Energy
the new bonds than is released
Reactants Heat given out
by breaking the old bonds. It will
release 698 kJ/mol.
Products

Course of reaction
Enthalpy – ΔH

The amount of energy Endothermic

absorbed or released is Energy
given the symbol ΔH. Products

+ΔH
Reactants
Heat is taken in (absorbed)

Course of reaction
Δ is the symbol used to
indicate “change of ” and H
refers to the energy or heat
produced or released. Exothermic
Energy

Reactants Heat given out

-ΔH
Products
ΔH is called the enthalpy.
Course of reaction
Enthalpy – ΔH
Endothermic
Energy
Products

+ΔH
Reactants
Heat is taken in (absorbed)

Course of reaction
Exothermic
Energy

Reactants Heat given out

-ΔH
Products

Course of reaction

The enthalpy, ΔH, will be negative for an exothermic reaction and positive
for an endothermic reaction.

ΔH = energy needed to break bonds – energy given out when bonds

are made
Thermochemical Equations

A thermochemical equation
shows not only the products
formed from the reactants,
but also the amount of
energy released or absorbed.

Reactants Products
Thermochemical Equations

There are two ways in

which this can be done:

Method 1:
2H2(g) + O2(g) → 2H2O, ΔH = -484 kJ/mol
Reactants Products

Method 2:
2H2(g) + O2(g) → 2H2O + 484 kJ/mol

Method 1 is the approved method

as it is dimensionally correct, but you
may see method 2 in older texts.
Exothermic Reactions

An exothermic reaction is when

Reactants
the products contain less energy

Energy
than the reactants.
Products

Energy in the form of heat is

released or given out to the
surroundings.

This causes a rise in the

temperature of the surroundings.
Exothermic Reactions

Examples of exothermic reactions:

◼ combustion reactions
(burning of fuel)

◼ neutralization reactions (acid

reacting with alkali)

◼ hydrogen cell reactions

(fuel cell)
Exothermic Reactions

During exothermic reactions, Exothermic

the energy given out when Energy
bonds form is greater than the
energy needed to break bonds.
Reactants
Heat
(-ve) given
out

Products

This is shown by this

reaction profile. Course of reactions
Exothermic Reactions

In exothermic reactions, the heat Exothermic

of reaction is negative (-ve),
Energy
showing that the energy content
of the system has decreased.
Reactants
Heat
(-ve) given
out

Products

Some energy in the form of heat Course of reactions

has left the system and entered
the surroundings.
Endothermic Reactions

An endothermic reaction is when

the products contain more energy Products
than the reactants.

Energy
Reactants

Energy in the form of heat is

absorbed from the surroundings.

This causes a decrease in the

temperature of the surroundings.
Endothermic Reactions

Examples of endothermic reactions:

Products

Energy
◼ reaction of sodium hydrogen
carbonate with citric acid Reactants

◼ formation of hydrogen iodide from

hydrogen and iodine
Endothermic Reactions

During endothermic Endothermic

reactions, the energy Energy
given out when bonds
Products
form is less than the
energy needed to
Heat
break bonds. taken in
(+ve)

Reactants

Course of reactions
This is shown by this
reaction profile.
Endothermic Reactions

In endothermic reactions, the Endothermic

heat of reaction is positive Energy
(+ve), showing that the
Products
energy content of the system
has increased.
Heat
(+ve) taken in

Reactants

Some energy has entered the Course of reactions

system after being absorbed
from the surroundings.
Endothermic Reactions

Some candies produce a fizzing

sensation when you eat them.

This is because a chemical

reaction occurs when they meet
with the moisture in your mouth.

The candy is filled with a mixture

of sodium hydrogen carbonate
and citric acid. When water is
added to this mixture, the
chemicals react to release
carbon dioxide.
Endothermic Reactions

If you have ever tried this candy,

you may have noticed that the
fizzing sensation makes your
mouth feel cold.

This is because the reaction takes

heat from your mouth.

This is an endothermic reaction –

it needs heat to take place.
Summary

In this presentation you have seen:

◼ the energy changes involved in reactions

◼ thermochemical equations

◼ both exothermic and endothermic reactions

◼ the different reaction profiles for endothermic and exothermic reactions

Law of Conservation of Energy

In this presentation you will:

◼ investigate the law of conservation of energy
Introduction

The law of conservation

of energy states: Heat
Light

“Energy cannot be created

or destroyed.”
Light Electricity

It is a universal principle that Heat

energy cannot be created or
destroyed, only transformed
from one form to another.
The total amount of energy
before and after the change
will stay the same.

For example, in an electrical

heater electrical energy is
changed into heat and a small
amount of light energy.
Useful and Wasted Energy

When energy is transformed

from one form to another,
it normally fulfils a useful
purpose, such as operating a
television, turning a washing
machine, or lighting a room.

However, not all the

transferred energy is
useful – some is wasted.

The TV will get warm. This

is not intended.

The washing machine

will make a noise.

The table lamp will get hot.

Types of Energy

The main forms of

energy are:

◼ Sound

◼ Chemical

◼ Kinetic

◼ Thermal

◼ Electrical

◼ Nuclear

◼ Light

◼ Elastic potential

◼ Gravitational potential
Examples of Energy Changes

In a battery operated clock,

chemical energy is changed
to electrical energy, which in
turn, is converted to kinetic
and sound energy.

Kinetic
Chemical Electrical

Sound
A small amount changes
to heat due to friction in
the movement.
Examples of Energy Changes

In a television, electrical
energy is changed into useful
sound and light energy.

Light
Electrical
Energy is wasted as heat
in the electrical circuit.
Sound
Examples of Energy Changes

In a hairdryer, electrical
energy is changed into
heat and kinetic energy.

The sound is wasted energy.

Kinetic
Electrical
No appliance or machine
changes all of the input Heat
energy into useful energy.

There is always some

wasted energy, which
ultimately becomes heat and
is lost to the surroundings.
Applying the Law of Conservation of Energy

By knowing that the total

energy of a closed system will Exhaust Fuel
remain constant, the
conversion between different
energy types can be identified.

An example is a car engine.

Piston
The fuel provides chemical Crankshaft

potential energy. This is

converted into thermal and
sound energy during
combustion, then into kinetic
energy as the gas expands.

This results in mechanical

energy moving the piston to cause
rotation of the crankshaft.
Conservation of Energy Demonstration

A simple experiment
can be carried out to
show that energy can
repeatedly transform
between gravitational,
potential, and kinetic.
Conservation of Energy Demonstration

A marble has gravitational

potential energy when held
at the opening to a tube.

When it is released, the

marble travels down the
tube. The gravitational
potential energy is
converted to kinetic energy.

When the marble reaches the

bottom of the tube, its
gravitational potential energy
has decreased to a minimum,
and its kinetic energy has
increased to a maximum.
Conservation of Energy Demonstration

As the marble moves up the

other side of the tube, it will
start to convert some of its
kinetic energy back into
gravitational potential energy.

The marble stops at its

highest point. It no longer
has any kinetic energy as
it has all been converted
back to gravitational
potential energy.
Conservation of Energy Demonstration

In a perfect system, the

marble would rise to the
same height on both sides.

However, some energy has

also been converted into
heat and sound energy
because of the friction
between the marble and
tube and the air resistance
(friction with air).

Heat

The marble, therefore,

doesn’t rise as far on Sound
the opposite side.
Summary

In this presentation you have seen:

◼ everyday applications of the law of conservation of energy

Conservation of Energy

In this presentation you will:

◼ identify how to demonstrate and apply the law of conservation of energy

Introduction

The law of conservation

of energy states:
“Energy cannot be Potential
Energy
created or destroyed.”

Energy can only be transformed

from one form to another.
Kinetic
Energy

The total energy in a closed

system will remain constant
although its form may change.
Introduction

We say that we ‘consume’

energy though, in fact, we
Heat
are converting it into Light
another form.

Think of examples of Electricity

Light
energy ‘consumed’ in
your home – what are
some of the alternative Heat
forms it converts into?
Conservation of Energy Demonstration

A simple experiment can

be carried out to show that
energy can repeatedly
transform between
potential and kinetic.
Conservation of Energy Demonstration

The marble mass (m) will

have gravitational potential
energy, based on the fact that
when released from a height
above the ground (h), it will
accelerate toward the
ground with acceleration
due to gravity (g), where:
PE = mgh

The marble has no initial velocity

(v), but its velocity will increase
as it accelerates down the tube,
giving kinetic energy:
KE = ½mv2
Conservation of Energy Demonstration

The marble has gravitational

potential energy when held
at the opening to the tube.

When it is released, the

marble accelerates down the
tube; the potential energy is
converted to kinetic energy.

When the marble reaches

the bottom of the tube,
its potential energy has
decreased to a minimum,
and its kinetic energy has
reached maximum.
Conservation of Energy Demonstration

As the marble then moves

up the other side of the
tube, it will start to convert
some of its kinetic energy
into potential energy.

The marble stops at its

highest point. It no longer
has any kinetic energy as
it has all been converted
to potential.
Conservation of Energy Demonstration

As the marble oscillates

repeatedly, a small amount of
energy is converted into heat
and sound as friction forces
in the tube are overcome.

The marble will gradually

lose height due to these
friction forces.

Typically around 5% of the

energy may be expected
to be converted to
overcome friction during
each oscillation cycle.
Equipment

Ring clamps and stands are

often used to support equipment
above the work surface when
performing experiments.

As well as being used to

support a flexible tube,
as shown in the
demonstration, the ring
clamp can be used to hold:

◼ Funnels
◼ Flasks
◼ Gauze for heating experiments
Applying the Law of Conservation of Energy

Knowing that the total

energy of a closed system
will remain constant,
Exhaust Fuel
the conversion between
different energy types can
be identified.

An example is a car
engine. The fuel
provides chemical
potential energy.

Crankshaft Piston
This is converted into thermal
and sound energy during
combustion, then into kinetic
energy as the gas expands.
Applying the Law of Conservation of Energy

This results in mechanical energy, moving the piston to cause rotation of the
crankshaft.
Summary

In this presentation you have seen:

◼ a demonstration of the law of conservation of energy

◼ how to apply the law of conservation of energy

Forms of Energy

In this presentation you will:

◼ explore the forms of energy

Introduction

Energy can be
expressed as the
ability to do work.

It causes something
to happen.

Energy can be
assigned to any
particle, object, or
system of objects.

Energy is measured
in joules (J).
Forms of Energy

The following are some

of the forms of energy:

◼ Electromagnetic
(e.g. light)

◼ Sound

◼ Thermal (heat)
Forms of Energy

◼ Mechanical

◼ Chemical

◼ Electrical

◼ Nuclear
Categorizing Energy

An alternate way of
looking at energy is to
say that all energy is
either stored energy or
energy in motion.

All forms of energy

can be broken
down into either
kinetic or potential.

Stored energy is
known as
potential energy.
Categorizing Energy

Energy in motion is
kinetic energy.

Potential energy has

the potential to be
released – and thus
become a form of
kinetic energy.
Law of Conservation of Energy

Energy can be changed or

transformed from one
form to another.

In a transformation, energy
cannot be lost.

The amount of energy

before a transformation
must be the same as
the amount of energy
after a transformation.

In an ideal pendulum, the

mass would continually
transform kinetic energy to
the same amount of
potential energy and then
back to the same amount of
kinetic energy.
Potential or Kinetic Energy?

Potential or
Example Form of Energy
Kinetic?

Energy in the bonds between molecules Chemical Potential

Energy of a moving object Mechanical Kinetic

X-rays radiating from an x-ray machine Electromagnetic Kinetic

Energy inside the nuclei of atoms Nuclear Potential

Energy of an object due to its height above

Mechanical Potential
the ground

Energy that is the motion of electrons Electrical Kinetic

Energy of a metal rod in a fire Thermal Kinetic

Chemical Energy

Chemical energy is
Energy
stored in the bonds
between atoms
and molecules.

When a chemical Energy

reaction occurs, bonds
are broken and new
ones are made.
Chemical Energy

If the new bonds require more energy than the old bonds, then energy must
come into the reaction. It is said to be endothermic.

If the new bonds require less energy, then energy will be liberated into
another form. The reaction is said to be exothermic.
Chemical Energy

Batteries are a good

example of chemical Chemical Electrical
energy in storage.

When the battery is

connected to a
circuit, the energy is
transformed into
electrical energy.

The electrical energy

is then transformed
into other forms – it
depends on what the
circuit does.
Chemical Energy

If it is a flashlight, then
light will be the main form Chemical Electrical
of energy produced.

Light and heat

There is also likely to be a
little thermal energy
released as well – as there
is in many transformations.
Chemical Energy

Another good example of Chemical

chemical energy is in the energy
food we eat.

During eating, the large

molecules are broken down
into smaller molecules.
Heat
energy

The cells of the body use

the smaller molecules in
the process of respiration. Mechanical
energy

The chemical energy is

converted into thermal
energy, mechanical
energy, and other forms
of chemical energy, like
that stored in the fat cells
in the body.
Chemical Energy

Food is just one

example of a fuel.

All fuels, such as wood

or petroleum, contain
chemical energy.

When a fuel is burned,

thermal energy is
always released.

The chemical energy Chemical

Thermal and
mechanical
of fuel in a car will
produce thermal
energy and
mechanical energy.
Thermal Energy

Thermal energy is often

produced in energy
transformations.
Thermal
energy

Sometimes it is
intentional, such as Chemical
energy
when wood is burned
as a fuel.

Often it is
unintentional, such
as when a flashlight Light energy
is used.

Thermal
energy
Thermal Energy

This unintentional
production of thermal
energy can sometimes be
referred to as “lost” energy. Light energy

This appears to conflict

with the principle of Thermal
energy
conservation of energy.

Of course the energy isn’t

really lost. It was part of Conduction Convection Radiation
the energy transformation
that created it, but it will
not be available for future
use in that system.

This thermal energy

passes into the
atmosphere by conduction,
convection and radiation.
Summary

In this presentation you have seen:

◼ the forms in which energy can occur

Power and Mechanical Energy

In this presentation you will:

◼ calculate mechanical energy of a physical system
◼ calculate the power generated in a physical system
Introduction

To move a stationary
object, a Force has to be
exerted on that object.

Force
When a force has been
exerted, we say that
Work has been done. The
amount of work is Distance
dependent upon the
distance over which the
force is exerted.

For example, a force is

exerted to lift a box from
the floor onto a shelf.
The work done is the
force required multiplied
by the distance from the
floor to the shelf.
Work and Power

The Power that is required,

at any instance, to provide
the force is measured as the
work over time.

For example, a child’s

swing is pushed over a
distance of 0.25 m by a
person exerting a force
of 16 N (newtons). Each
push takes 2 seconds.

Work = 16 × 0.25 = 4.0 J (joules)

4
Power = = 2 W (watts)
2
If the same push is
provided 30 times before
the child gets bored, what
is the total work and power
delivered by the pusher?
Work and Power

The total work done for

30 pushes, assuming
each is identical, will be:

Work = 16 × (0.25 × 30) = 120 J

120
Power = =2W
(2 × 30)

While the work done has

increased with each push, the
power required for identical
pushes remains unchanged.

In doing work, the pusher has

used energy.

Since energy cannot be

created or destroyed, it is
simply transferred. Where
has the energy gone?
Energy

The chemical energy

stored within cells in
the pusher’s body is
converted by the
work done.

While a relatively small

amount converts to heat
in the body, the majority
converts to the
mechanical energy in
the moving swing.

The Mechanical Energy in

a system is defined as the
sum of the Kinetic and
Potential energies.
Energy

Can you see why the bird

Potential Energy
has two forms of energy?

The bird has energy due Kinetic energy

to its forward momentum,
termed kinetic energy. If
the large bird shown was
to fly into a window, then
its kinetic energy might
well be sufficient to break
the glass.
Energy

The bird also has

Potential Energy
energy due to its
position, termed
potential energy.

Kinetic energy
This gravitational potential
energy is created by the
fact that it is above
ground. If it was to fold its
wings, gravity would
cause it to accelerate
towards Earth.
Energy

The child in the image

has reached the end of
his forward motion and is
about to swing back. Do
the swing and child have
energy? If so, what form
does it take?

At the top of its

forward swing, the
motion stops – there
is no kinetic energy.

It has gravitational potential

energy, being above
ground level, and it is this
energy that will cause it to
move backwards.
Energy

In calculating energy:

Total Mechanical Energy =

Kinetic Energy + Potential Energy

Energy is measured
in joules.

Kinetic energy is
dependent upon the mass
(m) of an object and on its
velocity (v).

KE = ½ mv2
Energy

Potential energy (PE)

can occur in a number of
forms; a ball held in the
hand has gravitational
PE because it will fall to
the ground if released. A
compressed spring has
PE, as does a stretched
rubber band.

Gravitational potential
energy is dependent upon
the mass (m) of an object,
its height (h) above ground,
and the acceleration (g)
due to gravity.

PE = mgh

Since m × g = weight, PE = w × h
Energy

Kinetic energy has to

be converted for an
object to slow down.

The energy of a vehicle

slowing down is directly
proportional to its mass (m)
and proportional to the
square of its velocity (v).

KE = ½ mv2

m = w/g (where w = weight)

Energy

Ignoring any changes

in friction:

◼ Increasing the weight of

a vehicle increases its
stopping distance by a
proportionate amount.

◼ Doubling the speed of a

vehicle multiplies its
stopping distance by 4.
Energy

A man throws a ball in KE = decreases

the air and catches it PE
KE = maximum
increases
as it falls.
KE = 0

PE = maximum
The force of the throw
creates the initial
velocity, giving the ball
kinetic energy.

As the ball rises, it loses

kinetic energy and gains
potential energy.

At maximum height,
motion stops, kinetic
energy falls to zero, but
potential energy will be
at its maximum.
Energy

As the ball falls back KE = increases

into the man’s hands,
PE = decreases
it is accelerated by
gravity. KE increases;
PE decreases.

Can you draw graphs

to represent KE and
PE for this ball during
this throw?
Energy

The graphs show that

the KE is maximum

Energy
when the ball leaves the
thrower’s hands. KE KE

The KE then falls as the PE PE

ball slows, with PE rising

time
as the height above
ground increases. At Release Maximum Catch
height
maximum height, the ball
is stationary for an
instant, with KE = 0 and
PE at its maximum value.

The KE then increases

as the ball is accelerated
by gravity down to the
catcher. PE reduces
back to its static level in
the catcher’s hand.
Calculating Mechanical Energy Example

For example, a 3,000 kg

roller-coaster moving at 4
m/s at the top of a 25 m
tall peak has a mechanical
energy of:

ME = KE + PE

KE = ½ mv2

PE = mgh

ME = (½ × 3,000 × 42) +
(3,000 × 9.8 × 25)

ME = 24,000 + 735,000

ME = 759,000 J

The roller-coaster has a

mechanical energy of
7.59 × 105 J
Summary

In this presentation you have seen:

◼ how to calculate mechanical energy of a physical system

◼ how to calculate the power generated in a physical system

Work-Energy Theorem

F m

In this presentation you will:

◼ investigate quantities using the work-energy theorem
Introduction

Many words used in everyday

conversation have very
precise meanings in physics.

When you think of work,

you may think of going to
a place of work, or working
hard, or even something
like a computer working.

When you think of energy,

you may think of how lively
or tired you are.

In physics, work and

energy have very
specific meanings.
What is work?

Consider a force (F) acting

on an object while it moves
F m
a distance (d).

d
The object’s velocity will
change; it will accelerate.

F vi vf
a=
m
m m

Using the equations of

motion, we can find the d
change in velocity.

vf2 – vi2 = 2ad

F m
Replacing a = and multiplying both sides by , we get:
m 2

Fd = ½mvf2 – ½mvi2
What is work?

Fd = ½mvf2 – ½mvi2 vi vf

m F m

The left side of the equation is

d
the work done on the system.

In physics, work has a precise definition:

Work is the product of force × distance.

Work = F × d

So: W = ½mvf2 – ½mvi2

Energy

W = ½mvf 2 – ½mvi2 vi vf

m F m
The right side of the equation
describes the change in quantity
d
before and after the force acts.

The quantity depends on

the mass and the
velocity of the object.

This quantity is known as energy

and as it is the energy of a
moving body, kinetic energy.

KE = ½mv2

So: W = KEf – KEi

Work-Energy Theorem

Work is equal to the vi vf

change in kinetic energy.
m m
W = ΔKE F

In physics, the Δ symbol

is used to represent a
change in something.

The units of work and energy are

the joule (J), named after the
physicist James Joule, who
discovered the relationship.

1 J = 1 Nm (Fd) = 1 kgm2/s2 (½mv2)

Calculating Work

Work is calculated
using the equation: F m

d
W = Fd

A force of 10 N is used to
move an object over a
distance of 10 m. How much
work is done?

W = Fd = 10 × 10 = 100 J

Work = 100 J
Friction Force

In the real world, friction tends

to act on a moving body to F m Ff

slow it down.
d

Now we have a friction force (Ff)

acting in the opposite direction.

Ff acts in the opposite direction,

m Ff
so it does negative work.

W = (F – Ff)d d

If the friction force Ff was the

only force acting on the object
when it is in motion, the object
would slow down, and its kinetic
energy would be reduced.

W = (0 - Ff)d = - Ff d
Force at an Angle

To calculate force applied

at an angle, the force is split
F
into x and y components. m

Only the component of the Fx

force that acts in the direction
θ
of the displacement is used. Fy

Fx = F cosθ The Fy component acts at right angles to the

direction of displacement so no work is done.

So, W = Fd cosθ
Force at an Angle

For example, if the force

of 10 N is acting at an
F
angle of 30° over a m
distance of 10 m:
d

Fx
W = Fd cosθ
θ
Fy

F
W = 10 × 10 × cos30° J

W = 86.6 J
Summary

In this presentation you have seen:

◼ work is an energy transfer calculated by the product of

a force and distance
W=F×d

◼ the kinetic energy of a moving body is related to

its mass and velocity
KE = ½mv2

◼ the work-energy theorem relates work and energy

W = ΔKE