998 Electrification of the drive
Externally chargeable hybrids
Plug-in hybrid
Features
An extension of the full-hybrid system is
the plug-in hybrid, whose traction battery
can be charged not only internally but
also from the mains-supply network – i.e.,
externally. As a result, the journey can be
started with a fully charged traction battery.
Electrical machine
The electrical machine in a plug-in hybrid
is the same as the in a full hybrid.
Traction battery
The traction battery for plug-in hybrids as
a rule has a larger capacity (e.g., 16 kWh)
than that for full hybrids. This enables
plug-in hybrids to be driven longer dis-
tances of typically up to 70 km (increas-
ing trend) without the internal-combustion
engine cut in. The decisive factor here is
that a plug-in hybrid with a fully charged
traction battery can be started and driven
purely electrically over predominantly
short distances.
Range extender
Features
The range of an electrical vehicle on
one battery charge is currently still much
lower than that of a vehicle with an inter-
nal-combustion engine. An added compli-
cation is that the charging process is very
time-consuming, making it difficult to use
an electric vehicle for longer distances.
Range extenders denote additional as-
semblies in an electric vehicle which ex-
tend the range limited by the restricted
battery capacity. Internal-combustion en-
gines with limited power for example are
used for this purpose. These vehicles are
designed as electric vehicles; the power of
the electrical machine and the capacity of
the traction battery correspond to those of
an electric vehicle. The traction battery is
charged from the public mains-supply net-
work, e.g., at a charging post. The range
extender enables the vehicle to continue
to be driven with a flat battery to the next
charging facility.
Classification based
on drive structure
The different hybrid drives can be clas-
sified on the basis of how the electrical
machine is integrated in the drivetrain.
The requirements which are imposed on
an electrical machine depend not least
on the installation location and conse-
quently on the drivetrain topology. There
are different ways of configuring the inter-
nal-combustion engine, transmission and
electrical machines in hybrid vehicles. The
different drive structures can be divided
using possible energy flows into three
categories:
– parallel hybrid drive,
– series hybrid drive,
– power-split hybrid drive.
Parallel hybrid
Topologies
In a parallel hybrid drive both the inter-
nal-combustion engine and the electri-
cal machine influence the vehicle drive
simultaneously (parallel). The electrical
machine of the parallel hybrid drive can
basically be positioned at different points
in the drivetrain, which brings with it spe-
cific advantages and disadvantages. A
nomenclature originally defined by Daim-
ler AG has gained acceptance for desig-
nation purposes; this system designates
the parallel-hybrid drivetrain based on
the position of the electrical machine in
the drivetrain as P0 through P4. The P
here stands for the parallel architecture,
while the number denotes the installation
location of the electrical machine in the
drivetrain.
Figure 9 shows the layout of the elec-
trical machine for the different topologies
using the example of a standard drive. An
external charging socket can be installed
but is not pictured here. This also applies
to the front-transverse drive.
Essentially, the electrical machine can
be installed in the drivetrain in a number
of different positions:
 Hybrid drives 999

– on the internal-combustion engine with Figure 9: Schematic diagram of a parallel

belt connection to the crankshaft (P0 hybrid architecture with various arrange-
topology), ments of the electrical machine in a stan-
– between internal-combustion engine dard drive
and clutch or power take-up element, a) P0, battery and electrical machine mostly
48 V,
directly connected to the internal-com- b) P1, c) P2, d) P3, e) P4 (axle hybrid).
bustion engine (P1 topology), 1 IC engine, 2 Manual transmission,
– between internal-combustion engine 3 Electrical machine, 4 Traction battery,
and transmission input, can be dis- 5 Final-drive differential,
connected via a clutch from the inter- 6 Power take-up element (clutch or converter),
7 Interrupting clutch.
nal-combustion engine (P2 topology),
– on the transmission input (P3 topology), a
– connected to the final-drive unit or inte- + −
grated in the wheel (P4 topology). 4
Features of the parallel hybrid
5
In parallel hybrid drives the internal-com- 3 1 6 2
bustion engine and one or more electrical
machines independently of each other or
jointly contribute to propelling the vehi-
cle (full hybrid) or to boosting the inter- b
nal-combustion engine (mild hybrid). The + −
two energy flows from the internal-com- 4
bustion engine and the battery therefore
run parallel to each other, the two indi- 5
vidual components of power adding up to 1 36 2
a total drive power. Parallel hybrid drives
come in a mild-hybrid variant (with start/
stop functionality, regenerative braking,
and hybrid driving) or in a full-hybrid vari- c
+ −
ant (additionally with electric driving).
4
Advantages of the parallel hybrid
A fundamental advantage of the parallel 5
1 73 6 2
hybrid is the possibility of maintaining the
conventional drivetrain in wide ranges.
For the hybrid versions of the respec-
tive vehicle no new transmission has to
d
be developed. A modular construction kit + −
can be used to realize both conventional
4
transmissions (dual-clutch or automatic
planetary transmissions, but also con-
tinuously variable transmissions) in con- 1 6 2 3
5
junction with internal-combustion engine
and transmissions specially developed
for hybrid drives with integrated electrical
machines with different power stages. e
The extent of development and instal- + −
lation work for parallel drive structures
3 4
is lower when compared with series and
power-split structures, in that for the most
part only one electrical machine with 5
UTH0042-4Y

1 6 2
lower electric power is required and the
adaptations necessary in converting a
conventional drivetrain are fewer.
1000 Electrification of the drive

P0 topology In contrast to series and power-split drive

The electrical machine is permanently
connected via a belt drive to the inter-
nal-combustion engine (see Figure 8). It
replaces in this topology the conventional
alternator (see also Start/stop system).
The electrical machine can with this
topology perform the conventional alter-
nator function even when the vehicle is at
a standstill and thereby reliably supply the
vehicle electrical system. On the proviso
that the electrical machine has a suitably
compact design and no additional water
cooling is required, mounting the elec-
trical machine in the original alternator
position entails only minimal additional
integration outlay, since the alternator in-
stallation space can be utilized. However,
the belt tensioner must be adapted to the
different operating states in which taut
strand or slack strand occurs.
Because the electrical machine is con-
nected to the internal-combustion engine,
the engaged internal-combustion engine
reduces the energy to be recuperated
when decelerating.
The power output of the electrical ma-
chine connected via a belt drive to the
internal-combustion engine is typically
approximately 10 kW. Consequently, only
a mild hybrid can be realized with the P0
topology. The CO2 savings potential is
thus also limited due to the electrical ma-
chine's restricted power output.
At an operating voltage < 60 V there is
no need for the costly measures to comply
with the contact-protection stipulations.
structures, the speed of the internal-com-
bustion engine is permanently coupled
to the speed of the electrical machine.
In vehicle deceleration phases the inter-
nal-combustion engine cannot be decou-
pled from the electrical machine and is
therefore always engaged. In the process
the drag torque of the internal-combus-
tion engine reduces the energy to be re-
cuperated during deceleration. The CO2
savings potential is thereby limited.
Purely electric driving is not possible
with this drive structure. The electric drive
can be used to assist the internal-com-
bustion engine and thereby improve dy-
Figure 10: P1-topology parallel hybrid
with one clutch
a) Drive structure,
b) Energy flow.
1 IC engine, 2 Fuel tank,
3 Electrical machine, 4 Clutch,
5 Transmission, 6 Final-drive unit,
7 Pulse-controlled inverter, 8 Battery.
a
1 2
3 4 5 6

P1 topology 8 7
In the P1 topology (Figure 10) the electri-
b
cal machine is again connected directly to
the internal-combustion engine. The elec- 1 2
trical machine can be connected via a belt
as in the P0 topology, making it possible
to realize the functions of a mild hybrid. 6
When the electrical machine is seated,
as shown in Figure 10, directly on the 3
crankshaft (typically a permanent-field
synchronous machine), the loss-affected
belt drive is omitted, consequently increas-
ing the mechanical efficiency. Further-
more, when compared with a belt-driven
STH0023-3Y

electrical machine, a more powerful elec- 8 7

trical machine can be used because the
power transmittable via the belt is lower.
 Hybrid drives 1001

namic performance. The P1 topology is
therefore only suitable for a mild hybrid.
The power output of the electrical ma-
chine connected via a belt drive to the
internal-combustion engine is typically
approximately 10 kW. Values of around
20 kW are typical for an electrical machine
integrated on the crankshaft.
The outlay on integrating the electrical
machine in the drivetrain is higher here
than for the P0 topology with belt drive.
The P1 topology is possible with all trans-
mission variants.
the clutch located in between. The clutch
must be able to adapt automatically to the
changing conditions in ongoing operation
and to follow the control-system inputs.
The additional moment of inertia act-
ing via the transmission input shaft must
be taken into account in the design of
the synchronizer rings. Reliable genera-
tor operation via the internal-combustion
engine is interrupted when the clutch is
open.
The integration outlay for this topology
is high since significant changes to the

P2 topology Figure 11: P2-topology parallel hybrid

If a clutch is installed between the inter- with two clutches
nal-combustion engine and the electrical a) Drive structure,
machine which allows the engine to be b) Energy flow.
1 IC engine, 2 Fuel tank,
cut in and out and thus decoupled from 3 Electrical machine,
the electrical machine (Figure 11), purely 4 Clutch or converter (optional),
electric driving with a full hybrid is made 5 Transmission, 6 Final-drive unit,
possible. The internal-combustion engine 7 Pulse-controlled inverter, 8 Battery.
can also be decoupled in deceleration
phases. Firstly, this increases the energy a
to be recuperated during acceleration. 1 2 3
Secondly, it permits sailing operation,
whereby the vehicle rolls freely and is
slowed down only by aerodynamic drag
and rolling friction. However, engine start- 4 4 5 6
ing can only take place with the clutch
closed, which hampers the transition from
electric driving to driving with the inter-
nal-combustion engine, above all without
a clutch between the electrical machine
and the transmission.
To make this drive structure accept-
able, it is very important to enable the
internal-combustion engine to be started 8 7
from electric driving without compromis-
ing comfort. There are two different ways b
of achieving this. In the first option the in- 1 2
ternal-combustion engine is started when
the interrupting clutch is open by a sepa-
rate starter and there is no unwanted ef-
fect on vehicle motion. This however calls 6
for a separate starter, which can actually 3
be dispensed with in a hybrid vehicle.
Another option is to activate the inter-
nal-combustion engine, the electric drive
and the clutch in such a way that the ef-
fect on vehicle motion is compensated for
during engine starting. To this end an in-
SAF0093-2Y

telligent control system requires access to

measured values from the internal-com- 8 7
bustion engine, the electric drive, and
1002 Electrification of the drive
transmission housing are required. Instal-
lation space is additionally required for the
electrical machine and the clutch. The P2
topology is possible with all transmission
variants.
P3 topology
Connecting the electrical machine to the
transmission outlet is also feasible. This
topology is possible with all transmission
types.
However, in this topology the rotation-
al-speed spread of the drive axle must be
transmitted to the machine shaft. Electric
driving can only be achieved by choosing
a suitable conversion ratio between the
electrical machine and the drive shaft.
If, at higher driving speeds, this results
in the upper rotational-speed limit of the
electrical machine being exceeded. the
electrical machine must be automatic dis-
engaged.
In principle, this topology offers the
greatest efficiency during recuperation
since the lowest mechanical transmission
losses occur here. But this only applies pro-
vided the electrical-machine power output
does not decrease substantially with the
speed. Otherwise the maximum possible
recuperation or boost power would drop
prematurely with the driving speed. If the
electrical machine has be to disengaged
due to its rotational-speed limit at higher
driving speeds, energy cannot be recuper-
ated in these high rotational-speed ranges.
The internal-combustion engine cannot
be started from a vehicle standstill. As well
as the additionally required conventional
alternator for reliable electrical-system
supply this topology must have a conven-
tional start/stop-capable starter or a 12 V-
or 48 V-based starter generator.
The integration outlay for the electrical
machine must here too be gaged as very
high. Furthermore, installing the addi-
tional clutch between the internal-com-
bustion engine and the electrical machine
in this P3 topology entails increasing the
length of the drivetrain and thus necessi-
tating a larger installation space.
P4 topology
A further parallel drive structure is ob-
tained by electrifying a separate axle
(axle-split parallel hybrid, Figure 9e for
standard drive, Figure 12 for front-trans-
verse drive). Here, a conventional drive-
train comprising internal-combustion en-
gine and transmission on a powered axle
is combined with an electrically powered
axle. A semi-automatic transmission and
a start/stop system for the internal-com-
bustion engine are required for this pur-
pose. One or more interrupting clutches
can be installed.
This drive structure is classed as a par-
allel hybrid drive because the individual
components of power from the engine
and the electric drive add up. This con-
cept delivers a four-wheel-drive function-
ality limited by the power of the electrical
machine and battery charge. Distribution
of the drive torques can be adjusted by
specific activation of the electric drive
within wide limits.
The traction battery is recharged by
regenerative braking or externally via a
charging socket. The traction battery can
only be recharged externally when the ve-
hicle is stationary.
The transmission for the internal-com-
bustion engine is the same as that of a ve-
hicle without axle hybrid, but must also be
able to be operated over longer distances
at high speed in neutral – i.e., open. Lu-
Figure 12: Schematic diagram of an axle
hybrid (P4) in a front-transverse drive
An external charging socket can be installed
but is not pictured here.
1 IC engine, 2 Manual transmission,
3 Final-drive differential, 4 Drive shaft,
5 Traction battery, 6 Electrical machine,
7 Step-up gear unit (fixed ratio).
+ −
1 4 5 6 7 4
3
2 3
UTH0044Y

brication of the transmission must be as-
sured when both the input shaft and the
output shaft are stationary.
Final drive via an axle
Particularly for front-transverse drives
with very limited installation space it can
be advantageous not to have to accom-
modate the electrical machine between
the engine and the transmission. A P0 or
P1 position by means of a belt drive is just
as conceivable as a P4 position on the
axle driven by the internal-combustion en-
gine. The downside of this concept is that
the electrical machine may not be able to
utilize the different gears of the combus-
tion-engine transmission and is subject to
losses at high driving speeds as long as it
cannot be disengaged from the final-drive
differential and the wheels.
Hybrid drives 1003
Series hybrid
In a series-hybrid drive there is no me-
chanical connection of the internal-com-
bustion engine to the vehicle drive. The
internal-combustion engine drives an
electrical machine, which operates as an
alternator (Figure 13). The electric power
generated in this way is made available
together with the battery power to a sec-
ond electrical machine, which drives the
vehicle. From the perspective of the en-
ergy flows, a series connection exists in
this case.
Advantages of the series hybrid
In view of the fact that there is no mechan-
ical connection between the internal-com-
bustion engine and the powered wheels
Figure 13: Series hybrid drive
a) Drive structure,
b) Energy flow.
1 IC engine, 2 Fuel tank,
3 Electrical machines, 4 Final-drive unit,
5 Pulse-controlled inverter, 6 Battery.
a
1 2
3 3 4
6 5
b
1 2
3 3 4
SAF0092-2Y
6 5
1004 Electrification of the drive

in the series hybrid, this drive structure
offers some advantages. Thus, a conven-
tional range transmission is not required in
the drivetrain. This creates free space for
arranging the overall drive (“packaging”).
In addition, starting the internal-com-
bustion engine from electric driving does
not cause any unwanted effect on vehicle
motion.
The chief advantage when driving is the
ability to freely select the operating point
of the engine. Excess mechanical energy
produced by the internal-combustion en-
gine at full load with high efficiency which
is not required for vehicle propulsion can
be stored in the battery and then utilized
later when the combustion engine is
turned off for the electric drive. This sup-
ports fuel-saving and low-emission oper-
ational management of the vehicle. The
engine can also be optimized to a limited
operating range.
With a larger battery capacity the elec-
trical machine operated as an alternator
and the internal-combustion engine can
be designed with smaller dimensions. The
combustion engine can be maintained at
more favorable operating points; it only
makes available the average energy re-
quired for vehicle propulsion for the base
load. The missing power for acceleration
processes for example is drawn from the
battery.
As the combustion engine and alterna-
tor further decrease in size, this system
devolves into a range extender.
the entire energy of the internal-com-
bustion engine must be converted. This
means greater weight and higher costs.
Due to the double energy conversion,
the series hybrid is only fuel-efficient un-
der certain operating conditions. At low
and medium speeds a series hybrid, de-
spite the higher losses, offers a fuel-con-
sumption advantage because here the
positives afforded by the ability to freely
select the engine’s operating point out-
weigh the negatives. The higher losses
are predominant at higher speeds.
Figure 14: Series-parallel hybrid drive
a) Drive structure,
b) Energy flow.
1 IC engine, 2 Fuel tank,
3 Electrical machine, 4 Clutch,
5 Final-drive unit, 6 Pulse-controlled inverter,
7 Battery.
a
1 2
3 4 3 5

Disadvantages of the series hybrid

A downside of the series hybrid is that 7 6
electrical energy has to be converted
twice. The losses incurred through double
energy conversion are higher than in the b
case of a purely mechanical transfer by a 1 2
transmission. Furthermore, this principle
lacks the possibility of adding the power of
the internal-combustion engine to that of
5
the electrical machine (boosting).
Standing against the high driving com-
fort provided by the electrical machine
without ratio change and the possibility of
operating the internal-combustion engine 3
at its optimum consumption point is the
STH0022-4Y

high complexity in the form of two elec-

trical machines. These, due to their very 7 6
concept, have to be very powerful since
 Hybrid drives 1005

Series-parallel hybrid Power split

A series hybrid is extended to become The central element of power split (or
a series-parallel hybrid (Figure 14) by power summation) is a planetary-gear
establishing a mechanical connection set, which is connected via its three shafts
between the two electrical machines to the internal-combustion engine and two
which is connected or separated by a electrical machines. For the input-power
clutch. The series-parallel hybrid can uti- split the internal-combustion engine is
lize the advantages of the series hybrid connected to an element of the plane-
at low speeds and circumvent the dis- tary-gear set (e.g., the planetary-gear
advantages at higher speeds by closing carrier), the generator to a second ele-
the clutch. When the clutch is closed, ment (e.g., the sun gear), and the second
the series-parallel hybrid behaves like a electrical machine to the third element
parallel hybrid. Since the double energy (e.g., the ring gear) and the output. For
conversion is limited to the range of lower the output-power split the internal-com-
speeds and power outputs, smaller elec- bustion engine and the generator engage
trical machines are sufficient for the se- an element of the planetary-gear set and
ries-parallel hybrid than are required for
the series hybrid. Figure 15: Power-split hybrid drive
Compared with the series hybrid, the a) Drive structure,
advantage in “packaging” is lessened on b) Energy flow.
account of the mechanical connection 1 IC engine, 2 Fuel tank,
between the internal-combustion engine 3 Planetary gear, 4 Electrical machine,
5 Inverter, 6 Battery.
and the powered wheels. Compared with
the parallel hybrid, two electrical ma-
chines are required for the same task. a
1 2 3 4
Power-split hybrid
Features
A power-split hybrid drive generally has
two electrical machines, which on the one
hand function as electric variators and on
the other hand perform “hybrid” functions
such as boosting and recuperation. Pow-
er-split hybrid vehicles combine features 4
of parallel and series hybrid vehicles with
those of a power split (Figure 15). For
the variator function of the two electrical
machines some of the mechanical power 6 5
(speed times torque) is supplied via the
planetary gear to the first electrical ma- b
chine, which now functions as a gener- 1 2
ator and converts the mechanical power
into electric power (electrical path). The
remaining power, together with the sec-
3
ond electrical machine, drives the vehicle
(mechanical path). The electric power is
supplied via an inverter to the second
electrical machine, which functions as a
motor at a speed independent of both the 4
generator and the internal-combustion 4
engine and supplies its power to the drive-
train again in mechanical form.
SAF0094-6Y

6 5
1006 Electrification of the drive
the second electrical machine engages
a second element of the planetary-gear
set, while the output is connected to the
third element of the planetary-gear set.
In both cases the electric component in
the power-split hybrid can be varied by
activation of the electrical machine. This
provides for continuously variable start-
ing and continuously variable ratio ad-
justment. The battery can be charged or
discharged by varying the generated and
supplied electrical energy of the two elec-
trical machines.
Because of the kinematic boundary
conditions at the planetary-gear set, the
engine speed can be adjusted within
certain limits independently of the driving
speed. The internal-combustion engine
can thus operate extensively in the opti-
mal operating range. Following a contin-
uously variable transmission (CVT), the
terminology used here is an electric con-
tinuously variable transmission (ECVT).
Some of the engine power is trans-
mitted by the planetary-gear set via the
mechanical path to the powered wheels.
The remainder of the power is transmit-
ted via the electrical path with double en-
ergy conversion to the powered wheels.
Similarly to the series hybrid, the electric
transmission path can be used in the case
of low power demands. For higher power
demands, the mechanical transmission
path is also available. However, it is not
possible to switch arbitrarily between the
mechanical and electrical transmission
paths. Depending on the configuration
of the planetary-gear set, the electrical
machine and the internal-combustion
engine, without an additional transmis-
sion only certain combinations between
the mechanical and electrical transmis-
sion paths are ever possible. In this way,
the power-split hybrid can achieve sub-
stantial fuel savings at low and medium
speeds. No additional fuel savings can be
achieved at high speeds.
The power-split hybrid can be expand
by mechanical, fixed gears by using a sec-
ond planetary-gear set. The mechanical
complexity increases, while the electrical
complexity decreases. Smaller electrical
machines are then sufficient for a com-
parable concept. Furthermore, fuel con-
sumption at medium and higher speeds
can be improved.
Disadvantages
Standing against the high driving comfort
of this concept is the high complexity in
the form of two electrical machines, which
due to their very concept have to be very
powerful as they must convert a large pro-
portion of the power. Their overall power
is thus in the range of the installed com-
bustion-engine power. There is no provi-
sion for modularity with an existing basic
transmission without electrical machines.
 Hybrid drives 1007

Incorporating the transmis- Figure 16 shows an automatic planetary

sion in the hybrid drive
Transmissions for P0 and
P1 topologies
Hybrid drives come in the most varied
forms. For P0 and P1 topologies, where
the electrical machine is located between
the internal-combustion engine and the
clutch or converter, the classic drivetrain
components can be used. The required
changes in the drivetrain for the hybrid
drive are minimal; no changes to the
transmission itself are required. All trans-
mission types can be used.
Adapted conventional transmissions
Conventional transmissions adapted to
hybrid functionality are prevalent in vehi-
cles with P2-topology hybrid drive. These
vehicles are based on the variant of clas-
sic drive with internal-combustion engine;
the classic drive components can be used
for the most part. The function of the auto-
matic transmission is the same as that of
a conventional drive.
transmission for the standard drive in
whose housing an electrical machine is
integrated at the drive end (IMG, integrate
motor-generator, see Electrical machines
for motor-vehicle propulsion). With these
transmissions it is possible to achieve
a modular, gradual electrification of the
drivetrain ranging from the mild hybrid,
through the full hybrid up to the plug-in
hybrid. This transmission with integrated
electrical machine is only slightly longer
than a conventional transmission. The
extended length even fits into the same
outer transmission case on frequent occa-
sions. This simplifies the vehicle platform.
Transmissions with integrated
electrical machine
In some vehicles the installation space re-
quired for the P3 drive configuration is not
available. This problem can be remedied
by integrating the electrical machine in a
dual-clutch transmission. The electrical
machine is no longer connected to the
crankshaft of the internal-combustion en-

Figure 16: Structural design of a P2 transmission with integrated electrical machine base
on a conventional automatic planetary transmission for a standard drive
1 From driving engine, 2 Torsion damper, 3 Electrical machine,
4 Multi-disk brakes, 5 Planetary-gear sets, 6 Multi-disk clutches,
7 To final-drive unit.
2 3 4 5 6 5

1
UTH0050-1Y
1008 Electrification of the drive
gine, but is instead connected to a subunit
of the dual-clutch transmission. This ar-
rangement does not require an additional
clutch between the internal-combustion
engine and the electrical machine. Purely
electric driving with the engine stopped is
possible by opening the double clutch of
the transmission. Depending on the gear
selected in the transmission subunit, with
the electrical machine a different trans-
mission ratio is possible between the
engine and the electrical machine. This
produces an additional degree of freedom
for the hybrid control, which can be used
to further reduce fuel consumption.
Special transmissions
for hybrid drives
Specially developed hybrid vehicles which
are only offered as hybrid variants arrive
on the market in high numbers. Here it is
practical to adapt the entire drivetrain to
the hybrid-drive possibilities and thereby
optimize the complete system. One mea-
sure is to simplify the mechanical design
of the transmission by omitting the com-
ponents for the reverse gear. Instead, at
least one electrical machine is integrated
into the transmission to provide for revers-
ing (backing up). The electrical machine is
thus part of the transmission, whereby the
connection to the transmission can be ef-
fected by various transmission shafts. The
transmission can be further simplified by
reducing the gears. Tight stepping of the
gears as encountered in a classic drive is
not necessary in a hybrid drive.
Transmissions specifically developed for
a hybrid drive with one or more integrated
electrical machines called dedicated hy-
brid transmissions (DHTs) [3]. They can be
derived from all the possible transmission
concepts – the dual-clutch transmission,
the automatic planetary transmission, the
continuously variable transmission (CVT)
or the automated manual transmission.
Power-split operating conditions can be
created with planetary-gear sets addition-
ally integrated in such transmissions.
________________________________
References
[1] Directive 2007/46/EC of the European
Parliament and of the Council of 5 Sep-
tember 2007 establishing a framework for
the approval of motor vehicles and their
trailers, and of systems, components and
separate technical units for such vehicles
(Framework Directive).
[2] M. Uhl: 3rd International Conference
Automotive 48 V Power Supply Systems.
24 – 26 November 2015, Düsseldorf.
[3] H. Tschöke, P. Gutzmer, T. Pfund
(Editors): Die Elektrifizierung des An-
triebsstrangs. 1st Edition eBook, Verlag
Springer Vieweg, 2019.
1010 Electrification of the drive
Control of a hybrid drive
Hybrid vehicle
In a hybrid electric vehicle (HEV) propul-
sion is provided by an internal-combus-
tion engine and one or more electrical
machines (e-machines). Depending on
the performance of the electrical machine
there is mild hybridization with a mild
hybrid (battery voltage typically 48 V) or
strong hybridization with a full hybrid (also
called a strong hybrid, battery voltage typ-
ically 200 to 400 V; HV High Voltage). The
following components are required for the
drive of a hybrid vehicle:
– internal-combustion engine,
– clutch to separate the electrical ma-
chine from the internal-combustion
engine,
– transmission (e.g., automatic planetary
transmission, dual-clutch transmis-
sion),
– electrical machine,
– power electronics (inverter),
– battery (e.g., 48V battery for mild hy-
brid, HV battery for full hybrid),
– DC/DC inverter for connecting the HV
vehicle electrical system to the low-volt-
age electrical system,
– regenerative braking system for recu-
perative braking.
Figure 1 shows by way of example a ve-
hicle with electric final-drive unit (e-axle).
Figure 1: Components in the drivetrain of a hybrid drive with electric final-drive unit
1 IC engine,
2 Electric final-drive unit (e-axle) with electrical
machine, power electronics (inverter)
and reduction gear,
3 Traction battery,
4 12V battery for 12V
vehicle electrical
system, 4
5 Control units,
6 Regenerative
braking system.
1
6
Vehicle control unit
for hybrid vehicles
Function
In a hybrid vehicle these components
must be operated by open- and closed-
loop control. The efficiency which can be
achieved with the relevant hybrid drive is
crucially dependent on the higher-level
hybrid control. Figure 2 shows the elec-
trical system overview of a hybrid drive
with the networking of the individual com-
ponents and ECUs in the drivetrain. The
higher-level hybrid control (vehicle control
unit, VCU) coordinates the entire system,
the subsystems of which have their own
control functions. These are battery man-
agement, engine management for the in-
ternal-combustion engine, management
of the electric drive (including the electri-
cal machine, the clutches, and the power
electronics), transmission management,
and management of the braking system.
In addition to pure control of the sub-
systems, the hybrid control also includes
an operating strategy which optimizes the
way in which the drivetrain is operated.
The operating strategy brings influence
to bear on the consumption- and emis-
sion-reducing functions of the hybrid vehi-
cle; it must implement the different hybrid
functions, such as regenerative braking
and hybrid and electric driving, and start-
2
5 3
DTH0104Y
 Control of a hybrid drive 1011

stop operation of the internal-combustion differently, depending on the optimization

engine. The operating strategy deter- objective (e.g., fuel saving or emission
mines how the drive power is shared be- reduction).
tween the engine and the electric drive. It
decides the extent to which the potentials
for fuel saving and for reducing the emis-
sions of a vehicle are utilized.
Selection of and switching between the
individual states is performed in accor-
dance with numerous conditions relating
to, for example, the accelerator-pedal
position, the state of charge of the bat-
tery, and the vehicle’s current speed. The
components in the hybrid vehicle behave

Figure 2: Electrical system diagram for a hybrid vehicle

HV High Voltage,
LV Low Voltage (12 V for passenger cars, 24 V for commercial vehicles),
AC Alternating Current,
DC Direct Current,
CAN Controller Area Network, LIN Local Interconnect Network,
CU Electronic Control Unit,
VCU Vehicle Control Unit (electric-drive control unit),
TCU Transmission Control Unit,
ECU Engine Control Unit.

HV CAN, LIN

Traction battery with LV HV heating

battery-management
system

Heating CU
Battery CU
Inverter
Charging Charging unit El. machine
post
≈ M
= 3~ On Engine
Off Start
Charging CU Inverter CU Stop
Torque
request
Control of DC/DC converter LV battery Terminals
electric drive Fuse
=
Heating =
and
cooling VCU
DC/DC CU Battery sensor
LV consumer
ECUs
Engine management Internal-
combustion
Transmission control El. machine engine
TCU
SAE1341-1E

ECU
e-clutch
1012 Electrification of the drive
Drivetrain operating strategy
for hybrid vehicles
Function
In a hybrid vehicle with internal-combus-
tion engine and electrical machine the in-
teraction of these two drives must be coor-
dinated. This drivetrain operating strategy
is part of the software in the VCU (vehicle
control unit), which controls the degrees
of freedom of the interaction of the drives
in such a way as to minimize the overall
drive-system losses over the route.
The overall wheel torque requested (or
the wheel force or the mechanical power)
is determined by a driver request (ac-
celerator-pedal position, vehicle-speed
controller). The purpose of the optimi-
zation strategy is to delivery this overall
torque with the best possible distribution
between the internal-combustion engine
and one or more electrical machines. The
strategy must furthermore decide whether
it is more favorable to drive by hybrid or
purely electric means if purely electric
driving is possible for the given hybrid-ve-
hicle topology.
Classification of operating strategy
Generally, the operating-strategy solu-
tions can be classified into three main
categories: control-based, optimiza-
tion-based, and learning strategies.
Control-based operating strategy
Control-based operating strategies com-
prise deterministic strategies and fuzzy-
logic strategies. In the deterministic strat-
egy events – particularly future events
– are clearly defined by preconditions. In
typical fuzzy-logic strategies the continu-
Figure 3: Topology of a P2 parallel hybrid
1 IC engine,
2 Interrupting clutch,
3 Electrical machine,
4 Power take-up element,
1 2
5 Transmission.
ous data are classified into discrete value
ranges. Both strategies have a series of
predefined rules without the remaining
route being known from the outset.
Optimization-based operating strategy
Optimization-based strategies can be ei-
ther offline or online approaches. In the
case of offline approaches optimization
is performed offline; the results are then
stored in the VCU for example in program
maps. Dynamic programming (DP) is
an established offline approach. This in-
volves splitting the optimization problem
into subproblems with the intermediate
results being stored. The optimal solution
of the overall problem is made up of the
optimal solutions of the subproblems.
In the case of online optimization strat-
egies, on the other hand, an algorithm for
calculating the optimal operating points is
calculated directly in the VCU. Examples
of online optimization approaches are
the equivalent consumption minimization
strategy (ECMS) andmodel predictive
control ( MPC) [1]. MPC approaches pre-
dict a trajectory of vehicle motion, calcu-
late a cost function for each step in the
trajectory, and select the nearest element
ahead of the vehicle for present optimi-
zation [2]. Online approaches can react
better to different driving conditions.
Learning strategies
Learning strategies demonstrate that
promising advances are as a rule pos-
sible with approaches based on neural
networks [3].
3
4 5
STH0102Y

Influences on operating strategy
The description of a drivetrain operating
strategy applies here generally to all hy-
brid topologies. The concept of an oper-
ating strategy is explained with reference
to a P2 parallel hybrid (Figure 3). The P2
topology features a interrupting clutch
between the internal-combustion engine
(ICE) and the electrical machine, which
in turn is connected via a transmission to
the wheels. The arrangement of the drives
facilitates both purely electric and hybrid
driving. In the hybrid driving mode the op-
erating strategy determines the optimal
torque distribution or the optimal power
distribution. The operating strategy also
decides between operation in the hybrid
driving mode and the electric driving mode
whereby the total losses during optimal
power distribution in the hybrid driving
mode are compared with the total losses
in the electric driving mode. It is important
to bear in mind that the operating strat-
egy must find an optimum for each instant
taking account of the overall distance
traveled and not just for an instantaneous
optimization. This is required because the
battery state of charge (SOC) is a long-
term aspect of the system. Discharge of
the battery resulting from electric driving
Figure 4: Example of the efficiency of
a gasoline internal-combustion engine
depending on speed and torque
The optimal torque versus speed is marked
as the optimal operating curve [4].
1 Optimal operating curve,
2 Values for specific fuel consumption in g/kWh.
% %
1 80
2 Efficiency
210
80 210 220
Engine torque
230
60
240
250
40
20
0 −100
1000 2000 3000 4000 5000
Engine speed
Control of a hybrid drive 1013
for example can only be evaluated if the
system takes into account how much
electrical energy is returned to the battery
(e.g., by load-point increase, operation of
the internal-combustion engine with ex-
cess power for generator operation of the
electrical machine).
Figures 4 and 5 show representative
speed/torque program maps of an inter-
nal-combustion engine and an electrical
machine. It becomes clear that electrical
machines operate efficiently in a wide
speed and torque range, i.e., with high ef-
ficiency. The internal-combustion engine
on the other hand is much less efficient
and has only certain speed/torque ranges
with higher efficiency which are marked in
Figure 4 as the optimal operating curve.
Values with the same specific fuel con-
sumption (values in g/kWh) form the char-
acteristic curves shown in the diagram.
The program map is also called a graph
diagram. Optimization of the operating
point of internal-combustion engine (Fig-
ure 4), electrical machine (Figure 5), and
battery and taking into account the rele-
vance of the instantaneous driver-com-
mand torque in relation to the energy re-
quirement for the entire journey give rise
to a complex optimization problem.
Figure 5: Example of the efficiency of an
electrical machine depending on speed
and torque within their physical limits [5]
Torque > 0: motor mode,
Torque < 0: generator mode.
Torque limits
85
60
in %
40 95
93
20
Torque
85
0 85
−20 95
−40
93
−60
SAE1353-2E
SAE1343-2E
−80
85
rpm 0 500 1000 1500 rpm
Speed
1014 Electrification of the drive
Equivalent consumption minimization
strategy
A method for solving the previously ex-
plained problem is an equivalent con-
sumption minimization strategy (ECMS).
The term “equivalent consumption” comes
about as a result of the ECMS attempting
to make consumption of electrical energy
from the battery comparable with fuel
consumption. This strategy optimizes the
torque distribution or the power distribu-
tion between an electrical machine and an
internal-combustion engine by attempting
to store and utilize electrical energy in the
battery with the highest possible global ef-
ficiency (overall efficiency of all the system
elements involved). The ECMS achieves
this by taking account of losses of the
internal-combustion engine, the electri-
cal machine (including inverter), and the
battery.
The idea behind the ECMS is to find
a way to compare the power delivered
by the internal-combustion engine with
the power of the electric system. This is
achieved by using an equivalence factor s
comprising several aspects for optimizing
the torque distribution between engines.
The equivalence factor will be described
in detail later.
The power requested by the driver PD is
the sum total of the mechanical power of
the internal-combustion engine PICE and
that of the electrical machine PEM.
PD = PICE + PEM . (1)
The ECMS is based on a cost function
(equation (2)) in which the equivalence
powers PEq are considered as costs. This
cost function must then be minimized:
PEq = PF + s  PB . (2)
PF and PB are the power figures that the
system must deliver to achieve the de-
sired power [6], s is the equivalence factor.
PF is the power obtained from the fuel for
the internal-combustion engine; it is ob-
tained from the sum total of the engine
power PICE and the engine losses PICEL.
PB is the power drawn from the battery; it
is obtained from the sum total of the me-
chanical power of the electrical machine
PEM and the losses in the machine PEL.
Consequently:
PEq = PICE + PICEL + s  (PEM + PEL) . (3)
The desired optimum from equation (3)
is the point at which the overall system
losses are minimized.
The losses PICEL and PEL are generally
determined empirically by way of program
maps depending on the speed and the
torque of the internal-combustion engine
and the electrical machine, as shown in
Figures 4 and 5. The values of PICE and
PEM for the operating points at which the
losses are minimized are determined by
an optimization algorithm which evaluates
a multitude of PICE and PEM combinations
and stores the combination for which PEq
assumes the lowest value.
Figure 6 shows some results by way of
example of an ECMS optimization. The
minimum equivalence power constitutes
here the optimal torque distribution based
on the cost function. Figure 6a shows the
equivalence power for the hybrid drive in
kW (y-axis) plotted against the torque of
the electrical machine in Nm (x-axis) at
an internal-combustion-engine and elec-
trical-machine speed of 1500 rpm and
a total torque demand of 120 Nm. The
shift towards a negative electrical-ma-
chine torque (i.e., generator operation
and charging of the battery) with a lower
SOC becomes clear in Figure 6a. The
equivalence power for electric driving at
which the driver's overall torque request
is effected via the electrical machine and
the internal-combustion engine is isolated
and switched off is also shown in Fig-
ure 6a for two SOC values. At the higher
SOC value for this combination of driv-
er-requested torque and drivetrain speed
the equivalence power for electric driving
is lower than the best possible torque dis-
tribution for hybrid driving.
Figure 6b shows for two SOC values
the equivalence-power levels for hybrid
drive and electrical-machine torque at
an internal-combustion-engine and elec-
trical-machine torque of 3000 rpm and a
total torque demand of 400 Nm.
Equivalence factor
The equivalence factor s plays a key role
in the ECMS by providing a comparison
 Control of a hybrid drive 1015

between the power from the battery and
the fuel. The equivalence factor is typi-
cally subdivided into two parts: a constant
s0 and an SOC-based correction. The s0
component depends on the future speed
and the load profile of the vehicle. Be-
cause this information can only be esti-
mated, a correction of s0 is made based
on the deviation between the desired and
the actual SOC of the battery. This also
serves to maintain the SOC in a range
so that charging or discharging is always
possible where required. Figure 7 shows
a potential realization of the behavior [3].
One drawback of the ECMS is that to
calculate the optimal power distribution in
the hybrid driving mode equation (3) gen-
erally cannot be mathematically solved
for the minimum. The equivalence power
must therefore be calculated several
times in order to find the optimal solution.
the best solution, the equivalence power
with the best power distribution in the hy-
brid driving mode is compared with the
equivalence power in the electric driving
mode. The prerequisite for this is that the
driver request can be completely fulfilled
by the electrical machine and the inter-
nal-combustion engine has no losses be-
cause it is isolated and switched off. The
mode in which the lowest equivalent over-
all power can be achieved is then selected
as the optimal energy mode.
Figure 7: Possible behavior curve of
the dependence of equivalence factor s
as a function of state of charge (SOC)
1 Example of the SOC end value for a
driving cycle.
1

SAE1345-1E
This results in a high computing-capacity
Equivalence

requirement [7]. s0
factor s

Selection of the optimal operating mode

As already mentioned, the strategy must 0 20 40 60 80 100%
select which operating mode – hybrid or State of charge
purely electric driving – is optimal. To find

Figure 6: Cost function (equivalence power in kW vs. torque of electrical machine in Nm)
for some exemplary operating conditions for a P2 hybrid vehicle (source: Bosch)
a) Transition from hybrid to electric driving, speed 1500 rpm,
overall driver command 120 Nm,
b) Transition from electric to hybrid driving, speed 3000 rpm,
overall driver command 400 Nm.
1 Hybrid driving, state of charge SOC = 30 %,
2 Hybrid driving, state of charge SOC = 80 %.
A Cost minimum for hybrid driving with SOC = 30 %,
B Costs of electric driving with SOC = 30 %,
C Costs of electric driving with SOC = 80 %,
D Cost minimum for hybrid driving with SOC = 30 %,
E Cost minimum for hybrid driving with SOC = 80 %.

a b
kW kW
2
160 1 160
Equivalence power
Equivalence power

1
120 120 D
2
80 B 80
E
40 A 40
C
SAE1344-1E

0 0
−250 −150 −50 50 150 Nm −250 −150 −50 50 150 Nm
Torque Torque
1016 Electrification of the drive
Map-based strategies
A common type of control-based strategy
is a map-based strategy. In this approach,
the optimal torque distribution for example
from program maps can be determined
on the basis of driving conditions. The
program maps which are to be selected
to determine the torque distribution are
determined on the basis of a set of rules
which are dependent on system proper-
ties such as for example SOC classifica-
tion (high, medium, low).
Map-based strategies offer the fol-
lowing advantages and disadvantages
compared with an optimization-based
operating strategy, for example an ECMS
approach.
Advantages of a map-based strategy
compared with the ECMS
– Freedom from calibration offers the
implementer when calibrating the data
(e.g., program maps) more possibilities
to determine the behavior of the drive-
train in certain driving situations (e.g.,
combination of SOC, driver request,
gear selection).
– Less computing time in real time is
required because the decision as to
which program maps are to be used
and calling up the desired value from
the program maps take place only once
per optimization time step.
– In the solution it is less probable that
the optimal torque distribution will ex-
hibit great leaps with minimal changes
to the driving conditions.
Disadvantages of a map-based strategy
compared with the ECMS
– Major demands are made of data stor-
age, some series solutions have more
than 100 calibration curves and maps
to cover all the combinations of relevant
input parameters adequately.
– It is not possible to transfer the cali-
bration from one vehicle model to an-
other because the calibration of the
individual curves and maps is based
not on the physical properties of the
individual components but on the com-
bined effects of all the components in
the system. In comparison, an ECMS
calibration typically consist primarily of
program maps that show the loss char-
acteristics of the internal-combustion
engine, the electrical machine and the
battery individually.
– There is no capacity to react to changes
in the environmental conditions. De-
pending on the implementation an
ECMS can adapt online if the equiva-
lence factor changes on account of a
long-term deviation between the de-
sired and the actual battery SOC.
On the basis of these advantages and
disadvantages both equivalent consump-
tion minimization strategies (ECMS, i.e.,
optimization-based strategies) and map-
based strategies are used by a number of
vehicle manufacturers.
Outlook – Artificial intelligence and
neural networks
Neural networks (NNs) simulate the
workings of the brain, permit a kind of
biological information processing, and
are a technical concept for solving differ-
ent types of problems, including pattern
recognition, prediction, planning, etc. [8].
Neural networks are the usual modules
of artificial intelligence. A neural network
consists of a combination of
– neurons which are interconnected (Fig-
ure 8),
– weights which define the interactions
between inputs to the neural network
and the neurons and interactions be-
tween neurons.
A neural network is adapted by a training
process in which a lot of data are used
with combinations of inputs to the neural
network and resulting “correct” outputs.
The training process adapts the weights
in the neural network to be able to depict
all the training data in the best possible
way (see for example [8]).
Furthermore, progress is being made in
the field of neural networks and their use
in recognizing situations and trends and in
solving optimization with appropriate ac-
curacy. Generally speaking, data-based
processes like neural networks have the
reputation of imposing high demands on
computing capacity and data storage.
Interestingly, studies have shown that
an efficiently designed neural network
can deliver virtually optimal results for an
 Control of a hybrid drive 1017

operating strategy for hybrid drives with – the equivalent overall power in the
fewer online computing resources and da- electric driving mode assuming that the
ta-storage requirements than an ECMS driver's torque request is completely
method [3]. fulfilled by the electrical machine (PE_E).

General design of a neural network for a
hybrid operating strategy
As already mentioned, the P2 topology
facilitates two driving modes, namely
hybrid driving and purely electric driving.
Therefore the solution of the neural net-
work must not only determined the op-
timal mechanical power of the electrical
machine in the hybrid driving mode but
also provide information to facilitate the
decision as to whether the electric or hy-
brid driving mode is better from the point
of view of energy optimization. A neural
network with three outputs for example
could be selected to solve this optimiza-
tion problem (Figure 8):
– The mechanical power of the electrical
machine equating to the best solution in
the hybrid driving mode (PH_O),
– the equivalent overall power with the
best power or torque distribution in the
hybrid driving mode (PH_E), and
The decision as to which driving mode
(hybrid or electric driving) is to be selected
can then be made in the software outside
the neural network, where for example the
energy required for the transition of the
driving mode and for driver-acceptance
reasons the permissible time between the
transitions are taken into consideration
(the driver is informed of the mode change
typically via a display).
As shown in Figure 8, the network in-
puts are the power requested by the driver
(PD), the speed n of the internal-combus-
tion engine and the electrical machine,
and the equivalence factor s.
Application
To obtain data for the training, data re-
cords, i.e., combinations of values for PD,
n and s, were generated on the basis of a
general test plan (design of experiments,
DOE), with which the entire solution space

Figure 8: Concept of a neural network for a drivetrain operating strategy of a hybrid drive
1 Neurons,
2 Connections (synapses),
3 Neurons for expansion to a plastic neural network.
PD Mechanical power requested by the driver,
n Speed of internal-combustion engine and electrical machine,
s Equivalence factor,
PH_O Optimal mechanical power of the electrical machine in the hybrid driving mode,
PH_E Equivalent overall power in the hybrid driving mode with optimal power distribution,
PE_E Equivalent overall power with optimization of the costs of purely electric driving.

1 1 3
2

2
2
1 1
PD PH_O
n PH_E

s PE_E
SAE1346-1Y
1018 Electrification of the drive
is depicted by combinations of PD, n and s.
The resulting data records were then fed
into an ECMS model which was already
calibrated for the target vehicle in order to
supply the “correct” answers for training
the neural network. In addition, test cases
were created for the neural network using
international driving cycles in order to rep-
resent real driving situations.
Use of plasticity in an
NN-based HEV operating strategy
Networks with the ability to remember and
to learn from experienced have garnered
a lot of attention in the last few years. A
promising form of network was published
in [9]. The authors introduced a neural net-
work with plastic weights, i.e., weights that
follow Hebb's rule from biology and mean
that the connections between neurons
(synapses) change depending on the in-
tensity of their interaction [10]. By applying
plasticity to artificial networks it is possible
to learn even after the first training and
thereby facilitate adaptation to actual sit-
uations. Compared with LSTM networks
(Long Short-Time Memory) the architec-
ture of plastic neural networks is much
less complex and requires less memory
capacity, which makes them ideal for use
in an electronic control unit for a vehicle.
The shaded neurons in Figure 8 are af-
fected by the expansion to a plastic neural
network [3].
Figure 9: Comparison of the optimal mechanical power of the electrical machine in the
hybrid driving mode from ECMS (target data) and from the NN approach
a) Optimal mechanical power of the electrical machine,
b) Comparison of the resulting optimal equivalence power for mechanical power of the electrical
machine as the result of the neural network versus optimal equivalence power from the ECMS
(the curves differ so little that they overlap).
a kW
5 Target
NN
0 60
Power PH_O
−5
−10
−15
−20
0 10 20 30 ms
Time
The results are shown in Figure 9. Fig-
ure 9a shows the direct comparison of the
resulting optimal mechanical power of the
electrical machine over time. Figure 9b
shows the results when the mechanical
NN power is converted into an equivalent
power and compared with the equiva-
lence power from the basic ECMS result.
There is no discernible difference here
between the NN result and the ECMS.
Figure 9b shows that – although the NN
results for the optimal mechanical power
of the electrical machine deviate from
those of the ECMS result – the deviation
with regard to energy consumption makes
no difference. This is useful because un-
der certain conditions a large difference in
the power or torque distribution can only
have a very small influence on the overall
energy consumption.
The neural network was able to de-
liver results comparable with an ECMS
approach with regard to global efficiency
while is demonstrated much fewer com-
putation steps than the ECMS and much
fewer data-storage requirements than a
map-based strategy. The addition of the
plasticity terms also reduced the overall
system error while the advantages with
regard to storage capacity and computing
time were retained [3].
b kW
Target
80 NN
Power PH_E
40
20
0
SAE1347-2E
−20
−40
0 10 20 30 ms
Time

________________________________
References
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dadi, R. Barrero, J. Van Mierlo, O. He-
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1020 Electrification of the drive

Electric final-drive unit

The electric final-drive unit (e-axle, known
by Bosch as eAxle) is a compact electric
drive solution for battery-electric vehicles
and for fuel-cell and hybrid vehicles. The
three relevant components of an electric
drive – the power electronics (inverter),
the electrical machine (motor), and the
transmission – are combined in a func-
tional unit (Figure 1).
Thanks to the functional integration
of power electronics, electrical machine
and transmission, the complexity can be
significantly reduced in contrast to three
separate components.
Functional component
integration
Functions of components
The power electronics, also known as an
inverter, is required to generate from the
direct voltage of the vehicle's traction bat-
tery via the resulting direct current (DC)
a frequency-variable alternating voltage
or a 3-phase alternating current (AC) for
the electrical machine. A rotating field and
with it a torque is generated in the electri-
cal machine with the aid of this 3-phase
alternating current.
The mounted transmission serves to
transmit the torque for the vehicle drive. A
two-stage spur-gear drive is usually used.
The transmission has a fixed step-down
ratio between 8 and 13 and a differential
for compensating different wheel speeds,
e.g., when cornering. Multi-speed solu-
tions may also be used as an alternative
to the solution with a fixed step-down ra-
tio. Continuously variable transmissions
(CVTs) are also possible.

Figure 1: Design of the electric final-drive unit (e-axle) from Bosch

1 Power electronics
(inverter, horizontally aligned),
2 Electrical machine,
3 Transmission,
4 HV-connection to traction
battery 1
(HV: High Voltage),
5 Connection to cooling
circuit,
6 Differential output
2
(connection of side
shafts),
7 Mechanical connecting
points.
UAE1348-2Y

5 3 4 7 7 7 6

Manual transmissions with up to four gears
are also used in the commercial-vehicle
sector with the aim of providing a high
starting torque for the acceleration pro-
cess and an operating point with optimum
efficiency at constant speed.
By converting the electrical energy, the
power electronics also regulates the en-
tire electric drive to the required setpoint
torque and monitors the components for
safe operation, e.g., by measuring the crit-
ical component temperatures and further
system limit values.
The design and the function of the
power electronics and the electrical ma-
chine are described in detail elsewhere
(see Inverters, electrical machines for
propulsion).
Construction
The electrical machine and the trans-
mission are permanently joined to each
other at the housing end via a common
end plate (end-face housing component).
To transmit the torque the electrical ma-
chine's rotor shaft is connected with the
transmission input shaft, usually via a
spline.
Alternatively, the rotor and the trans-
mission can also be connected with each
other via a common uninterrupted shaft,
this arrangement often being used in
smaller performance classes (< 100 kW)
or oil-cooled electrical machines.
The end face pointing towards the
transmission is also called the A-bearing
side and the face pointing away from the
transmission the B-bearing side.
The power electronics is integrated in
the unit comprising electrical machine
and transmission. The electrical connec-
tion between the power electronics and
the electrical machine is established at
the end pointing away from the transmis-
sion (B-bearing side) via three conductor
bars (in the case of a 3-phase electrical
machine). The conductor bars have flexi-
ble elements that guarantee the compen-
sation of tolerances during installation
and operation. The conductor bars are
usually connected via screwed-crimped
or welded joints, where for reasons of
easy exchangeability and maintenance of
the components detachable connections
are preferred. The modularity in the e-axle
Electric final-drive unit 1021
design thereby achieved also enables the
three components to be freely combined
and configured, thus allowing the drive
system to be individually adapted to the
vehicle requirements.
Thermal layout
Thanks to the integration of the three
components in a single drive system
the e-axle's cooling system can be spe-
cifically matched and optimized to the
system requirements. The e-axle is con-
nected to the vehicle cooling circuit.
The coolant is as a rule routed through
the e-axle serially (Figure 2). If flows
through first the power electronics, then
the electrical machine (in the case of a
coolant-cooled electrical machine), and fi-
nally the transmission (if a heat exchanger
is installed). Alternatively, several cooling
circuits can be deployed in parallel, e.g.,
if the power electronics and the transmis-
sion are in each case connected sepa-
rately to the vehicle's cooling system.
Aside from the described cooling con-
cepts, there are also special solutions
such as for example pure passive cool-
ing via the surroundings or air specifically
flowing round or through the components.
Cooling of the power electronics
The power electronics is usually cooled
by the coolant used in the vehicle (e.g.,
glycol/water mixture). To this end the cool-
ant is routed through a cooler (e.g., pin-fin
cooler with pin-shaped heat sink) inside
the power electronics, which is connected
with the loss-affected components (as a
rule power modules and link capacitor).
Consequently the heat loss from these
components is dissipated in the best pos-
sible way.
Cooling of the electrical machine
The electrical machine can be cooled by
the coolant in a water jacket or directly
by the transmission oil by means of heat
exchanger. When coolant is used, this is
directed through channels in the housing
jacket (e.g., helix- or meander-shaped).
This solution is therefore also known as
water-jacket cooling.
As an alternative to water-jacket cooling
the oil from the transmission that is used
to lubricate and cool the components
1022 Electrification of the drive
there may also be used. In this case, the
electrical machine and the transmission
share a common oil circuit with the oil
routed directly into the inside of the ma-
chine and consequently also reaching
the winding. Because the oil use is elec-
trically non-conductive, it can be routed
specifically to the electrical machine's
heat sources. As a result, despite hav-
ing a generally poorer cooling effect and
higher viscosity, it delivers the necessary
heat dissipation. The oil is supplied to the
rotor via the rotor shaft and to the stator
via grooves and channels. In this case,
the arrangement is called a wet-running
electrical machine. The key advantage
of a wet-running electrical machine is
the cooling of the winding overhang for
greater performance.
Because of the direct heat dissipation,
generally higher continuous outputs can
be achieved with this solution with mini-
mal design and engineering effort. In addi-
tion, with the omission of the water jacket,
the electrical-machine housing can have
a simpler and more compact design. It is,
however, essential to ensure the chemi-
cal resistance of the materials wetted with
oil, particularly the copper conductors and
the insulation materials. In addition, the
oils used for cooling can as a rule only
be used up to a maximum temperature
Figure 2: Thermal layout of the e-axle
T1 Inlet temperature of coolant into the e-axle,
T2 Outlet temperature of coolant after passing through the e-axle,
UT+, UT− Traction voltage (HV direct voltage, e.g., from the battery),
HV High Voltage, DC Direct Current.
Ambient air
Vehicle
UT+
HV DC Power
electronics
UT−
=
Cooling ~
circuit T1
u v w
Electrical machine
Rotor, stator, sensors
T2
of approx. 150 to 180 °C. This must be
taken into account for the permissible
stator temperature. Because the stator in
a water-cooled machine with maximum
short-time performance can also reach
temperatures of over 200 °C, the short-
time performance may in contrast have
to be reduced in an oil-cooled machine.
Both cooling media can furthermore
be used in combination, e.g., cooling the
jacket with coolant and cooling the rotor
with oil. But, in view of the increased seal-
ing effort involved, this combination is not
very widely used.
Cooling of the transmission
The oil used for lubrication in the trans-
mission absorbs the heat loss from tooth-
flank contacts. The oil must be cooled as
a result. A heat exchanger, in which the
heat if the oil is dissipated to the coolant,
is usually used for this purpose.
Here too different cooling concepts are
used to suit the performance class. In low
performance classes (< 100 to 150 kW)
the transmission oil is often cooled purely
by passive cooling via the transmission
housing with the aid of fins. In mid and
high performance classes solutions in-
tegrated into the housing, e.g., channels
and pin structures, can be used to dissi-
pate the heat of the transmission oil to the
e-axle
Transmission
Electrical machine
Mechanism, housing,
bearings, cooling channels
UAE1349-4E
 Electric final-drive unit 1023

coolant. Oil-to-coolant heat exchangers T-shaped topology

integrated into the oil sump are also used.
Alternative topologies
Aside from the described design, which is
also referred to as axially parallel because
the output shaft or the differential output
is arranged parallel to the electrical ma-
chine's rotor shaft, there are further e-axle
topologies.
Coaxial e-axle topology
In the coaxial e-axle topology the differ-
ential output is positioned coaxially to
the electrical machine's rotor shaft. The
torque at the end facing away from the
transmission (B-bearing side) is provided
by an additional intermediate shaft, which
is guided by the hollow rotor shaft. The
transmission can in this topology take the
form of a two-stage spur-gear drive with
countershaft or a single- or multi-stage
planetary gear. The advantages of the
coaxial topology are the compact design
and consequently small installation-space
requirement. The disadvantages are the
increased costs owing to the mechanical
complexity.
Another topology that is being increas-
ingly used is T-shaped topology. Here the
transmission forms the central unit in the
middle of the e-axle and accommodates
the other two components. The electrical
machine and the power electronics are
mounted at the transmission end and
the opposite end respectively. The HV
conductor bars and the signal cables
are routed past but very close to or even
through the transmission. The advantage
of this topology is that it uses side shafts
of equal length without the need for an in-
termediate shaft. The drawbacks are the
large installation-space requirement and
the thermal effects of the transmission on
the power electronics.
Special solutions
As well as the widely used e-axle topolo-
gies described here there are numerous
special solutions, but these will not be
considered any further here.

Arrangement of the power electronics

Aside from the axial arrangement, the to-
pology of the e-axle is determined by the
position of the power electronics. A dis-
tinction is made here between jacket-side
and end-face installation.
In the case of jacket-side installation,
the power electronics is positioned on the
electrical machine's jacket surface. Here
the power electronics can be vertically or
horizontally aligned (see figure 1). Crucial
to optimum alignment are, aside from the
vehicle architecture, the desired accessi-
bility in the installed state and the connec-
tion of the HV (high-voltage) conductor
bars and the signal cables.
In the case of end-face installation, the
power electronics is located on the end
face of the electrical machine pointing
away from the transmission (B-bearing
side). This position known primarily from
small three-phase AC drives in vehi-
cles (e.g., radiator fans, transmission oil
pumps, electric air-conditioning compres-
sors) is also used in e-axles of smaller
performance classes (< 100 kW).
1024 Electrification of the drive
Vehicle integration and
interfaces
The e-axle can be installed in the vehicle
both on the front axle and on the rear axle.
All-wheel applications are also possible
accordingly. When it comes to the posi-
tioning of the e-axle a distinction is made
between two arrangements, with the
position of the electrical machine being
the critical factor. This can be positioned
either facing the center of the vehicle (or
the traction battery) or facing away from
it (Figure 3).
Arrangement of the e-axle
in the vehicle
Arrangement facing the center of the
vehicle
Characteristic of the arrangement facing
the center of the vehicle is the position of
the electrical machine between the two
vehicle axles, i.e., within the wheelbase
along similar lines to a mid-engine ar-
rangement (Figure 3a).
The differential output of the e-axle
usually lies in the cross-sectional plane
of the vehicle axis. This position can how-
ever also be varied slightly according to
the approach angles of the side shafts
that can be achieved by the shaft joints,
for example to create more space for the
traction battery.
The key benefit of the arrangement fac-
ing the center of the vehicle is the small
installation-space requirement of the
e-axle in the area in front of the front axle
and thus in the crash zone. In addition,
further components can be arranged in
front of the e-axle on the front axle, e.g.,
the steering box or the air-conditioning
compressor. The drawback is the large
installation-space requirement between
the axles, which is usually used for the
battery.
Arrangement facing away from the center
of the vehicle
In the arrangement facing away from the
center of the vehicle the electrical ma-
chine is situated in the area in front of the
front axle, the upshot of which is that more
space can be made available between the
axles for the battery.
Choice of arrangement in practice
There is essentially no preferred solution
when it comes to choosing the e-axle ar-
rangement. This is very much dependent
on the vehicle architecture. Both arrange-
ments are therefore employed in virtually
equal measure.
In each case the crash safety of the HV
components must be taken into consider-
ation. If the power electronics is installed
upright on the jacket side, it is important
to ensure that it is positioned facing the
center of the vehicle and therefore does
not impinge on the crash zone in the area
in front of the front axle. This applies to
all the arrangements described because
Figure 3: Arrangement of the e-axle
in the vehicle
a) Electrical machine facing the traction
battery,
b) Electrical machine facing away from
the traction battery (side view),
c) Electrical machine facing away from
the traction battery (top view).
1 e-axle,
2 HV cable (cable routing with S-bend),
3 Traction battery,
4 Plane of vehicle axis,
5 Center line of cross-sectional plane.
a
1 4 2 3 4
b
c
5
UAE1350-4Y

damaged cables must be exchanged
completely in the event of an accident.
Interfaces
The following interfaces are featured be-
tween the e-axle and the vehicle: Elec-
trical interfaces for high voltages (HV,
> 60 V) and low voltages (LV, 12 V for
passenger cars, 24 V for commercial ve-
hicles), signal / communication interfaces,
and hydraulic and mechanical interfaces.
Electrical interfaces
The electrical HV connection to the trac-
tion battery is usually achieved with ca-
bles. The connection to the e-axle can be
made by connectors or screw contacts.
For safety reasons it is important when
laying the cables to ensure that these
have sufficient leeway to enable the
e-axle to move particularly in the event of
a crash and prevent them from ripping off
and leaving open contacts. Reference is
made in the cable routing to an S-bend
(S-shaped cable routing) (see Figure 3).
The electrical connection to the e-axle
power supply from the LV vehicle electri-
cal system (e.g., for the electronics) and
the communication interface to the vehi-
cle (e.g., via CAN) are usually bundled
in a connector with several pins. Often
also featured are further vehicle-individ-
ual signal or power supplies (e.g., crash
signal, HV interlock for monitoring correct
connection of the plug-in connections in
the HV circuit). The ground connection is
established by a conducting connection
from the e-axle housing to the vehicle's
body structure.
Hydraulic interfaces
The hydraulic connection to the vehicle
cooling system is achieved by hoses and
hose clamps or by special quick-release
locks.
Electric final-drive unit 1025
Mechanical interfaces
The mechanical interfaces include the
connection of the side shafts to transmit
the torque to the wheels and the mount-
ing of the e-axle in the vehicle body. The
vehicle-side joints of the side shafts are
inserted with splines into the two differen-
tial outputs. Alternatively, other joints may
also be used, e.g., bolted flanges.
The e-axle is usually mounted in the
vehicle body by means of bolted rubber
mounts. The rubber mounts reduce the
forces on the vehicle structure generated
by the dynamic torque support of the
e-axle and isolate the e-axle acoustically
from the vehicle structure. Consequently,
the structure-borne noise emitted by the
e-axle can only be transmitted to a small
extent to the vehicle structure.
Depending on the vehicle architecture,
an auxiliary frame can also be used which
contains the connection of the e-axle and
the chassis. This auxiliary frame is in most
cases also connected via bolted rubber
mounts with the vehicle body, which
brings about a double acoustic isolation
of the drive from the vehicle body.
The compatibility of the e-axle with dif-
ferent vehicle-individual connection points
is achieved through a number of bolting
points on the e-axle (see Figure 1), which
form by way of additional bolted brackets
(support elements) the connection to the
vehicle body. Furthermore, thanks to the
modularity of the e-axle, the housing parts
to be joined can also be fashioned individ-
ually for each vehicle and the e-axle can
thus be connected directly with the vehicle
body without the use of brackets.
1026 Electrification of the drive
Performance classes and
performance characteristic
Performance classes
The e-axle can be individually adapted by
means of scaling and the efficient com-
bination of components to the vehicle
segment and usage scenario. Based on
current market requirements there is a per-
formance spectrum of 50 to 300 kW, with
the following performance classes having
been established within this spectrum:
– ≤ 110 kW
– 120 to 150 kW
– 180 to 200 kW
– ≥ 250 kW
The largest shares are currently in the
performance classes up to 150 kW, which
are primarily used in the vehicle segments
A (subcompact cars) through C (mid-size
cars).
Performance characteristic
The provision of power to the e-axle is de-
termined by the performance character-
istic of the three components, where the
respective limitations of the components
overlap (by superposition) and in their
totality define the performance character-
istic of the e-axle. Added to this are pos-
sible limitations of the connecting parts,
Figure 4: Performance characteristic of a Bosch e-axle (by way of example with
transmission ratio i = 11.8)
a) Torque against rotational speed,
b) Output against rotational speed.
1 Short-time performance (10 seconds),
2 Real continuous performance (30 minutes),
3 Theoretical continuous performance (30 minutes).
n1, n2, Specific speeds.
a Nm
4000
1
3000
Torque
2000 3
2
1000
0 0
0 500
n2 n1
Speed
e.g., the AC conductor bars or the DC
connection of the traction battery and the
EMC filter components (electromagnetic
compatibility).
The performance characteristic of the
e-axle is derived from the design (instal-
lation space and layout) and the thermal
interactions of the components used. In-
tegrating the components in the e-axle
offers advantages, but the thermal inter-
actions must be taken into account.
In the provision of power a distinction
is basically drawn between short-time
performance (provision of power / maxi-
mum torque, as a rule between 10 s and
30 s operating duration) and continuous
performance (usually 30 min operating
duration) (Figure 4). The exact definition
of short-time and continuous performance
including the boundary conditions can
vary from manufacturer to manufacturer.
Crucial to the short-time provision of the
maximum torque particularly in the base-
speed range (approx. between standstill
and specific speed n1, n2 in Figure 4) is the
provision of the maximum current by the
power electronics. It must also be ensured
during the short period of 10 s that the heat
loss generated due to the switching losses
and the ohmic losses – particularly in the
power modules and in the link capacitor,
but also in the other current-carrying com-
b kW
150
120
1 3
Power
90 2
60
30
UAE1351-2E
1000 rpm 1500 0 500 1000 rpm 1500
n2 n1
Speed

ponents – can be dissipated and an over-
heating of the components is prevented.
The maximum current provided by the
power electronics leads in the electrical
machine to the requested torque, where
further component-specific boundary con-
ditions must be observed, e.g., maximum
permissible current in the electric conduc-
tors and dissipated of the heat loss arising
here to the housing or the cooling medium.
The maximum torque provided is crucial to
the design of the transmission and other
mechanical components (e.g., rotor shaft
and splines).
Owing to the compact function inte-
gration in the e-axle a sufficient heat-
loss dissipation within the permissible
driving-function areas poses a particular
challenge. In this connection, local over-
heating, which leads to aging and damage
mechanisms within the power electronics,
electrical-machine and transmission sub-
assemblies, must be effectively prevented
under different driving and operating con-
ditions. To ensure this, various temperature
sensors whose signals provide the neces-
sary input variables for installed software
component-protection models are placed
inside the e-axle. These installed models
help to provide comprehensive component
protection inside the e-axle which depend-
ing on the different driving and operating
conditions automatically ensures a thermal
overload regardless of driver intervention.
The heat loss arising in the electrical
machine must be dissipated in the best
way possible by the cooling medium. This
gives rise to the theoretical continuous
performance of the electrical machine.
Furthermore, the transmission's cooling
concept is designed for a defined contin-
uous output to prevent the permissible
oil temperature from being exceeded.
The real continuous performance of the
e-axle is obtained with these boundary
conditions (Figure 4). Compared with the
theoretical continuous performance it is
reduced above the specific speed, on the
one hand for component-protection rea-
sons and on the other hand to be able to
represent a uniform output over a larger
speed range. Continuous performance
can be further increased by effective cool-
ing concepts and measures, where how-
ever always the relevant application must
Electric final-drive unit 1027
be taken into consideration and it is nec-
essary to weigh which continuous output
is required in the respective application.
The dominant performance charac-
teristic depends on usage. If the e-axle
operates as the main drive, continuous
performance is more relevant. In the
event that it acts as an auxiliary drive on
the axle not driven by the main drive (e.g.,
all-wheel drive, boost mode), short-time
performance depending on the repetition
rate is more relevant.
Efficiency
As well as the targeted adaptation of the
performance characteristic to the respec-
tive application, another development ob-
jective is to reduce the losses of the three
components and thus to increase system
efficiency. To determine system efficiency,
it is necessary to multiply the efficiency
maps of the components by each other.
Through the targeted optimization of the
individual components in the system con-
text, it is thus possible to achieve an effi-
ciency of up to 96 % at selected operating
points in the e-axle.
Furthermore, reducing the losses has
a positive effect on the performance char-
acteristic, particularly continuous perfor-
mance. When the power dissipation of a
component is reduced, that component is
heated less with the result that with con-
stant cooling power the limit for continu-
ous performance is increased or cooling
power can be reduced.
Scalability
Through scaling and the efficient combi-
nation of the components, the torque and
output of the e-axle can be matched to
the specific requirements with discrete
stages in the combination of the com-
ponents having been established along
similar lines to the discrete performance
classes listed at the outset. A certain
degree of continuous scaling is possible
within these stages.
The output or the maximum current
made available in the power electronics is
defined here primarily via the chip surface
area of the power modules. The periph-
eral components of the power electronics
(e.g., link capacitor and conductor bars)
are also adapted accordingly.
1028 Electrification of the drive
The achievable electrical-machine torque
can be scaled by means of the machine's
diameter or length. The greater the diam-
eter or the length, the greater the torque
for the same current and same number of
turns of the electrical machine. Further-
more, the torque and output of the elec-
trical machine can varied by varying the
number of turns (see Electrical machines
for motor-vehicle propulsion).
It is possible by varying the step-down
ration to vary between the maximum
torque and the maximum rotational speed.
The higher the step-down ratio, the higher
(for the same electrical machine) the
torque and the lower the maximum rota-
tional speed. Varying the step-down ratio
does not affect the maximum output.
Adaptation for application
Additional optional elements can further-
more be integrated in the e-axle. These
are described in brief in the following.
Intermediate shaft
Because the e-axle output shafts are not
situated centrally in the vehicle in relation
to the installation position, an intermedi-
ate shaft (Figure 5a) can be used to obtain
side shafts of equal length and a higher
number of common parts for the vehi-
cle manufacturer. Beyond the pure cost
advantage, this is also a prerequisite for
symmetrical driving dynamics.
Parking lock
The parking lock (Figure 5b) is a positive
mechanical lock which prevents the vehicle
Figure 5: Additional e-axle components
a) View with intermediate shaft,
b) View with parking lock.
1 Power electronics, 2 Electrical machine,
3 Transmission, 4 Differential output (connec-
tion of side shafts), 5 Intermediate shaft,
6 Parking lock (as option).
a 1
3 5 2
b 1
UAE1352-2Y
2 6 3 4

from accidentally moving (cf. position P on
automatic or dual-clutch transmissions).
The parking lock is preferably actuated
electrically in the e-axle. Hydraulic and
pneumatic actuations are also possible,
but this is only useful if the appropriate
peripherals are provided, for example in
the case of a two-speed solution. The
parking lock can also be actuated via a
mechanical cable.
The translatory and rotatory vehicle
masses are mechanically locked by means
of a parking-lock gear (permanently con-
nected with a transmission shaft) and a
parking-lock pawl (housing-affixed). This
ensures that the driver leaves the vehicle
in a safe state.
To prevent the vehicle from coming to
an uncontrolled or an unwanted abrupt
stop, the parking lock can no longer be
engaged above a so-called ratchet or pawl
speed (approx. walking speed). This is
usually implemented by a mechanical re-
jection of the pawl at the parking-lock gear.
The customary parking brake used
to date in vehicles with manually shifted
transmissions generates, in contrast to the
parking lock, a frictionally engaged preven-
tion operation which cannot prevent the
vehicle from rolling further in unfavorable
conditions (e.g., laden vehicle with trailer
on a hill). But frictionally engaged parking
brakes are also used in electric vehicles.
Disconnect or disengagement unit
The electrical machine can be discon-
nected from the vehicle's side shafts with
the aid of a disconnect unit in order to
eliminate the drag losses of the electri-
cal machine and also those of the trans-
mission when the vehicle is rolling. This
offers, in particular in the case of a per-
manent-magnet synchronous machine
(PSM), the advantage that this does not
rotate and consequently no voltage is in-
duced and no kinetic energy of rotation is
converted. This makes coasting possible,
whereby the vehicle rolls without its own
propulsion power.
Furthermore, it can also be beneficial in
all-wheel or hybrid applications to disen-
gage the auxiliary drive and thereby min-
imize the losses. During the disengage-
ment process, the electrical machine is
synchronized without torque in the disen-
Electric final-drive unit 1029
gagement unit, rotationally disconnected,
and brought to a controlled standstill.
During the reconnect process, the electri-
cal machine is synchronized accordingly
without load to the current rotation speed
of the rotating transmission or side shaft
and then connected. Positive clutches
have become established here.
The disengagement unit can essen-
tially be implemented on each of the ro-
tating shafts inside the e-axle or also on
the side shafts. In this way it is possible to
disengage the rotatory masses including
their friction points and thus also eliminate
the transmission's drag losses.
When a PSM is used, it is also possi-
ble to tow the vehicle rolling on its wheels
without inducing a voltage which other-
wise is normally reduced for example by
an active short circuit. As a result, the
mechanical and thermal system loads
are reduced and towing is made easier or
made possible at all.
With multi-speed transmissions it is
also possible to disconnect via the clutch
provided anyway.
Connecting the air-conditioning
compressor
As described already, the e-axle is isolated
from the vehicle structure, as a result of
which the emitted structure-borne noise
is reduced. This property, together with
short mechanical power-transmission
paths, offers the possibility of mounting
the air-conditioning compressor directly
on the e-axle. The e-axle's high-voltage
distributor is used for the electrical power
supply. Unlike an internal-combustion
engine, there is the additional benefit of
lower thermal load by the electric drive
because the latter produces no waste
combustion heat.
1030 Electrification of the drive

Electric drives with fuel cell

Features
Fuel-cell electric vehicles (FCEVs) are
electric vehicles. They enable the cli-
mate-neutral carriage of persons and
goods by using regeneratively produced
hydrogen. The fuel-cell electric drive (Fig-
ure 1) consists of the electric drive, as is
known from the battery-electric drive, and
the fuel-cell system. At the heart of the fu-
el-cell system is the fuel-cell stack, which
consists of individual fuel cells.
Fuel cells are electrochemical convert-
ers which convert the chemical energy
of the fuel directly into electrical energy.
There is a large number of different fu-
el-cell types that use different fuels and
components. For motor-vehicle applica-
tions currently the low-temperature pro-
ton-exchange membrane fuel cell (LT-
PEMFC; temperature < 100 °C), which is
run on hydrogen (H2) and oxygen (O2), is
the most interesting. In such a fuel cell
the hydrogen reacts with oxygen to cre-
ate water, releasing electrical energy in
the process.
Advantages of fuel cells
Within the field of electromobility fuel-cell
drives have the advantage of permitting
the accustomed convenience of conven-
tional vehicles such as short refueling
time and long range with existing H2 in-
frastructure. As in an internal-combustion
engine energy storage and conversion are
separated, which makes increased range
possible by tank expansion. In particular,
fuel-cell drives therefore have an advan-
tage when it comes to vehicles which call
for high availability, useful load, and range.
Examples include trucks, city and intercity
buses, trains and ships, as well as com-
mercially used vehicles such as taxis and
company cars.
Fuel cells do not produce any green-
house gases or air pollutants locally
during operation.
Expansion of the fuel-cell system with
a battery
Fuel-cell vehicles are electric vehicles in
which the energy for the electric drive is
made available by the fuel-cell system.
For several reasons, it is sensible to ex-
pand the drivetrain to include a traction
battery:

Figure 1: Drivetrain of a fuel-cell electric passenger car

1 Fuel-cell ECU, 2 Radiator, 3 Radiator fan, 4 e-machine, 5 Transmission,
6 Power electronics, 7 Fuel-cell stack, 8 Hydrogen tank, 9 HV battery,
10 Air compressor, 11 Humidifier, 12 Pressure-control valve, 13 Muffler,
14 Temperature-pressure sensor, 15 Anode recirculation fan, 16 Tank shutoff valve,
17 Hydrogen-metering valve, 18 Safety valve.
UAE1356-2Y

1
14 15 16

5 17
14 7 8
6
2 3 4
H2 H2
18
9 11 13
12
10 H2O
O2
 Electric drives with fuel cell 1031

– the energy gained through recuperative Design and operating

braking can be temporarily stored,
– the dynamic response of the drivetrain
can be further increased,
– the efficiency of the drivetrain can be
further increased by shifting the load
point of the fuel-cell system.
The ratio of battery power and total power
varies for different applications. Typically,
fuel-cell systems are used as the primary
energy source in the drivetrain. Such vehi-
cles are characterized as strong fuel-cell
electric vehicles.
Alternatively, the battery can have a
much greater power rating and energy
content, and be recharged by a smaller fu-
el-cell system where necessary. This drive
concept is called fuel-cell range extender
because it allows the range of battery
electric vehicles (BEVs) to be increased.
Fuel-cell system power ratings of up to
100 kW are usual in today's FCEVs in the
passenger-car segment. Batteries have a
power rating of up to 40 kW with an en-
ergy content of 1 to 2 kWh. In the com-
mercial-vehicle sector either the higher
fuel-cell power demand (200 to 400 kW) is
realized by modular approaches (combi-
nation of several lower-power modules) or
the fuel-cell system is directly configured
for the higher power rating.
The system power is often also called
net power to distinguish it from the stack
power (gross power). The net power, i.e.,
the system power, is actually utilizable
Fahrzeugaufbau for a concrete applica-
tion. The stack power required for this is
approximately 15 % higher because the
internal assemblies of the system (particu-
larly the air compressor) must be supplied.
principle of the fuel cell
Operating principle
The LT-PEMFC consists of two electrodes
(anode and cathode) which are electri-
cally insulated by a polymer-electrolyte
membrane (Figure 2). When the anode
is supplied with hydrogen (H2) and the
cathode with oxygen (O2, normally from
the air), H2 and O2 react with each other
even though they are not in direct contact
with each other. The reaction is mediated
by the membrane and the electric circuit
(electron transport, e−). The following re-
actions take place:
Anode: H2 → 2 H+ + 2 e–.
Cathode: O2 + 4 H+ + 4 e– → 2 H2 O.
Overall reaction: 2 H2 + O2 → 2 H2O.
Figure 2: Operating principle of the PEM
fuel cell
a) Hydrogen oxidation at the anode,
b) Oxygen reduction at the cathode,
c) Water production.
1 Anode, 2 Membrane, 3 Cathode.
a V
H+
H2
1 2 3
b
V
H+ O2

H+
c V
STB0002-4Y

H 2O
1032 Electrification of the drive
In the overall reaction hydrogen reacts
with oxygen to produce water, in the
course of which electrical energy and heat
are generated. The electrical energy can
be converted in the circuit to mechanical
energy. The waste heat is dissipated via
coolant channels.
Figure 3 shows the schematic design
of a so-called “cell”. Cells have a height
of < 1 mm and an area of 200 to 400 cm2.
Catalyst layers
The most important components of the
fuel cell are the catalyst layers. This is
where the chemical reactions which gen-
erate the current take place. All the com-
ponents (including the catalyst layer itself)
serve to make available to the catalyst
particles within the catalyst layer
– the gaseous reactants (H2, O2) in suffi-
cient quantity,
– protons (H+) from the polymer-electro-
lyte phase fast enough,
– to offer a conductivity path to electrons,
– to carry off liquid and gaseous product
water (H2O).
Figure 3: Design of the PEM fuel cell
1 Membrane (electrolyte layer),
2 Electrodes (catalyst layer),
3 Gas-diffusion layers,
4 Gaskets,
5 Bipolar plates.
STB0001-1Y
5 4 3 2 1 2 3 4 5
The gas flow begins in the bipolar plates
(BPP, metallic or graphitic), which incor-
porate the channel structures. The gas
diffuses via the channels into the gas-dif-
fusion layers (GDL) and from there to the
catalyst layer, where it can react (Fig-
ure 3).
The electrons flow from the catalyst
layer into the gas-diffusion layers, then
into the bipolar plates, and from there into
the outer circuit (or into the neighboring
cell). The protons (H+) move from the an-
ode through the membrane to the cathode.
The product water must be transported
from the catalyst layer via the gas-diffu-
sion layers to the channels in the bipolar
plate and from there outwards.
Transport mechanisms
Three transport mechanisms occur in the
same volume in different phases:
– H+ through the aqueous component in
the polymer-electrolyte membrane,
– gases and H2O through pores, and
– e− through a solid-body path.
Making possible all three paths with low
resistances places great demands on
the material and system design because
even the scale at which transport must
be guaranteed varies by several orders
of magnitude:
– catalyst particles < 15 nm,
– catalyst layer < 30 µm,
– membrane thickness < 30 µm,
– gas-diffusion layer thickness < 300 µm,
– bipolar-plate thickness < 1 mm,
– cell area 200 to 400 cm2,
– stack height < 1 m.
Electrical properties of the fuel cell
Shape of the polarization curve
The electrical property of a fuel cell is de-
picted by the so-called polarization curve
(also known as the current-voltage char-
acteristic or U-I characteristic). It gener-
ally has the shape depicted in Figure 4.
The voltage of the cell is a direct indica-
tor of its electrical efficiency, where 1.23 V
is 100 %. As current and power increase
the electrical efficiency of the fuel cell de-
creases because different losses come
into play.

Range A
In the de-energized state (the corre-
sponding voltage is called OCV, open
circuit voltage) the theoretical voltage of
an H2-O2-LT-PEM fuel cell is 1.23 V, which
is not achieved however in reality on ac-
count of losses (above all H2 gas-pas-
sage losses). These losses cause a low
current flow on the inside of the catalyst
layer (above all the anode) which cannot
be measured towards the outside, which
is why the OCV is for the most part in the
range of 0.9 to 1 V.
Range B
At low currents the voltage drops quickly
first. Here losses which arise due to the
chemical reaction of the reactants on the
catalyst surface dominate. These losses
increase rapidly with small electric cur-
rents, but hardly change at high currents
(for details on the description of the re-
action kinetics as per Butler-Volmer, see
[1]). It is to be noted that range A is also
actually reduced by this reaction kinetics
of the leakage current.
Figure 4: Ranges of the polarization curve
(current-voltage characteristic of a cell)
1 Cell voltage,
2 Power density,
3 Theoretical maximum voltage.
A…D Ranges.
V W/cm2
3
1.2
A 1.2
1.0 2
B 1.0
Voltage U
0.8 C
1 0.8
0.6
D
0.4
0.2
0 0
0 200 400 600 800 A
Current I
Electric drives with fuel cell 1033
Range C
The comparatively linear section is called
the ohmic range because the ohmic resis-
tance of the fuel cell is dominant here for
the gradient of the curve. The ohmic re-
sistance is made up of the H+ conductivity
of the polymer-electrolyte membrane and
the electrical bulk and contact resistances
of the fuel-cell layers.
Range D
The inflection of the curve towards 0 V
can be called the mass-transport range.
The transport of reactants to the catalyst
particles is the limiting factor here.
It is to be noted that the losses in the four
ranges are always a combination of the
losses described above and never is only
one loss type (except for OCV) present.
Influences on the polarization curve
The shape of the polarization curve is de-
pendent on the material property of the
fuel cell, e.g., on the
– catalyst activity,
– catalyst load,
– membrane thickness,
– ionomer-exchange capacity,
– porosity of the gas-diffusion layers,
– hydrophobicity of the gas-diffusion
layers,
– conductivity of the bipolar plates.
Even the operating method has a decisive
influence on the shape of the polarization
curve, e.g.,
– gas pressures,
– temperature,
– moisture,
– volumetric flow and stoichiometry.
The parameter set under which the po-
larization curve was plotted is decisive
(above all the pressure) and should be
Power density
observed without fail in a comparison of
different fuel-cell types.
0.6
0.4
0.2
UAE1396-1E
1034 Electrification of the drive
Fuel-cell stack
In order to achieve the high voltages
required for a technical application, indi-
vidual cells are electrically connected in
series to form a stack (Figure 5). Each cell
must be supplied separately with H2, air,
and coolant.
These fuel-cells consist, depending on
the requirement, of up to 450 or more cells
so that the maximum operating voltages
can be up to 450 V.
Typically stacks in the power range up
to 120 kW are used for passenger-car
drives. High electric currents are achieved
either by large membrane surfaces or im-
proved fuel-cell materials (e.g., higher
catalyst activities, better mass transport).
Currents up to 450 A flow at full load au-
tomotive applications.
Figure 5: Design of a fuel-cell stack
H2 and O2 are supplied to each cell via gas
channels.
1 End plate,
2 Membrane-electrode unit with membrane,
catalyst material, and gaskets,
3 Bipolar plate,
4 Gas channels,
5 Repeating units,
6 End plate.
STB0015-3Y
1 2 3 4 5 6
Functioning principle of the
fuel-cell system
At the heart of the fuel-cell system is the
fuel-cell stack. Subsystems for oxygen
and hydrogen supply and for temperature
control (Figure 6) are required to operate
the stack. There are, in principle, different
ways of realizing these subsystems. The
one described here shows only one pos-
sible variant with an exemplary fuel-cell
system power rating of 100 kW net.
Hydrogen supply
The hydrogen is stored in one or more
high-pressure tanks at a pressure of
around 700 bar. According to the state
of the art, type-IV composite tanks with
carbon-fiber casing and HDPE lining
(high-density polyethylene) are used as
an H2 diffusion barrier. The hydrogen is
initially relaxed via a pressure reducer to
a mean pressure (approximately 15 bar)
and supplied via a hydrogen-metering
valve to the anode at low pressure (up to
3 bar).
The hydrogen-metering valve is an
electrically actuated valve used to set the
pressure of the hydrogen on the anode
side. In contrast to fuel injectors in inter-
nal-combustion engines, the metering
valve should set continuous mass flows.
The metering valve can also be operated
in clocked mode for small pressure and
mass-flow pulses, for example when us-
ing a suction-jet pump.
A typical throughflow value for 100 kW
system power is approximately 1.9 g/s
hydrogen.
In order to supply the stack over the
entire active surface area with sufficiently
high hydrogen concentration, the anode
is operated under leaner than stoichio-
metric conditions (i.e., with H2 surfeit).
To increase system efficiency, the un-
consumed hydrogen is returned from the
anode output to the input.
Recirculation is effected by a suc-
tion-jet pump or a recirculation fan or by
a combination of both components. The
suction-jet pump, which operates pas-
sively, is effective at high power and thus
connected with high H2 mass flow by the
hydrogen-metering valve driving the suc-
tion-jet pump. The actively actuated recir-
 Electric drives with fuel cell 1035

Figure 6: Fuel-cell system with drive

* Safety valves Trans-

Electric mission
** Pressure reducer motor Hydrogen
*** Cooling of accessories filling station
**** Purge gases to H2
cathode subsystem

Electrical Anode Tank Tank

subsystem DC/DC subsystem shutoff valve
converter valves
Inverter *
H2
*
HV battery Fuel-cell H2
boost
Converter Hydrogen Purge valve**
pressure ****
tanks
Drain valve
Stack H2O
Water
HV contacts separator
HV bus

Stack cathode Stack anode Anode M

recirculation
fan
Coolant
connections Suction-jet Hydrogen-
pump metering valve
O2 Stack FC control unit
shutoff
Air valves
Cathode ***
subsystem
High-temperature Coolant Ion ex-
Humidifier cooling system pump changer
M

Water Bypass
Air separator valve
filter
Pres-
sure- Radia- Radiator
Stack control tor fan
Charge-air bypass valve Expansion
cooler valve tank

1-stage electric air Low-temperature

compressor with M Expansion
cooling system tank
expander turbine Pump

*** Radiator
M

Purge gases from Muffler

UAE1355-1E

anode system
Outgoing air
1036 Electrification of the drive
culation fan, however, facilitates recircu-
lation even if no or only minimal power is
requested by the system.
Recirculation creates a closed system in
which disruptive foreign gases (nitrogen,
water vapor) are enriched over time and
diffuse from the cathode side to the an-
ode. These foreign gases are regularly dis-
charged via an electrically actuated valve,
the purge valve. This valve is mounted on
the anode side on the stack outlet.
A water separator permanently removes
liquid water from the anode circuit. The
water collected in it is regularly drained
via a valve. A combination of purge and
drain valves in one component is possible.
The hydrogen inevitably dissipated
during draining and purging is either
strongly diluted with air (when the dis-
charged anode gas is metered into the
exhaust pipe) or catalytically converted
to water (when metered into the air flow
ahead of the cathode). Because this in-
volves only small amounts of H2 which
are not used in the fuel cell to produce
electrical energy, the overall efficiency is
only slightly reduced.
Oxygen supply
The oxygen required for the electrochem-
ical reaction is taken from the ambient air.
The air mass of up to 120 g/s requested
for 100 kW system power is inducted by
an air compressor, compressed to max.
3 bar, and fed to the cathode side of the
fuel cell. The pressure in the fuel cell is
adjusted by a dynamic-pressure control
valve in the exhaust-gas path downstream
of the fuel cell.
To prevent the fuel-cell stack from dry-
ing out on the inlet side, the air can be
pre-humidified, e.g., via a membrane hu-
midifier, which removes some of the wa-
ter vapor from the fuel-cell waste air and
transfers it to the dry supply air.
In the variant shown the air is diverted
via an exhaust-gas turbine seated on the
shaft of the electric air compressor. The
advantage of this is that using the en-
thalpy of the waste air relieves the load on
the compressor drive motor and increases
system efficiency. On the downside, an
additional water separator is needed to
protect the exhaust-gas turbine against
impingement.
Thermal management
Fuel cells have an electrical efficiency in
the range of around 50 % (at full load) to
70 % (at part load). This means that a
large proportion of heat is released during
the conversion of chemical energy to elec-
trical energy which must be dissipated. In
normal operation PEM fuel cells typically
operate at an operating temperature of
60 °C to approximately 80 °C and thus at
a much lower temperature level than inter-
nal-combustion engines. The radiator and
radiator fan must therefore be designed to
be bigger in fuel-cell systems in the vehi-
cle drive in spite of the higher efficiency.
Because the coolant used is in direct
contact with the fuel cells, it must not be
electrically conducting as otherwise inter-
nal short circuit would result. The coolant
based on a deionized water-glycol mixture
is constantly deonized in the vehicle by
an ion exchanger. The setpoint value for
coolant conductivity is less than 5 µS/cm.
The electric coolant pump directs a
flow of coolant through all the incorpo-
rated components. For 100 kW system
power the coolant delivery rate can be up
to 220 l/min. A coolant control valve splits
the flow of coolant between the radiator
and the radiator bypass.
Sensor systems
Operation of the fuel-cell systems cur-
rently requires numerous sensors in the
anode path, in the air path, and in the
cooling circuit of the system. The pressure
sensors familiar from the internal-com-
bustion engine must be adapted to the
heightened requirements in the fuel-cell
system. This concerns above all robust-
ness against hydrogen and high moisture.
Sensors are furthermore required at
numerous points to determine the hydro-
gen concentration. For fuel-cell systems
specifically hydrogen-concentration sen-
sors (see Hydrogen sensors) and cool-
ant-conductivity sensors are required.
Furthermore, sensors in the hydrogen
and air paths are subject to a heightened
requirement with regard to hydrogen
resistance and resistance to deionized
water.
 Electric drives with fuel cell 1037

Safety Efficiency of the fuel-cell system

H2-specific dangers In addition to quickly providing the re-
H2-specific dangers result from the wide quested power to the stack under the best
combustibility range of hydrogen-air mix- possible operating conditions, it is import-
tures and the high energy content that is ant to design the system for primarily op-
chemically stored in hydrogen. Depending erating at high efficiency.
on how the hydrogen is stored, even the In Figure 7, the efficiency of a fuel-cell
high pressure or the low temperature can stack is compared by way of example
constitute a danger. The 700 bar com- with that of a fuel-cell system. The sec-
pressed-gas tank has established itself ondary loads/consumers (e.g., air com-
as the standard for “on-road fuel tanks” pressor, coolant pump) take up some of
and the associated infrastructure. the electric power and thereby reduce the
The handling of hydrogen in motor overall efficiency of the system. Fuel-cell
vehicles is governed by statutory provi- systems demonstrate substantially higher
sions such as for example UNECE R134 efficiency than an internal-combustion
[2], EU406/2010 [3], UNECE GTR13 [4], engine, particularly in the frequently used
and applicable standards such as ISO part-load range.
12619 [5] or ANSI HGV 3.1 [6]. Here the
primary focus of the statutory provisions
is on sealing the hydrogen-carrying parts,
particularly the tank.
With regard to use in vehicles, it is
essential to prevent the uncontrolled re-
lease and accumulation of hydrogen in
closed or partly closed rooms. In addition,
a design goal is in place to prevent igni-
tion sources in the immediate vicinity of
hydrogen-carrying parts. Measures for
detecting unwanted leakages are either
system-internal diagnostics or gas sen-
sors installed in suitable positions.

Figure 7: Efficiency of fuel-cell stack and

fuel-cell system
1 Efficiency of fuel-cell stack,
2 Efficiency of fuel-cell system.
STB0008-6E

0.8

1
0.6
Efficiency η

2
0.4

0.2

0
0 20 40 60 80 100%
Power of fuel-cell system
1038 Electrification of the drive
Fuel cell in the drivetrain
Figure 8 depicts the drivetrain of a truck
with a fuel cell.
Electrical-system typologies
One or more DC/DC converters (at least
one DC/DC converter is required) spread
the power between the fuel-cell system,
the traction battery, and the electric drive.
In the case of a topology with two DC/DC
converters – one for the fuel-cell stack and
one for the traction battery – an optimized
voltage can be set independently of both.
The latter offers advantages for the design
of the HV system components (high volt-
age) such as the compressor.
For safety reasons, the traction elec-
trical system is isolated from the vehicle
ground.
Components of the drivetrain
Electric drive
The electric drive consists of power elec-
tronics (an inverter) and a synchronous or
asynchronous machine that is energized
by the inverter to generate the required
engine torque (see Electrical machines
for motor-vehicle propulsion). Because
the electric drive has a high power rating
(approximately 150 kW), it is operated at
voltages of up to 450 V. A voltage of up to
800 V can be selected for powerful vehicle
classes and trucks.
Figure 8: Electrically powered truck with fuel cell
1 Fuel-cell system,
2 Fuel-cell DC/DC converter,
3 Vehicle control unit (VCU),
4 Battery charging socket,
5 Inverter,
6 e-machines,
7 HV battery.
1
The direct voltage of the traction electrical
system is converted in the inverter into a
multi-phase alternating current (see In-
verter) where the amplitude is regulated
as a function of the desired drive torque.
During braking the electric machine is
switched to generator mode. In this pro-
cess the vehicle’s kinetic energy is con-
verted into electrical energy and fed back
to the traction battery.
Traction battery
Depending on the application, high-ca-
pacity or high-energy batteries are used
with voltages of between 150 V and
400 V (see Batteries for electric and hy-
brid drives). Nickel-metal-hydride or lithi-
um-ion batteries are used in high-capacity
applications, while only lithium-ion batter-
ies are used in high-energy applications.
A battery-management system monitors
the state of charge and the capacity of
the battery.
DC/DC converter for the traction battery
A DC/DC converter regulates the traction
battery’s charge and discharge currents,
where maximum currents of up to 300 A
flow through the battery. This converter
may be omitted in certain system config-
urations.
4 5
2 3 6
7 6
5
DTB0050-1Y

DC/DC converter for the fuel cell
Another DC/DC converter regulates the
current from the fuel-cell stack, where
maximum currents of up to 500 A flow
through the stack. This converter too may
be omitted in certain system configura-
tions.
DC/DC converter for 12V vehicle
electrical system
There is also – as in conventional vehi-
cles – a 12V electrical system for the low-
power electric loads/consumers. The 12V
vehicle electrical system is supplied from
the traction electrical system. A DC/DC
converter is used between the two net-
works for this purpose. This converter is
electrically isolated for safety reasons. It
operates unidirectionally or bidirectionally
with a power output of up to 3 kW to keep
the currents in the 12V electrical system
within the limits.
Outlook
Drives with fuel cells have already proven
that they are suitable for everyday use.
Estimates from 2015 by the Depart-
ment of Energy ([7], [8]) start out from
fuel-cell-system costs of 54 US$ per kW
at 80 kW and 500,000 vehicles per year
and additionally 488 US$ per kilogram of
hydrogen for the tank.
System simplifications deliver both cost
and reliability advantages. One approach
is to develop new polymer membranes
for fuel cells where it is not necessary to
humidify the reaction gases and which at
the same time allows the operating tem-
perature to be increased.
Passenger-car models available on the
market are the Hyundai Nexo, the Toyota
Mirai, the Honda Clarity Fuel Cell, and the
Mercedes-Benz GLC F-Cell (as at 2020).
German automobile manufacturers are
planning market launches in the coming
years.
Electric drives with fuel cell 1039
________________________________
References
[1] F. Barbir: PEM Fuel Cells Theory and
Practice. Elsevier Inc., 2013.
[2] UNECE R134: Regulation No 134 of
the Economic Commission for Europe of
the United Nations (UN/ECE) – Uniform
provisions concerning the approval of
motor vehicles and their components with
regard to the safety-related performance
of hydrogen-fuelled vehicles (HFCV)
[2019/795].
[3], EU 406/2010: Commission Regulation
(EU) No 406/2010 of 26 April 2010 imple-
menting Regulation (EC) No 79/2009 of
the European Parliament and of the Coun-
cil on type-approval of hydrogen-powered
motor vehicles.
[4], UNECE GTR13: Global Technical
Regulation concerning the hydrogen and
fuel cell vehicles.
[5] ISO 12619: Road vehicles – Com-
pressed gaseous hydrogen (CGH2) and
hydrogen/natural gas blend fuel system
components.
[6] ANSI HGV 3.1: Fuel system compo-
nents for compressed hydrogen gas pow-
ered vehicles.
[7] J. Marcinkoski, J. Spendelow, A. Wilson,
D. Papageorgopoulos: DOE Hydrogen and
Fuel Cells Program Record #15015 Fuel
Cell System Cost.
https://www.hydrogen.energy.gov/pdfs/
15015_fuel_cell_system_cost_2015.pdf
[8] B. James: Onboard Type IV Com-
pressed Hydrogen Storage System Cost
Analysis.
https://energy.gov/sites/prod/files/2016/03/
f30/fcto_webinarslides_compressed_h2_
storage_system_cost_022516.pdf.
1040 Electrification of the drive

Electromobility for two-wheelers

Features
Definition and delimitation
Like electromobility in the four-wheel
sector, mobility in the two-wheel sector is
also following the trend of electrification.
With the focus on purely electric vehicles,
vehicles in this sector can be a PHEV
(Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicle), an HEV
(Hybrid Electric Vehicle) or a BEV (Battery
Electric Vehicle). Only vehicles with a bat-
tery-electric drivetrain will be considered
in more detail in the following.
EC168/2013
It is possible with reference to the clas-
sification of light vehicles in accordance
with EC168/2013 [1] to categorize in par-
ticular two- and three-wheel vehicles into
vehicle segments. The vehicle classes for
four-wheel light vehicles will not be con-
sidered here. The segmentation applies to
vehicles with internal-combustion engines
and electrically powered vehicles.
Requirements
Two-wheel electric vehicles are character-
ized by the fact that they have, compared
with passenger cars, energy accumula-
tors with relatively low energy content (in
kWh). There is here typically a P/E ratio
(power to energy, see Batteries for electric
and hybrid drives) of 0.5 to 5.0 kW/kWh
for the segment of electrically powered
two-wheel vehicles. Moreover, passive
cooling methods (primarily air cooling) are
used in such vehicles in the lower power
range below 11 kW. Two-wheel vehicles
are sometimes subject to statutory provi-
sions for antilock braking systems (e.g., in
the EU from 11 kW).

Figure 1: System architecture

1 Twist grip, 2 Brake lever, 3 Riding switch.
BMS Battery Management System, VCU Vehicle Control Unit,
AC Alternating Current, DC Direct Current,
HMI Human Machine Interface (operation and display), CAN Controller Area Network,
M Drive torque,
ω Motor speed,
Public electricity UDC Battery voltage,
network IDC Current.
AC
Charge control
DC

IDC HV supply M M
48 V Drive Transmission
battery Pmech ω to wheel ω
UDC
BMS
48 V
Torque coordination

consumer
Battery status

Current control

DC
12V supply

12 V DC
consumer
HMI
12 V
battery
Operation &
information

1
2 VCU CAN
UAE1339-1E

3
CAN

System architecture
Aside from chassis, steering, suspension,
and damping, the following main compo-
nents are used in an electric two-wheeler
(Figure 1): driving motor with power elec-
tronics, DC/DC converter, charger, battery,
vehicle control unit (VCU), and display
instrument. Figure 1 also shows the net-
working of the individual main components
of the electric drivetrain (traction energy
via 48 V electrical system, communication
paths via CAN bus).
The transmission of electrical-mechan-
ical energy from the electric machine to
the wheel can be achieved by means of
different technical solutions. The connec-
tion to the driving wheel can be estab-
lished via a transmission, a toothed belt
or a chain.
Figure 1 is also valid for operating volt-
ages greater than 60 V, but some benefits
of the 48 V technology are lost. These are
on the one hand the omission of technical
protection measures (shock protection);
on the other hand, untrained employees
(non-HV-technical specialists) are permit-
ted to work on the vehicle. Significant cost
savings are thus possible.
Motor arrangement
Two essentially different motor arrange-
ments may be used within a system ar-
chitecture. The central motor (Figure 2a)
is characterized in conjunction with its
power transmission by higher torques.
The wheel-hub motor has the advantage
of lower noise emissions (e.g., due to the
absence of a chain).
Battery arrangement
Electric two-wheels can furthermore be
distinguished on the basis of the instal-
lation position of the battery. The battery
Figure 2: Arrangement of the electric drive system
a) Central motor,
b) Battery in helmet
a b
compartment,
c) Battery in running-
board area.
1 Central drive,
2 Battery,
3 Wheel-hub drive.
1 2
Electromobility for two-wheelers 1041
can be installed close to the steering
column at the front of the vehicle, in the
running-board area (Figure 2c) or in the
former helmet compartment under the
seat in the vehicle (Figure 2b).
In order to establish the installation
position of the battery, it is necessary to
define beforehand the use to which the
vehicle will be put. The type of battery
used depends on this intended use. This
constitutes an important extra dimension
in the definition of electric two-wheelers. A
distinction is made here between perma-
nently installed batteries, portable batter-
ies with an additional plug-in process, and
portable batteries without an additional
plug-in process.
Charging methods
Likewise, different charging methods may
be used for an electrified two-wheeler.
Generally, the following different methods
may be used:
– charging with a permanently installed
charger,
– charging with a portable (mobile) char-
ger or
– charging via swapping systems.
Here too the intended use of the vehicle
is crucial in determining which charging
method is the most expedient.
________________________________
References
[1] EC168/2013: Regulation (EU) No.
168/2013 of the European Parliament and
of the Council of 15 January 2013 on the
approval and market surveillance of two-
or three-wheel vehicles and quadricycles.
c
UAE1340Y
2 3 2 1
1042 Emission-control and diagnosis legislation
Emission-control
legislation
Overview
California introduced the first emission-­
control legislation for gasoline engines
in the mid-1960s. These regulations be­
came progressively more stringent in
the ensuing years. In the meantime, all
industrialized countries have introduced
emission-control laws which define limits
for gasoline and diesel engines, as well as
the test procedures employed to confirm
compliance.
In many countries, regulations govern-
ing exhaust-gas emissions are supple-
mented by limits on evaporative losses
from the fuel systems of vehicles with
gasoline engines. Statutory OBD is ad-
dressed in the chapter “Diagnostics”.
The most important legal restrictions on
exhaust-gas emissions are listed below:
– CARB legislation (California Air Re-
sources Board)
– EPA legislation (Environmental Protec-
tion Agency), USA
– EU legislation (European Union) and
the corresponding UN/ECE regulations
(United Nations/Economic Commission
for Europe)
– Japanese legislation
– Chinese legislation
Classification
Countries with legal limits on motor-vehi-
cle emissions divide vehicles into various
classes:
– Passenger cars: Emission testing is
conducted on a chassis dynamometer.
– Light commercial vehicles: Depending
on national legislation, the top limit for
gross vehicle weight (GVW) is 3.5 to
6.35 t. Emission testing is performed on
a vehicle chassis dynamometer (as for
passenger cars)
– Heavy commercial vehicles: Gross vehi-
cle weight over 3.5 to 6.35 t (depending
on national legislation). Emission testing
is performed on an engine test bench.
– Non-road (e.g., construction, agricul-
tural, and forestry vehicles): Emission
testing is performed on an engine test
bench, as for heavy commercial vehicles.
Provided for information purposes
only, no liability assumed for com-
pleteness!
Furthermore, there are emission regula-
tions for other two-, three-, and four-wheel
vehicles (see section Emission legislation
for motorcycles), for locomotives, for
boats and ships, and for non-road mobile
machinery.
Test procedures
Japan and the European Union have
followed the lead of the United States
by defining test procedures for certifying
compliance with emission limits. These
procedures have been adopted in modi-
fied or unrevised form by other countries.
Legal requirements prescribe any of
three different tests, depending on vehicle
class and test objective:
– Type approval (TA) to obtain General
Certification,
– Random testing of vehicles from serial
production conducted by the approval
authorities (COP, Conformity of Pro-
duction),
– In-field monitoring for checking the
emission-reduction systems of privately
owned production vehicles under real
driving conditions.
Type approval
Type approvals are a precondition for
granting General Certification for an en-
gine or vehicle type. For this purpose, test
cycles must be driven under specific oper-
ating conditions and emission limits must
be complied with. The test cycles and
emission limits are specified individually
by each nation.
Dynamic test cycles are specified for
passenger cars and light commercial ve-
hicles. The country-specific differences
between the two procedures are rooted
in their respective origins (see Test cycles
for passenger cars and light-duty trucks):
– Test cycles designed to mirror condi-
tions recorded in actual highway oper-
ation, e.g., the FTP test cycle (Federal
Test Procedure) in the USA or the
UN ECE WLTC (World Light-duty Test
Cycles),

– Synthetically generated test cycles
consisting of phases at constant cruis-
ing speed and acceleration rates, e.g.,
the MNEDC (Modified New European
Driving Cycle) of the European Union.
The mass of pollutant emissions from
each vehicle is determined by operating it
in conformity with speed cycles precisely
defined for the test cycle. During the test
cycle, the exhaust gases are collected
for subsequent analysis to determine the
pollutant mass emitted during the driving
cycle (see Exhaust-gas measuring tech-
niques).
For heavy-duty trucks and non-road
applications, steady-state (e.g., 13-stage
test) and dynamic test cycles (e.g.,
US HDDTC or ETC) are carried out on
the engine test bench (see Test cycles for
heavy commercial vehicles).
Serial testing (Conformity of Production)
Vehicle manufacturers normally perform
serial testing themselves during produc-
tion as part of quality control. The same
test procedures and the same limits are
generally applied as for type approval. The
approval agency audits the serial testing
and can request retests. The strictest re-
quirements are applied in the USA where
very nearly 100 % quality monitoring is
required (EPA: “Compliance Assurance
Program” CAP; CARB: “Production Vehi-
cle Evaluation” PVE).
In-field monitoring
In-field monitoring involves the detection
of type-specific defects (e.g., design or
manufacturing defects, defective mainte-
nance instructions) which result in dra-
matically increased pollutant emissions
during the operation of vehicles under
normal conditions of use. To this end, a
check is carried out in the field on produc-
tion vehicles to ascertain that they com-
ply 100 % with the emission regulations.
Privately owned production vehicles are
randomly chosen for testing. The mileage
and age of the vehicle must be within de-
fined limits.
Emission-control legislation 1043
Emission-control legislation
for passenger cars and light
commercial vehicles
USA CARB legislation
The emission limits of CARB (Califor-
nia Air Resources Board) for passenger
cars (PC) and light commercial vehicles
(light-duty trucks; LDT) are specified in
the emission-control standards LEV I,
LEV II, and LEV III (LEV, Low Emission
Vehicle, i.e., vehicles with low exhaust
and evaporative emissions). Since model
year 2004 the LEV II standard has applied
to all new vehicles up to a gross vehicle
weight of 14,000 lbs (lb: pound; 1 lb =
0.454 kg, 14,000 lb = 6.35 t). Model year
2015 marked the beginning of the incre-
mental introduction of the new emission
level LEV III to be completed by 2025 (or
2022 for evaporative emissions).
Originally the CARB legislation only ap-
plied in the US state of California, but has
since been adopted in other states.
Vehicle classes
Figure 1 shows an overview of the cate-
gorization of vehicles into vehicle classes.
Emission limits
CARB legislation specifies limits for the
carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogen ox-
ides (NOx), non-methane organic gases
(NMOG), formaldehyde (HCHO), and
particulate matter (diesel: LEV I to LEV III;
gasoline: LEV III only) (Figure 2). On ac-
count of the very low emission limits, the
LEV III legislation provides for an aggre-
gate value of NMOG and NOx.
Pollutant emissions are measured in
the FTP 75 driving schedule (Federal
Test Procedure). The emission limits are
correlated with the route driven during
the test and are expressed in grams per
mile.
The SFTP (Supplemental Federal Test
Procedure) standard, comprising two fur-
ther test cycles (SC03 and US06 cycles)
was introduced in 2001. There are also
further limits that require compliance in
addition to FTP emission limits.
1044 Emission-control and diagnosis legislation

Exhaust-gas categories Since 2004 new vehicle registrations

Automotive manufacturers are at liberty have been governed by the LEV II ex-
to deploy a variety of vehicle concepts haust-emission standard. The CO and
within the permitted limits, providing they NMOG limits from LEV I remain un-
maintain a fleet average (see the section changed, but the NOx limit is substantially
entitled “Fleet average”). The concepts lower for LEV II.
are allocated to the following exhaust-gas LEV III provides for a total of six vehicle
categories, depending on their emission categories (Figure 2), one of which is be-
values for NMOG, CO, NOx, and particu- low SULEV. In addition to the categories
late emissions: of the LEV emission-control standards,
– LEV (Low-Emission Vehicle), three categories of zero-emission or par-
– ULEV (Ultra-Low-Emission Vehicle), tial zero-emission vehicles are defined
– SULEV (Super Ultra-Low-Emission (see ZEV program).
Vehicle).

Figure 1: Vehicle classes, CARB legislation

LDT Light Duty Truck, MDV Medium Duty Vehicle, HDV Heavy Duty Vehicle, PC Passenger Car,
LDV Light Duty Vehicle, LVW Loaded Vehicle Weight (vehicle tare weight plus 300 lbs),
GVW Gross Vehicle Weight.
LDT classes MDV classes
1 2 4 5
LVW ≤ 3,750 lbs LVW > 3,750 lbs 8,500 lbs 10,000 lbs
< GVW ≤ GVW Optional from 2007
≤ 10,000 lbs ≤ 14,000 lbs Certification on engine test bench

Certification on chassis dynamometer Certification Goods transport

LDT MDV on engine Personal transportation
test bench > 12 persons
Personal transportation
PC/LDV HDV ≤ 12 persons

3,750 8,500 10,000 14,000 lbs SMA0095-2E

Gross vehicle weight (GVW)

Figure 2: Exhaust-gas categories and emission limits for NOx and NMOG of
CARB legislation for passenger cars and light commercial vehicles
g
mile LEV II LEV III NOx
(starting model year 2004, values from 2014) (starting model year 2015)
0.30 NMOG
NMOG
Exhaust-gas emissions

0.25 + NOx

0.20
0.16

0.125

0.15
0.09

0.10
0.07
0.07
0.07

0.055

0.05

0.03

0.05
0.02

0.02
0.01

SMA0037-8E

0.00
LEV ULEV SULEV LEV2 ULEV2 .07 .05 SULEV .02
ULEV ULEV SULEV
 Emission-control legislation 1045

Phase-in useful life”). LEV III has extended durabil-

The LEV emission-control standards
will not be introduced from one year
to the next, but instead by means of a
“phase-in”, i.e., the incremental introduc-
tion of the requirements over a number
of years for ever larger proportions of the
new-car fleet, e.g. for LEV II 25 % / 50 % /
75 % / 100 % of the newly registered vehi-
cles in the model years 2004/5/6/7. This
is accompanied by a “phase-out” of the
previous regulations.
The LEV III standard will be introduced
between 2015 and 2025, phase-out of
LEV II by 2019. Particulate emissions are
covered by separate phase-in and phase-
out from 2017 onwards.
Evaporative emissions
The subject of evaporative emissions is
addressed in the chapter “Exhaust-gas
measuring techniques”.
Durability
In order to gain approval for vehicle
types, vehicle manufacturers must cer-
tify that the emissions of limited pollut-
ants do not exceed the respective limits
over 50,000 miles or 5 years (“half use-
ful life”) and 100,000 miles (LEV I) or
120,000 miles (LEV II) or 10 years (“full
ity to 150,000 miles.
Durability test
The vehicle manufacturer must supply
two vehicle fleets from its production line
for the durability test. One fleet in which
each vehicle has driven 4,000 miles be-
fore the test, and one fleet for the endur-
ance test with which the deterioration
factors of individual pollutant components
are measured.
Endurance testing entails subjecting
the vehicles to specific driving cycles
over distances of 100,000 and 120,000
or 150,000 miles. Exhaust-gas emissions
are tested at intervals of 5,000 miles and
may not exceed the limits. Servicing and
maintenance tasks may only be per-
formed at the specified intervals.
Fleet average
Each vehicle manufacturer must ensure
that its vehicles do not exceed an average
specific emission limit for exhaust-gas
emissions (Figure 3). The NMOG and
NOx emissions are used as the criteria in
this regard with LEV III (for LEV I/II only
NMOG). The fleet average is calculated
for LEV I and LEV II from the average of
the NMOG limit for “half useful life” pro-
duced by all of the manufacturer’s vehi-

Figure 3: Passenger-car fleet averages in comparison with NMOG standard

0.25
0.250

g Passenger-car fleet average

0.231

mile
0.225

0.20
0.202

NMOG NMOG + NOx

0.15
0.157

for LEV I and LEV II for LEV III

0.113

0.10
0.10
0.10
0.093
0.086
0.079
0.073

0.072
0.070
0.068

0.065
0.062

0.05
0.058
0.053

0.051
0.049
0.046

2023 0.044
0.043

2024 0.037
0.040
0.038

2025 0.030
0.035
0.035
0.035
0.035
0.035

0.00
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2014
2015
2016
2017
2018
2019
2020
2021
2022

SMA0039-3E

Model year
LEV I LEV II LEV III
1046 Emission-control and diagnosis legislation
cles are sold within one year. The limits
for “full useful life” apply to LEV III. The
emission limits for the fleet average are
different for passenger cars and light com-
mercial vehicles.
The emission limit for the NMOG fleet
average is reduced every year. To meet
the lower fleet limit, manufacturers must
produce progressively cleaner vehicles in
the more stringent emissions categories
in each consecutive year.
Fleet consumption (fuel consumption)
US federal lawmakers specify mandatory
requirements on vehicle manufacturers
with regard to the mean fuel consumption
of their vehicle fleets, or the number of
miles driven per gallon (federal law, appli-
cable in all states, the relevant authority
is the “National Highway Traffic Safety
Administration”, NHTSA). New vehicles
registered in the area of responsibility of
CARB are governed by the same CAFE
regulations for determining fleet fuel con-
sumption as for EPA (see EPA legislation,
section “Fleet consumption”).
Emission-free vehicles
The ZEV program (“Zero-Emission Vehi-
cle”) is to be used to force the development
and market introduction of “zero-emission
vehicles” (“technology forcing”), which are
also intended to help reduce greenhouse
emissions.
The ZEV program defines three cate-
gories of zero-emission and partial zero-
emission vehicles. Genuine ZEV vehicles
may not release any emissions when they
are in operation. These vehicles are elec-
tric cars which are operated by a battery
or a fuel cell.
PZEVs (Partial Zero-Emission Vehi-
cles) are not emission-free, but they do
emit particularly low levels of pollutants.
They are weighted using a factor of more
than 0.2, depending on the emission-limit
standard. The following requirements
must be satisfied for the minimum factor
of 0.2:
– SULEV certification for a durability of
150,000 miles or 15 years,
– Warranty coverage extending over
150,000 miles or 15 years on all emis-
sion-related components,
– No evaporative emissions from the fuel
system (0 EVAP, zero evaporation). This
is achieved by extensive encapsulation
of the tank and fuel system. This results
in greatly reduced evaporative emis-
sions by the overall vehicle.
AT PZEVs (Advanced Technology
PZEVs) are hybrid vehicles with a gas-
oline or diesel engine and electric motor
and gas-powered vehicles (operation with
compressed natural gas, with hydrogen).
The ZEV program envisages for the
major automobile manufacturers mini-
mum quantities for ZEV, AT PZEV and
PZEV vehicles which will increase gradu-
ally between 2005 and 2017 and provide
for ever greater proportions of AT PZEVs
and ZEVs. The quantities are not calcu-
lated directly, but instead by means of
so-called “ZEV credits”, which depend
among other things on the technology
used, their performance, and the model
year. From 2018 the PZEV category will
be dropped and the necessary quantities
of AT PZEVs (now transitionally TZEVs)
and ZEVs will rise dramatically by 2025.
The relevant figures for the ZEV,
­AT-PZEV and PZEV emission-limit cate-
gories are 150,000 miles or 15 years (“full
useful life”).
In-field monitoring
Non-routine inspection
Random emission testing is conducted
on in-use vehicles using the FTP 75 test
cycle and – for vehicles with gasoline
engines – an evaporative-emission test.
Depending on the relevant exhaust-gas
category, vehicles with mileage read-
ings below 90,000 or 112,500 miles are
tested.
Vehicle monitoring by the
manufacturer
Official reporting of claims or damage to
specific emissions-related components
and systems has been mandatory for
vehicle manufacturers since model year
1990. The reporting obligation remains in
force for a maximum period of 15 years,
or 150,000 miles, depending on the war-
ranty period applying to the component
or assembly.
 Emission-control legislation 1047

The reporting method is divided into
three stages with an incremental amount
of detail: Emissions Warranty Information
Report (EWIR), Field Information Report
(FIR), and Emission Information Report
(EIR). The California Air Resources Board
is notified of information regarding com-
plaints, fault quotas, fault analysis, and
impacts on emissions. The agency uses
the Field Information Report as the basis
to decide whether to enforce a recall ac-
tion on the vehicle manufacturer.
USA EPA legislation
EPA (Environmental Protection Agency)
legislation applies to all of the states
where the more stringent CARB stipula-
tions from California are not in force.
The EPA legislation has been covered
by the Tier 2 emission-control standard
since 2004. The new Tier 3 emission-con-
trol standard will be introduced incre-
mentally between 2017 and 2025. Tier 3
achieves an extensive harmonization of
the requirements with the Californian
LEV III program, e.g., the same certifica-
tion categories, albeit with its own desig-
nation (“bin”).
Vehicle classes
With the transition to Tier 2, an addi-
tional vehicle class has been introduced
in the form of the MDPV (Medium-Duty
Passenger Vehicle) (Figure 4). Thus, all
vehicles up to a permissible total weight
of 10,000 lbs (4.54 t) which are designed
to carry up to 12 persons, are certified on
a chassis dynamometer.
Light commercial vehicles are divided
into two groups: LLDTs (Light Light-Duty
Trucks) with a gross vehicle weight of up
to 6,000 lbs (2.72 t) and heavier HLDTs
(Heavy Light-Duty Trucks) with a gross
vehicle weight of up to 8,500 lbs (3.86 t).
Since 2007 certification on a chassis
dynamometer has also been option-
ally possible for vehicles weighing up to
14,000 lbs (6.35 t).
The classification of motor vehicles into
the vehicle classes defined in Tier 2 has
been retained for Tier 3.
Emission limits
EPA legislation specifies limits for the
pollutants carbon monoxide (CO), nitro-
gen oxides (NOx), non-methane organic
gases (NMOG), formaldehyde (HCHO),
and particulate matter (PM). Pollutant
emissions are measured in the FTP 75
driving schedule. The emission limits are
correlated with the route driven during
the test and are expressed in grams per
mile.
The SFTP (Supplemental Federal Test
Procedure) standard, comprising two fur-
ther test cycles (SC03 and US06 cycles)
has been in force since 2000. Prevailing
emission limits must be met in addition to
FTP emission limits.

Figure 4: Vehicle classes, EPA legislation

LDT Light Duty Truck, MDV Medium Duty Vehicle, HDV Heavy Duty Vehicle,
PC Passenger Car, LLDT Light Light-Duty Truck, HLDT Heavy Light-Duty Truck,
MDPV Medium-Duty Passenger Vehicle, LDV Light Duty Vehicle,
LVW Loaded Vehicle Weight, GVW Gross Vehicle Weight,
ALV Adjusted Loaded Vehicle Weight (0.5 × tare weight + 0.5 × gross weight).

LDT classes
1 2 3 4
LVW LVW ALVW ALVW Optional from 2007
≤ 3,750 lbs > 3,750 lbs ≤ 5,750 lbs > 5,750 lbs Certification on chassis dynamometer

Goods transport
Certification on chassis dynamometer
Certification Personal transportation
LLDT HLDT on engine > 12 persons
test bench Personal transportation
PC/LDV MDPV HDV ≤ 12 persons
SMA0096-2E

6,000 8,500 10,000 14,000 lbs

Gross vehicle weight (GVW)
1048 Emission-control and diagnosis legislation

Since the introduction of Tier 2 standards lated both for the fleet values and for the
in 2004, vehicles with diesel and gasoline bins as an aggregate value of NMOG and
engines have been subject to identical ex- NOx.
haust-emission limits. The Tier 3 legislation closely follows the
Californian LEV III legislation in order to
Exhaust-gas categories simplify the job of certification in the EPA
Tier 2 and CARB areas for the vehicle manufac-
For Tier 2, the limits were divided into 10 turers.
(for LDV and LLDT) and into 11 (for HLDT Durability has been extended for Tier 3
and MDPV) emission standards (bins) to 150,000 miles (optional, alternatively
(Figure 5). For LDV and LLDT, Bin 9 and 120,000 miles with stricter limits values)
Bin 10 ceased to apply in 2007, and, for or 15 years compared with 100,000 miles
HLDT and MDPV, Bin 9 through Bin 11 or 10 years for Tier 2.
ceased to apply in 2009. Tier 3 also covers heavy pick-ups and
The transition to Tier 2 has produced vans with a gross vehicle weight in ex-
the following changes: cess of 6,500 lbs, which are now driven
– Introduction of fleet averages for NOx , on a chassis dynamometer including the
– Formaldehyde (HCHO) is subject to a demanding SFTP test cycles. Within the
separate pollutant category, Tier 2 legislation these vehicles were ex-
– LDV and LLDT are treated identically to cluded from the SFTP tests.
the greatest possible extent with regard Particulate-emission limits are pre-
to FTP limits, scribed with the Tier 3 legislation for each
– “Full useful life” is increased, depend- vehicle. A limit for the particulate number
ing on the emission standard (Bin), to (PN) is currently not provided for.
120,000 or 150,000 miles. The Tier 3 legislation is governed by the
same fleet values for NMOG + NOx as for
Tier 3 LEV III.
Seven selectable certification bins will
furthermore be made available for Tier 3.
However, the standards are now formu-

Figure 5: Tier 2 emission limits for EPA legislation compared with CARB emission limits
for LEV II
g
mile
EPA CARB
0.6

0.6
NOx
CO / 10
0.5
NMOG
Exhaust-gas emissions

0.42

0.42

0.42

0.42

0.42

0.42

0.42

PM
0.4 (for diesel
only)
0.3

0.3
0.21
0.21

0.21

0.21
0.2

0.2
0.156

0.15
0.125
0.09

0.09
0.09
0.09

0.09
0.1

0.1
0.08

0.1
0.07

0.07

0.07
0.07
0.055

0.055
0.06

0.04

0.03

0.02
0.02

0.02

0.02
0.01
0.01
0.01

0.01
0.01

0.01

0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01

SMA0040-6E

0
0
0
0
0

0
0
0
0

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 LEV ULEV SULEV ZEV

Bin# LEV II

Phase-in
At least 25 % of all new passenger-car
and LLDT registrations were required to
conform to Tier 2 standards which took
effect in 2004. The phase-in rule stipu-
lated that an additional 25 % of vehicles
would be required to conform to the Tier 2
standards in each consecutive year. All
vehicles have been required to conform to
Tier 2 standards since 2007. The phase-in
period for HLDT and MDPV terminated
in 2009.
Tier 3 will be introduced between 2017
and 2025, phase-out of Tier 2 by 2019.
Particulate emissions are covered by sep-
arate phase-in and phase-out from 2017
onwards.
Evaporative emissions
The subject of evaporative emissions is
addressed in the chapter “Exhaust-gas
measuring techniques”.
Durability
The same criteria as for CARB apply to
durability.
Fleet average
NOx emissions are used to determine
fleet averages for individual manufactur-
ers under the EPA Tier 2 legislation. Up
to 2008 the value was 0.2 g/mile, since
2008 it has been 0.07 g/mile. With Tier 3
the NMOG+NOx fleet average will be in-
troduced as for CARB.
Fleet consumption (fuel consumption)
US federal lawmakers specify mandatory
requirements on vehicle manufacturers
with regard to the mean fuel consumption
of their vehicle fleets, or the number of
miles driven per gallon (federal law, appli-
cable in all states, the relevant authority
is the “National Highway Traffic Safety
Administration”, NHTSA). Here it is the
metric “miles per gallon of fuel (mpg)” and
not as otherwise usual in Europe for ex-
ample the “amount of fuel used per unit
distance” that is used. This representa-
tion of “fuel economy” corresponds to the
reciprocal value of consumption per unit
of distance.
The prescribed CAFE value (Corpo-
rate Average Fuel Economy) was until
2010 27.5 mpg for passenger cars. This
Emission-control legislation 1049
equates to a fuel consumption of 8.55 l
of gasoline per 100 km. Up to 2004 the
value for light commercial vehicles was
20.7 mpg or 11.36 l of gasoline per
100 km and was increased by 2010 to
23.5 mpg.
For model year 2011 the CAFE sys-
tem was restructured for passenger
cars and light-duty trucks (among others
the definitions of passenger cars and
light trucks) and ambitious target val-
ues were set: 33.3 mpg and 22.8 mpg
for 2011, 40.1 mpg and 25.4 mpg for
2014, 43.4 mpg and 26.8 mpg for 2016,
46.8 mpg and 33.3 mpg for 2021, and
56.2 mpg and 40.3 mpg for 2025.
For the stages 2012 through 2016 and
2017 through 2025 an EPA regulation
harmonized with the CAFE regulation for
limiting greenhouse emissions applies in
parallel to the CAFE legislation. The tar-
get value for a vehicle is dependent on
the tire contact area between the wheels
(“footprint”). Target values are 34.1 mpg
(for CAFE) and 250 g CO2 equivalent per
mile (for EPA) for 2016. In the period from
2017 through 2025 the target values will
be further increased in stages, for EPA up
to 54.5 mpg (163 g CO2 equivalent per
mile) and for CAFE up to 49.7 mpg (179 g
CO2 equivalent per mile). The values for
2021 through 2025 were suspended in
2018 by the Trump administration. This led
to complaints by CARB and many other
US states. A reassessment by the Biden
administration is expected.
At the end of each year the average
“fuel economy” for each vehicle manufac-
turer is calculated based on the numbers
of vehicles sold. The manufacturer must
remit a penalty fee of $5.50 per vehicle
for each 0.1 mpg its fleet falls short of
the target. There is the possibility by way
of a “credit/debit system” of balancing
overfulfillment and underfulfillment in a
year with “credits” and “debits” from other
years.
Buyers will also have to pay a gas-­
guzzler tax on vehicles with especially
high fuel consumption. Here, the limit
is 22.5 mpg (10.45 l per 100 km). These
penalties are intended to promote the
sale of vehicles offering greater fuel
economy.
1050 Emission-control and diagnosis legislation
The FTP 75 test cycle and the highway
cycle are applied to measure CAFE fuel
economy (see the section entitled “US
test cycles”).
A Fuel Economy Label provides vehicle
buyers with information on fuel consump-
tion. Model year 2008 sees the introduc-
tion of “5 cycle fuel economy” (also called
“5 cycle method”), which is intended to
better reflect real driving conditions. This
takes into account measurements in the
SFTP schedules and in the FTP at −7 °C,
which include among others aggressive
acceleration, high final speed, and also
operation with air conditioning.
In-field monitoring
Non-routine inspection
EPA legislation, just like CARB legisla-
tion, provides for an exhaust-gas emis-
sion test in accordance with the FTP 75
test method to be carried out on in-use
vehicles on a random-test basis. Testing
is conducted on low-mileage vehicles
(10,000 miles, roughly one year old) and
higher-mileage vehicles (50,000 miles,
however at least one vehicle per test
group with 90,000 or 105,000 miles,
depending on the emission standard;
roughly four years old). The number of
vehicles is dependent on the number
sold. For vehicles with gasoline engines,
at least one vehicle per test group is also
tested for evaporative emissions.
Vehicle monitoring by the
manufacturer
For vehicles after model year 1972, the
manufacturer is obliged to make an offi-
cial report concerning damage to specific
emission-related components or systems
if at least 25 identical emission-related
parts in a model year are defective. The
reporting obligation ends five years after
the end of the model year. The report
comprises a description of damage to the
defective component, presentation of the
impacts on exhaust-gas emissions, and
suitable corrective action by the manu-
facturer. The environmental authorities
use this information as the basis for de-
termining whether to issue recalls to the
manufacturer.
EU legislation
The Directives of European emission-­
control legislation are proposed by the
EU Commission and ratified by the
Council of Environment Ministers and
the EU Parliament. The basis of emis-
sion-control legislation for passenger
cars and light commercial vehicles is
Directive 70/220/EEC [1] from 1970. For
the first time it defined exhaust-emission
limits, and the provisions have been up-
dated ever since.
The emission limits for passenger
cars and light commercial vehicles LCV
(light-duty trucks LDT) are contained in
the emission-control standards Euro 1
(from 07/1992), Euro 2 (01/1996), Euro 3
(01/2000), Euro 4 (01/2005), Euro 5
(09/2009), and Euro 6 (09/2014).
Instead of a “phase-in” over several
years as in the USA, a new emission-­
control standard is introduced in two
stages. In the first stage newly certified
vehicle types must adhere to the newly
defined emission limits. In the second
stage – generally one year later – every
newly registered vehicle (i.e., all types)
must adhere to the new limits. Legislators
can inspect production vehicles for com-
pliance with emission limits (COP, Con-
formity of Production, and ISC In-service
Conformity Check).
EU directives allow tax incentives for
vehicles that comply with upcoming ex-
haust-gas emission standards before
they actually become law. Depending on
a vehicle’s emission standard, there are
also a number of different motor-vehicle
tax rates in Germany.
Vehicle classes
Until the Euro 4 legislation expired, vehi-
cles with a permissible total weight below
3.5 t were certified on chassis dynamo­
meters; in this respect, a distinction was
made between passenger cars (carrying
up to nine persons) and light commer-
cial vehicles (LDT) for goods transpor-
tation. There are three classes for LDT
(Figure 6), depending on the vehicle
reference weight (tare weight + 100 kg).
Engine certifications are performed for
buses (carrying more than nine persons)
and for vehicles with a permissible total
weight in excess of 3.5 t. LDT engines can

optionally also be certified on an engine
test bench.
When the Euro 5 and Euro 6 legislation
comes into force, the vehicle reference
weight (tare weight + 100 kg) will be the
distinguishing criterion with regard to the
certification procedure. Vehicles with a
reference weight of up to 2.61 t will be cer-
tified on a chassis dynamometer. Vehicles
with a reference weight in excess of 2.61 t
will be certified on an engine test bench.
Flexible variations will be possible.
Emission limits
The EU standards specify limits for car-
bon monoxide (CO), hydrocarbons (THC,
Total Hydro Carbons), nitrogen oxides
(NOx), and particulate matter (PM, for
direct-injection gasoline engines as from
Euro 5) (Figures 7 and 8).
The limits for hydrocarbons and ni-
trogen oxides for the Euro 1 and Euro 2
stages are combined into an aggregate
value (HC+NOx). Since Euro 3 a special
NOx limit in addition to the aggregate
value has applied to vehicles with diesel
engines; in the case of gasoline vehicles,
the aggregate has been replaced by sep-
arate HC and NOx limits.
Figure 6: Vehicle classes, EU legislation
LDT Light Duty Truck, MDV Medium Duty Vehicle, HDV Heavy Duty Vehicle, PC Passenger Car,
LDV Light Duty Vehicle, LVW Loaded Vehicle Weight, GVW Gross Vehicle Weight.
Note: The axes for GVW and RW must be considered separately!
LDT classes
I II III 3.5
N1
M2
1.305 1.76 2.0 2.38
Chassis dynamometer:
M1, N1, M2, N2, not M3
option. Engine test bench:
Emission-control legislation 1051
The Euro 5 stage was introduced in two
steps as Euro 5a and Euro 5b. Euro 5a
(from September 2009) saw the addition
for gasoline engines of an NMHC limit
(non-methane hydrocarbons), Euro 5b
(from September 2011) for diesel engines
a particulate-number limit of 6 ∙ 1011 par-
ticulates per kilometer. This PN limit has
also applied from Euro 6b (September
2014) and Euro 6c (September 2017)
to vehicles with direct-injection gasoline
engines (a higher interim value of 6 ∙ 1012
particulates/km for Euro 6b is possible on
request).
The limits are different for vehicles with
diesel and gasoline engines, but with
Euro 6 will be brought further into line.
The limits for LDT class 1 are the same
as for cars. Passenger cars with a per-
missible total in excess of 2.5 t were for
Euro 3 and Euro 4 treated as LDTs and
were therefore likewise categorized into
one of the three LDT classes. This option
ceases to apply from Euro 5.
The limits are defined based on mile-
age and indicated in grams per kilometer
(g/km). Since Euro 3, emissions are mea-
sured on a chassis dynamometer using
the MNEDC (Modified New European
Driving Cycle).
Gross vehicle weight
5.0 12 16 (GVW) in t
N2 N3 Goods transport
Personal transportation
M3 > 9 persons
Personal transportation
M1 ≤ 9 persons
2.61 2.84 Reference weight (RW) in t
optional
SMA0097-1E
M1, M2, N1, N2, N3, M3
1052 Emission-control and diagnosis legislation

Since September 2017 the MNEDC has will also be introduced with a first stage.
been replaced by the WLTC (Worldwide Euro 6d with the second RDE stage will
Light-duty Test Cycles, see also Test apply from January 2020.
cycles). The dynamic test cycle derived
from road driving is supplemented by a Evaporative emissions
strongly revised test procedure (WLTP, The subject of evaporative emissions is
Worldwide harmonized Light vehicles addressed in the chapter “Exhaust-gas
Test Procedure) which is to make possi- measuring techniques”.
ble significantly more realistic consump-
tion and emission measurements. Here Type approval
the Euro 6c limits defined for the MNEDC Type approval is conducted along similar
have not been adapted to the WLTC. lines to that in the USA, with the following
This stage is called Euro 6d-temp since, differences: Test vehicles absolve an ini-
aside from the change to the WLTC, the tial run-in period of 3,000 kilometers be-
new “Real Driving Emissions” test (RDE) fore testing. The limit values in the Type I

Figure 7: EU emission limits for gasoline-engine passenger cars and light

commercial vehicles [2]
1 PM limit for gasoline direct injection only.
250
230

mg/km Euro 3
Euro 4
200

200 Euro 5a
Euro 5b
150

150 Euro 6
100
100
100
100

100
100
100
100

100
80
68
68
68

60
60
60

50 SMA0091-2E
4.5
4.5
5

0
CO / 10 THC NMHC NO x PM 1

Figure 8: EU emission limits for diesel-engine passenger cars and light

commercial ­vehicles [2]

600
560

mg/km Euro 3
500

500 Euro 4
Euro 5a
Euro 5b
400
Euro 6
300

300
250
230
230

180
180

200
170

100
80
640
500
500
500
500

SMA0092-2E
50
25

4.5
4.5
5

0
CO / 10 HC + NOx NOx PM

test are “full useful life” limit values, i.e.,
they must be complied with even when
the durability distance is reached. In order
to take into account the aging of compo-
nents up to the durability distance, dete-
rioration factors are applied to the values
measured in the type approval. These
are defined in the legislation for every
pollutant component; manufacturers are
also allowed to present documentation
confirming lower factors obtained during
specified endurance testing (Type V test)
over 80,000 km. From Euro 5 the endur-
ance distance has been increased from
80,000 km to 160,000 km, where further
alternative test procedures are possible.
Type tests
There are four essential type tests for
type approval. Type I, Type IV, Type V and
Type VI tests are used for vehicles with
gasoline engines; only Type I and Type V
tests are used for vehicles with diesel en-
gines. With Euro 6d-temp the RDE test
Type Ia and the Ambient Temperature
Correction Test are added for gasoline
and diesel (ATCT, Type I test at 14 °C for
converting the CO2 emission from 23 °C
to 14 °C, emission limits must be adhered
to).
With the Type I test, the primary ex-
haust-gas test, the exhaust emissions
are determined after cold starting in
the MNEDC (Modified New European
Driving Cycle) and since Euro 6d-temp
in the WLTC (Worldwide Light-duty Test
Cycles). In addition, the opacity of the
exhaust gas is recorded for vehicles with
diesel engines.
The Type Ia test “Real Driving Emis-
sions” (RDE) is intended to ensure that
the emission limits are adhered to not only
in the standardized cycle but also under
real road conditions. In the EU the RDE
test is used both during the type ­approval
and also in in-field monitoring. To this
end a vehicle is equipped with a mobile
measurement system (PEMS, Portable
Emissions Measurement System, see
Exhaust-gas measuring techniques) and
driven for 90 to 120 minutes in normal
road traffic. Various boundary condi-
tions apply during this test (see ­Table 3,
Test cycles). CO (monitoring, not a limit
value), NOx (for gasoline and d ­ iesel), PN
Emission-control legislation 1053
(particulate number, only for gasoline
direct-­injection engines and ­diesel), and
CO2 (as a normalization quantity) are
measured. Valid RDE journeys are eval-
uated and weighted with software tools.
The average NOx and PN emissions in
the urban part and for the entire journey
are compared with maximum values
which are obtained from the product of
emission limit multiplied by “Conformity
Factor” CF. For NOx CF will be introduced
in two stages (2.1 in 2017 and 1.43 in
2020), for PN 1.5 will apply from 2017.
The CF values are to be adapted to the
state-of-the-art (as 1 + 0.x ).
Type IV testing measures evaporative
emissions from parked vehicles. This
primarily concerns fuel vapor that evap-
orates from the fuel-carrying system (fuel
tank, pipes, etc.) (see also Exhaust-gas
measuring techniques, also with regard to
emission limit and test procedure).
Type VI testing embraces hydrocarbon
and carbon-monoxide emissions immedi-
ately following cold starts at –7 °C. Only
the first section (urban section) of the
MNEDC is driven for this test. This test
has been binding since 2002. A new test
based on WLTC is being elaborated at
UN ECE level.
The Type V test assesses the long-
term durability of the emissions-reducing
equipment. In addition to the specified en-
durance test, alternative test procedures
are possible from Euro 5 (e.g., test-bench
aging).
CO2 emissions
For CO2 emissions there were no limits
laid down by law until 2011; however, the
vehicle manufacturers did enter into a vol-
untary commitment in Europe. Because
the manufacturers failed to reach their
target, a fleet target value has been laid
down by law for passenger cars. Within
an introductory phase from 2012 through
2015 a fleet value of 130 g/km must be
achieved (equating to 5.3 l / 100 km gas-
oline or 4.9 l / 100 km diesel). For light
commercial vehicles a similar regulation
stipulates a target value of 175 g/km for
2017. A further reduction for passenger
cars to 95 g/km and for light commercial
vehicles to 147 g/km has been decided
on for 2020/2021. These values are to
1054 Emission-control and diagnosis legislation
understood as mean values for all the
passenger cars and LDTs supplied by a
vehicle manufacturer (vehicle fleet). The
target value for a vehicle is dependent on
the vehicle tare weight.
Since September 2017 new vehicle
types have had to be certified in the WLTP
(with four phases). The determined CO2
values at 23 °C are corrected to 14 °C
(by means of a factor determined in the
Ambient Temperature Correction Test)
and then converted with the aid of the
­CO2MPAS tool to MNEDC values, which
were used to check whether the targets
were achieved up to and including 2020.
On the basis of the relative achievement
of the target values in 2020 and the un-
derlying MNEDC and WLTP values a
manufacturer-specific target value will be
defined for 2021 and subsequent years.
Further reductions have been agreed for
2025 and 2030, but could be lowered fur-
ther within the framework of the “Green
Deal”.
Similarly to the US CAFE regulations,
fines must be paid if the target value is not
met, however there is no option of credit/
debit balancing over a number of years.
In-field monitoring
EU legislation also calls for conformi-
ty-verification testing on in-use vehicles
as part of the Type I test cycle. The mini-
mum number of vehicles of a vehicle type
under test is three, while the maximum
number varies according to the test pro-
cedure. Vehicles under test must meet the
following criteria:
– Mileages vary from 15,000 km to
100,000 km, and vehicle age from
6 months to 5 years (from Euro 4).
– Regular service inspections were car-
ried out as specified by the manufac-
turer.
– The vehicle must show no indications
of non-standard use (e.g., tampering,
major repairs, etc.).
If emissions from an individual vehicle
fail substantially to comply with the stan-
dards, the source of the high emissions
must be determined. If several vehicles
display excessive emissions in random
testing for the same reason, the results
of the random test must be classified as
negative. If there are various reasons,
the test schedule may be extended, pro-
viding the maximum sample size is not
reached.
If the type-approval authorities detect
that a vehicle type fails to meet the crite-
ria, the vehicle manufacturer must devise
suitable action to eliminate the defect.
The action catalog must be applicable to
all vehicles with the same defect. If nec-
essary, a recall action must be started.
Periodic emission testing
In Germany all passenger cars and light
commercial vehicles and vans are re-
quired to undergo emissions inspections
three years after their initial registration,
and then at subsequent intervals of two
years. For vehicles with gasoline engines,
the main focus is on CO levels and λ
closed-loop control, while for vehicles
with diesel engines, the opacity test is the
main criterion. Data from the diagnostic
system are taken into consideration for
vehicles with On-Board Diagnostic sys-
tems (OBD).
Comparable tests are also available in
other countries; in Europe, for example, in
Austria, France, Spain, and Switzerland,
and in many parts of the USA in the form
of “Inspection and Maintenance”.
Japanese legislation
The permitted emission values are also
subject to gradual stages of severity in
Japan. The limit values have since Sep-
tember 2007 been subject to further tight-
ening within the framework of the “New
Long Term Standards”.
Vehicles with diesel engines have since
September 2010 been subject to further
tightening of the limit values in the form
of the “Post New Long Term Regulation”.
In the case of vehicles with gasoline en-
gines, the previous synthetic test cycles
were replaced in two stages (2008 and
2011) by the more realistic JC08 cycle.
In 2018 Japan also introduced the
WLTC based on UN GTR No. 15 [3]. Un-
like the EU, only the first three phases
apply. The NMHC limit values for vehicles
with gasoline engines and the NOx limit
values for vehicles with diesel engines are
adapted.
 Emission-control legislation 1055

Vehicle classes with gasoline engines) than the other two

Vehicles with a permissible total weight up
to 3.5 t are essentially divided into three
classes (Figure 9): passenger cars (up to
ten seats), LDVs (Light-Duty Vehicles) up
to 1.7 t, and MDVs (Medium-Duty Vehi-
cles) up to 3.5 t. MDVs have higher limits
for CO and NOx emissions (for vehicles
vehicle classes. For diesel engines, the
vehicle categories are distinguished by
NOx and particulate limits.
Emission limits
The Japanese legislation specifies limits
for carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogen ox-

Table 1: Emission limits of Japanese legislation for gasoline-engine passenger cars

Vehicle category Pass. cars, mini delivery vans, Medium-duty commercial
small commercial vehicles ­vehicles
GVW ≤ 1.7 t 1.7 t < GVW 3.5 t
Cycle JC08 WLTC JC08 WLTC
Year (new types) 10/2009 10/2018 10/2009 10/2018
Limit values for gasoline engines
NMHC [mg/km] 50 100 50 150
NOx [mg/km] 50 50 70 70
CO [mg/km] 1,150 1,150 2,550 2,550
PM [mg/km] 5 5 7 7
(direct-injection engines only)

Table 2: Emission limits of Japanese legislation for diesel-engine passenger cars

Vehicle category Pass. cars, mini delivery vans, Medium-duty commercial
small commercial vehicles ­vehicles
GVW ≤ 1.7 t 1.7 t < GVW 3.5 t
Cycle JC08 WLTC JC08 WLTC
Year (new types) 10/2009 10/2018 10/2009 10/2018
Limit values for diesel engines
NMHC [mg/km] 24 24 24 24
NOx [mg/km] 80 150 150 240
CO [mg/km] 630 630 630 630
PM [mg/km] 5 5 7 7

Figure 9: Vehicle classes, Japanese legislation

MDV Medium Duty Vehicle, HDV Heavy Duty Vehicle, PC Passenger Car,
LDV Light Duty Vehicle, GVW Gross Vehicle Weight, EIW Equivalent Inertia Weight.

Goods transport

LDV MDV HDV HDV

Personal transportation
> 10 persons

EIW EIW Personal transportation

≤ 1.265 t > 1.265 t PC ≤ 10 persons
SMA0098-2E

1.7 t 3.5 t 12 t
Gross vehicle weight (GVW)
1056 Emission-control and diagnosis legislation
ides (NOx), non-methane hydrocarbons
(NMHC), particulate matter (for vehi-
cles with diesel engines, from 2009 also
for gasoline direct injection with leaner
NOx-reducing technology) (Table 1 for
gasoline engines and Table 2 for diesel
engines).
Pollutant emissions were determined
with a combination of 11-mode and
10 • 15-mode test cycles (see Japanese
test cycle). Cold-start emissions were
thus also taken into account. A new test
cycle was introduced in 2008 (JC08). This
replaced initially the 11-mode and as from
2011 also the 10 • 15-mode, so that only
the JC08 will be used as the cold- and
hot-start test. Since 2018 the JC08 has
been replaced by the WLTC.
Evaporative emissions
The exhaust-gas regulations in Japan
­include limits on evaporative emissions
in vehicles with gasoline engines, which
are measured using the SHED method
(see Exhaust-gas measuring techniques).
­Japan is adopting the WLTC-based test
procedure of UN GTR 19 [4], which has
been influenced by the developments of
the EU test procedure. Different tank sys-
tems are taken into account.
Durability
Manufacturers must demonstrate a du-
rability of 45,000 km (New Long Term
Standards) or 80,000 km (Post New Long
Term Standards) for vehicles with diesel
engines. 80,000 km apply to all stages for
vehicles with gasoline engines.
Fleet consumption
In Japan targets apply to the fleet con-
sumption of a manufacturer for 2010
and 2015, based on target values for
vehicle weight classes. For tax-incentive
purposes (green tax program) there are
two stages rewarding fuel consumption
which is improved by 15 % and 25 % re-
spectively.
Chinese legislation
China has, up to and including Stage 5
(applicable nationally from 2018), ad-
opted the EU legislation to limit ex-
haust-gas emissions. Leading the way
here was Beijing, introducing the stages
early, followed by further metropolitan
­areas such as Shanghai and Guangzhou.
With China 6a (7/2020) and 6b (7/2023)
China is introducing its own legislation
which for exhaust-gas emissions links
the WLTC with Euro 6-based and US limit
values and adds its own requirements.
For the Type I test the 4-phase WLTC
including WLTP of UN GTR 15 [3] is ad-
opted. The limit values are fuel-neutral.
For passenger cars and light commercial
vehicles (class 1) for China 6a the Euro 6
limit values for gasoline engines apply
for HC, NMHC, and NOx. 0.7 g/km has
been defined for the CO limit value. For
PM the limit value 4.5 mg/km applies, for
PN 6 ∙ 1011 particulates/km (no exception
for gasoline engines with intake-manifold
injection). A limit value for N2O (laughing
gas, a greenhouse gas) of 20 mg/km has
been adopted from the USA. For China 6b
the limit values for HC, NMHC, CO, and
NOx are reduced to approximately 50 %
of the Euro 6 limit values for gasoline en-
gines. PM is reduced to 3 mg/km, PN and
N2O remain the same.
The durability requirement is
160,000 km for China 6a and 200,000 km
for China 6b.
The Type VI test (at −7 °C) applies to
vehicles with gasoline and diesel engines
as of China 6a. In the first two phases of
the WLTC limit values must be observed
for HC of 1.2 g/km, CO of 10 g/m, and NOx
of 0.25 g/km.
China is also introducing an RDE test
for the type approval and in-field monitor-
ing. As of China 6a RDE tests must be
conducted (“monitoring” of CO, NOx, and
PN, without limit values), as of China 6b
“Conformity Factors” CF apply of 2.1 for
NOx and PN for all gasoline and diesel
engines. The test procedures are based
on an intermediate stage of the EU RDE
legislation, e.g., the cold-start period is
not taken into consideration and addi-
tional boundary conditions are defined,
e.g., measurements up to an altitude of
2,400 m and lower top speeds for freeway
driving. A review of the CF is envisaged
by mid-2022.
The metropolitan areas could introduce
China 6a and can introduce China 6b
early, but restrictions apply, e.g., before

7/2023 for RDE only monitoring and
160,000 km as the durability distance.
China has also developed its own re-
quirements for limiting fuel consumption
and thus CO2 emissions. In four stages
(2005 through 2007, 2008 through 2015,
2016 through 2020, and 2021 through
2025) limit values dependent on the vehi-
cle weight in liters of fuel per 100 km apply
to individual vehicle types. In parallel there
is a Corporate Average Fuel Consumption
regulation (CAFC), which similarly to the
EU CO2 fleet targets sets target values
dependent on vehicle weight for the con-
sumption for the fleet of a manufacturer
in the periods 2012 through 2015 and
2016 through 2020. Target values for the
entire fleet are 6.9 l gasoline per 100 km
for 2015 and 5.0 l gasoline per 100 km for
2020. For 2025 the target value is 4.0 l
gasoline per 100 km.
The subject of evaporative emissions
(Type IV test) is addressed in the chapter
“Exhaust-gas measuring techniques”.
China uses a variety of measures, such
as for example tax reductions, to promote
the introduction of electrified vehicles
(hybrids and plug-in hybrids, pure elec-
tric and fuel-cell vehicles). With the “New
Energy Vehicle” legislation (NEV) manu-
facturers must from 2019 fulfill quotas for
the sale of these vehicles (cf. CARB ZEV
legislation).
Emission-control legislation 1057
Test cycles for passenger
cars and light commercial
vehicles
US test cycles
FTP 75 test cycle
The FTP 75 test cycle (Federal Test Pro-
cedure, Figure 10a) consists of speed cy-
cles that were actually recorded in com-
muter traffic in Los Angeles. This test is
also in force in some countries of South
America and in Korea besides the USA
(including California).
Conditioning
The vehicle is subjected to an ambient
temperature of 20 to 30 °C for a period of
6 to 36 hours.
Collection of pollutants
The vehicle is started and driven on the
specific speed cycle on a chassis dyna-
mometer. The emitted pollutants are col-
lected in separate bags during defined
phases (see Exhaust-gas measuring
techniques).
Phase ct (cold transient)
The exhaust gas is collected during the
cold test phase (0 to 505 s).
Phase cs (cold stabilized)
The stabilized phase begins 506 seconds
after start. The exhaust gas is collected
without interrupting the driving cycle.
Upon termination of phase cs, after a total
of 1,372 seconds, the engine is switched
off for a period of 600 seconds (hot soak).
Phase ht (hot transient)
The engine is restarted for the hot test.
The speed cycle is identical to the cold
transient phase (Phase ct).
Phase hs (hot stabilized)
For hybrid vehicles, a further phase hs is
driven. It corresponds to the progression
of phase cs. For other vehicles, it is as-
sumed that the emission values are iden-
tical to the cs phase.
1058 Emission-control and diagnosis legislation

Assessment The same process is applied to the ag-

The bag samples from the first two
phases are analyzed during the pause
before the hot test. This is because sam-
ples may not remain in the bags for longer
than 20 minutes.
The sample exhaust gases contained in
the third bag are also analyzed on com-
pletion of the driving cycle. The total result
includes emissions from the three phases
rated at different weightings.
The pollutant masses of phases ct
and cs are aggregated and assigned to
the total distance of these two phases.
The result is then weighted at a factor
of 0.43.
gregated pollutant masses from phases
ht and cs, related to the total distance of
these two phases, and weighted at a fac-
tor of 0.57. The test result for the individ-
ual pollutants (among others HC, CO, and
NOx) is obtained from the sum of the two
previous results.
The emissions are specified as the pol-
lutant emission per mile.
SFTP cycles
The tests in accordance with the SFTP
standard (Supplemental Federal Test Pro-
cedure) were introduced in 2001. These
are composed of two driving cycles, the
SC03 cycle (Figure 10b) and the US06

Figure 10: US test cycles for passenger cars and light commercial vehicles

a b c d
Test cycle FTP 75 SC03 US06 Highway
Cycle distance: 17.87 km 5.76 km 12.87 km 16.44 km
Cycle duration: 1,877 s + 594 s 600 s 765 s
600 s pause
Mean cycle speed: 34.1 km/h 34.9 km/h 77.3 km/h 77.4 km/h
Maximum cycle speed: 91.2 km/h 88.2 km/h 129.2 km/h 96.4 km/h

a
km/h ct phase cs phase Engine off ht phase
120

60
0

505 s 867 s 600 s 505 s

b
km/h SCO3
ct phase Engine off
120

60
0

505 s 600 s 594 s

c d
km/h ct phase Idle US06 km/h
80
SWT0003-6E

120

60 40
0 0

505 s 90 s 600 s 765 s


cycle (Figure 10c). The extended tests
are intended to examine the following ad-
ditional driving conditions:
– Aggressive driving,
– Radical changes in vehicle speed,
– Engine start and acceleration from a
standing start,
– Operation with frequent minor varia-
tions in speed,
– Periods with vehicle parked,
– Operation with air conditioner on.
For preconditioning, the SC03 and US06
cycles proceed through the ct phase from
FTP 75 without exhaust-gas collection.
However, other conditioning procedures
are also possible.
The SC03 cycle (for vehicles with air
conditioning only) is carried out at a tem-
perature of 35 °C and 40 % relative humid-
ity. The individual driving schedules are
weighted as follows:
– Vehicles with A/C systems:
35 % FTP 75 + 37 % SC03
+ 28 % US06.
– Vehicles without A/C systems:
72 % FTP 75 + 28 % US06.
The SFTP and FTP 75 test cycles must
be successfully completed on an individ-
ual basis.
Cold-start enrichment, which is nec-
essary when a vehicle with a gasoline
engine is started at low temperatures,
produces higher emissions. These can-
not be measured in current emissions
testing, which is conducted at ambient
temperatures of 20 to 30 °C. An additional
exhaust-gas test is performed at –7 °C on
vehicles with gasoline engines in order to
limit these pollutants. However, this test
only prescribes a limit for carbon mono­
xide; a nationally applicable fleet limit was
introduced for NMHC emissions in 2013.
Test cycles for determining fleet
­consumption
Each vehicle manufacturer is required to
provide data on corporate average fuel
economy. Manufacturers that fail to com-
ply with the target values are required to
pay penalties.
Fuel consumption is determined from
the exhaust-gas emissions produced
during two test cycles – the FTP 75 test
Emission-control legislation 1059
cycle (weighted at 55 %) and the highway
test cycle (weighted at 45 %). An unmea-
sured highway test cycle (Figure 10d)
is conducted once after preconditioning
(­
vehicle allowed to stand with engine
off for 12 hours at 20 to 30 °C). The ex-
haust-gas emissions from a second test
run are then collected. The CO2 emissions
are used to calculate fuel consumption.
Further test cycles
FTP 72 test cycle
The FTP 72 test routine – also known as
the UDDS (Urban Dynamometer Driving
Schedule) – corresponds to the FTP 75
test, but does not include the ht test
component (hot test). This cycle is driven
during the running-loss test for vehicles
with a gasoline engine.
New York City Cycle (NYCC)
This cycle is also an element in the run-
ning-loss test (for vehicles with a gasoline
engine). It simulates low speeds in urban
traffic with frequent stops.
Hybrid cycle
For hybrid vehicles the phase hs (pro-
gression corresponding to phase cs) is
attached to the FTP 75 cycle. This driving
cycle thus corresponds twice to the UDDS
cycle, which is why it is called 2UDDS.
European test cycle
MNEDC
The “Modified New European Driving
Cycle” (MNEDC, Figure 11) has been
in force since Euro 3. Contrary to the
“New European Driving Cycle” (Euro 2),
in which measurement of emissions only
began 40 seconds after the vehicle was
started, the MNEDC also includes a cold-
start phase (including engine starting).
Conditioning
The vehicle is subjected to an ambient
temperature of 20 to 30 °C for a mini-
mum period of six hours. Since 2002 the
starting temperature has been lowered
to –7 °C for the Type VI test (only for ve-
hicles with gasoline engines).
1060 Emission-control and diagnosis legislation
Collection of pollutants
The exhaust gas is collected in bags in
two phases: the Urban Driving Cycle
(UDC) at a top speed of 50 km/h and the
Extra Urban Driving Cycle (EUDC, over-
land drive) at a top speed of 120 km/h.
Assessment
The pollutant mass measured by ana-
lyzing the bag contents is referred to the
distance covered (see Exhaust-gas mea-
suring techniques).
WLTC
Within the framework of the UN ECE a
new test cycle WLTC (Worldwide Light-
duty Test Cycles) was devised by the EU,
Japan, India, and South Korea (among
others) for passenger cars and light com-
mercial vehicles and defined in UN GTR
No. 15 [3]. The WLTC consists of four
phases (“low”, “mid”, “high”, and “extra
high speed”). As an option, however, only
the first three phases can be used. Fur-
ther cycles were developed for special
vehicle segments: for Japanese “kei cars”
a toned-down variant of the WLTC and for
the Indian market two cycles for vehicles
Figure 11: MNEDC for passenger cars
and light commercial vehicles
Cycle distance: 11 km.
Average speed: 33.6 km/h.
Top speed: 120 km/h.
UDC Urban Driving Cycle,
EUDC Extra Urban Driving Cycle.
km/h
UDC
120
100
Driving speed υ
80
60
40
20
0 0
0 200 400 600 800 1,000 1,220 s
Test duration t
with very low power-weight ratios (“low
powered vehicle test cycles”, LPTCs).
The dynamic test cycle derived from
road driving is supplemented by a
strongly revised test procedure (WLTP)
compared with the previous regulation
which is to make possible significantly
more realistic consumption and emission
measurements.
Among other things, the following have
been defined for the WLTP test proce-
dure: a method for shift-point calculation
for manual transmissions, higher vehicle
weights by taking into account payload
and equipment options, improved meth-
ods for determining the coasting para­
meters, stepless adjustment of the chas-
sis dynamometer, and 23 °C as the test
temperature. Aside from the fundamental
test procedure, special requirements for
electrified vehicles such as hybrid and
electric vehicles have also been elabo-
rated.
Figure 12 shows the WLTC by way of
example for class 3b, the class with the
biggest-selling passenger cars and light
commercial vehicles. Compared with the
previous test cycle MNEDC (Figure 11),
Figure 12: WLTC for passenger cars
and light commercial vehicles
SMA0105-7E
SMA0105-1E
150
EUDC km/h
100
Driving speed υ
50
0 600 1,200 s
Test duration t
 Emission-control legislation 1061

the changed dynamics of the WLTC can
be clearly discerned.
RDE test
A new element of the legislation for pas-
senger cars and light commercial vehicles
is the RDE test (“real driving emissions”),
which was developed in the EU and is
being adopted by other countries like
­ that are quite different from those in the
China and India (for gasoline and diesel)
and Korea and Japan (for diesel only). The
aim of the RDE test is to ensure that the
emissions limits are observed not only in
the standardized cycle but also under real
road conditions. For the RDE test a vehi-
cle is equipped with a mobile measure-
ment system (PEMS, Portable Emissions
Measurement System, see Exhaust-gas
measuring techniques) and driven in nor-
mal road traffic. Various boundary condi-
tions apply during this test, e.g., with re-
gard to the proportions of city and intercity
roads and freeway, the proportions of idle,
of average speed, of minimum and maxi-
mum speeds, acceleration, cold start, and
ambient conditions such as temperature
and altitude. Table 3 sets out selected
boundary conditions for the EU. RDE
journeys can be made under conditions
Type I test (23 °C) thanks to the enhanced
temperatures of −7 °C to +35 °C.
PEMS systems are available for CO,
NOx, PN (particulate number), and CO2.
Valid RDE journeys (see Table 3) are
evaluated and if necessary weighted with
software tools. The average emissions
for a PEMS journey are compared with
maximum values which are obtained from
the product of emission limit multiplied
by “Conformity Factor” CF. The CF takes
into account the measuring inaccuracies

Table 3: Boundary conditions for a valid RDE measurement run (selection, not all specified)

Parameter Criterion
Route distribution Urban Interurban Freeway
34 % (29 to 44 %) 33 % (±10 %) 33 % (±10 %)
In each case at least 16 km
Speeds υ ≤ 60 km/h 60 km/h < υ ≤ 90 km/h 90 km/h < υ ≤ 145 km/h
υD = 15 to 40 km/h (up to 160 km/h for max.
(average speed) 3 % of the freeway time)
Total driving time 90 to 120 min
Secondary loads Operation of the air-conditioning system and the other secondary loads
must correspond to their possible use by the load under normal driving
conditions on the road.
Altimeter Moderated: h ≤ 700 m
Extended: 700 m < h ≤ 1,300 m (measured values are divided by 1.6)
Starting and end points may not differ in their height above sea level by
more than 100 m.
Temperature Moderated:
Stage 1: 3 °C ≤ T ≤ 30 °C
Stage 2: 0 °C ≤ T ≤ 30 °C
Extended (measured values are divided by 1.6):
Stage 1: −2 °C ≤ T < 3 °C, or 30 °C < T ≤ 35 °C
Stage 2: −7 °C ≤ T < 0 °C, or 30 °C < T ≤ 35 °C
Vehicle capacity weight Basic capacity weight: driver, front passenger, test equipment.
and test weight Maximum weight from basic capacity weight and artificial capacity
weight: max. 90 % of the sum total of the “weight of passengers” and
the “capacity weight”.
Cold start Cold-start period: until the coolant has reached 70 °C, max. 5 minutes
cumulative combustion-engine operation.
Speed: average = 15 to 40 km/h, max. 60 km/h.
Emissions in the cold-start period are evaluated for the urban part and
the total RDE journey with the normal methods.
1062 Emission-control and diagnosis legislation
which arise from measurements with
PEMS conducted on the road compared
with a measurement conducted on a
chassis dynamometer.
Japanese test cycle
JC08 test cycle
In 2008 a new exhaust-gas test was intro-
duced in the form of the JC08 (Figure 13),
which initially replaced the 11-mode test
as the cold-start test. Since 2011 only
the JC08 has continued to be used (both
as the cold-start and the hot-start tests).
The cold-start test is weighted at 25 %,
the hot-start test at 75 %. The pollutants
are converted based on distance traveled,
i.e., into grams per kilometer (g/km).
WLTC
Since 2018 the WLTC with three phases
(WLTC without the “extra high speed”
part) has replaced the JC08.
Figure 13: Japanese test cycle JC08 for passenger cars and light commercial vehicles
Cycle distance: 8.179 km.
Cycle time: 1,204 s.
Average speed: 24.5 km/h.
Top speed: 81.6 km/h.
km
h
80
60
Driving speed υ
40
20
0
0 200
Emission-control legislation
for heavy commercial
vehicles
US legislation
Vehicle classes
Heavy commercial vehicles are defined in
EPA legislation as vehicles with a gross
vehicle weight over 8,500 lbs or 10,000 lbs
(equivalent to 3.9 t or 4.6 t), depending on
vehicle type (see Figure 4).
In California, all vehicles over 14,000 lbs
(6.35 t) are classified as heavy commer-
cial vehicles (see Figure 1). To a great ex-
tent, Californian legislation is identical to
parts of EPA legislation. However, there is
an additional program for city buses.
Emission limits
The US standards specify limits for diesel
engines for hydrocarbons (HC), carbon
monoxide (CO), nitrogen oxides (NOx),
particulate matter (PM), exhaust-gas
opacity, and in parts for non-methane
­hydrocarbons (NMHC).
The permissible limits are related to
engine power output and specified in
g/bhp-h (gram per brake horsepower
hour) (Figure 14 with values converted to
g/kWh). The emissions are measured on
the engine test bench during the dynamic
test cycle with cold-starting sequence
SMA0099E
400 600 800 1,000 1,200 s
Test duration t

(HDDTC, Heavy-Duty Diesel Transient
Cycle); the exhaust-gas opacity is mea-
sured using the Federal Smoke Test
(FST).
New, more stringent regulations have
applied to vehicles since model year 2004,
with significantly reduced NOx emission
limits. Non-methane hydrocarbons and
nitrogen oxides are grouped together in
one aggregate (NMHC + NOx).
Another very drastic tightening of
emission restrictions came into force in
model year 2007. The NOx and particu-
late emissions are separately limited and
are a tenth of the previous values. These
are not achievable without the use of ex-
haust-gas treatment systems (e.g., NOx
reduction measures with NOx storage
catalytic converter or active SCR system,
particulate filter).
A gradual phase-in took place for NOx
and NMHC emission limits between
model years 2007 and 2010.
From model year 2024 with the intro-
duction of the CARB Low NOx Regulation
(for buses) the nitrogen-oxide limits will be
reduced by 90 % and the previous partic-
ulate-emission limit halved in California.
Massively increased durability require-
ments will additionally apply from model
year 2027.
Figure 14: Comparison of NOx and PM emission limits for diesel fuel commercial vehicles:
EU, USA, Japan [5]
PM g/kWh
0.04
US 2010 with NOx bonus
for 2007 to 2009
0.03
JNLT (10/2005)
0.02
US 2010
US 2007 (10/2008)
0.01
0
0 1
JPNLT (10/2009)
Japan
Post PNLT WHSC/WHTC
(2017) Euro VI (01/2013)
Emission-control legislation 1063
A binding share of sales of zero-­emission
vehicles is prescribed in California for
model years 2024 through 2035 (Ad-
vanced Clean Truck Regulation, ACT).
To help compliance with severe partic-
ulate limits, the maximum permitted sul-
fur content in diesel fuel was reduced to
15 ppm from mid-2006.
For heavy commercial vehicles – in
contrast with cars and light commercial
vehicles – there are no limits specified
for average fleet emissions and fleet con-
sumption.
Consent Decree
In 1998 a legal agreement was reached
between EPA, CARB, and a number
of engine manufacturers. It provides for
sanctions against manufacturers if they
make illegal modifications to engines to
achieve optimized consumption in the
highway c ­ ycle, resulting in higher NOx
emissions. The “Consent Decree” spec-
ifies that the applicable emission limits
must also undercut the steady-state
­European 13-stage test in addition to the
dynamic test cycle. Furthermore, emis-
sions are not allowed to exceed the limits
for model year 2004 by more than 25 %,
regardless of driving mode within a spec-
ified engine-speed/torque range (Not-to-
Exceed Zone).
ETC
Euro IV (10/2005) limits
ESC
Euro V limits
2 3 g/kWh 4
NOx
UMA0093-3E
1064 Emission-control and diagnosis legislation

These additional tests have been man-
datory for all diesel commercial vehicles
since model year 2007. However, emis-
sions in the not-to-exceed zone may be up
to 50 % above the emission limits.
Durability
Compliance with emission limits must be
demonstrated over a defined mileage or a
specific time period in which a distinction
is drawn between three classes, each with
increasing durability requirements:
– Light commercial vehicles of 8,500 lbs
(EPA) and 14,000 lbs (CARB) to
19,500 lbs: 10 years or 110,000 miles.
– Medium-duty commercial vehicles from
19,500 lbs to 33,000 lbs: 10 years or
185,000 miles.
– Heavy commercial vehicles over
33,000 lbs: 10 years or 435,000 miles
and 22,000 h (operating time).
Fuel-consumption requirement
In the USA there are separate require-
ments with regard to greenhouse-gas
emissions (since 2014) and fuel con-
sumption (since 2017).
EU legislation
the new emission limits is a prerequisite
for registering a new vehicle. The legisla-
tor can inspect conformity of production
(COP) by taking engines out of serial pro-
duction and testing them for compliance
with the new emission limits.
For commercial-vehicle diesel engines,
the Euro standards define emission lim-
its for hydrocarbons (HC and NMHC),
carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogen oxides
(NOx), particulates, and exhaust-gas
opacity. The permissible limits are related
to engine power output and specified in
g/kW (Figure 15).
In October 2000 the limit stage Euro III
was binding initially on new engine types
and one year later on all newly manu-
factured engines. Emissions were mea-
sured during the 13-stage European
Steady-State Cycle (ESC, see Test cy-
cles for heavy commercial vehicles), and
exhaust-gas opacity in the supplemen-
tary European Load Response (ELR)
test. Diesel engines which are equipped
with systems for exhaust-gas treatment
Figure 15: EU emission limits for diesel
commercial vehicles [5]

UMA0094-2E
Vehicle classes Values in g/kWh.
In Europe, all vehicles with a permissible Percentage reductions refer to Euro 0.
gross vehicle weight of over 3.5 t, or ca-
pable of transporting more than nine per-
Euro VI
Euro IV
Euro III

Euro V
Euro 0

Euro II
Euro I

sons, are classified as heavy commercial

vehicles (see Figure 6). The emission reg-
ulations (Euro standards) are based on 100 14.4 76% 86%
NOx 97%
the Basic Directive 88/77/EEC [6], which % 50 8.0
is continuously updated and extended. 7.0
5.0
Euro VI requirements are described by 0
3.5 2.0 0.4
the created Directive (EU) 64/2012 [7]. 100 11.2
Supplements to PEMS (Portable Emis- CO 87% 87% 87%
sion Measurement System) and IUC (In % 50
4.5 1.5 1.5 1.5
Use Compliance) can be found for ex- 4.0
2.1
ample in Regulation 2016/1718 EU [8]. 0
The most up-to-date supplement to 100 2.4 81% 81%
Euro VI can be found in Regulation (EU) HC 95%
% 50
2020/1181 [9]. 1.1
0.66 0.13
0.46
0
Emission limits 100 0.70
As for passenger cars and light commer- PM 97% 99%
cial vehicles, new emission-limit levels for % 50 0.36
heavy commercial vehicles are introduced 0.02 0.01
in two stages. New engine designs must 0
0.15 0.10
meet the new emission limits during type 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015
approval. One year later compliance with

(NOx reduction measures with NOx stor-
age catalytic converter or active SCR
system, particulate filter) furthermore al-
ready had to be tested in the dynamic ex-
haust-gas emission test ETC (European
Transient Cycle). These European test
cycles were conducted with the engine
running at normal operating temperature.
Since Euro V a cold-start test has also
been required.
Within the Euro III legislation a distinc-
tion was still made between large engines
(displacement > 0.75 l per cylinder) and
small engines (displacement < 0.75 l per
cylinder and rated speed > 3,000 rpm),
with higher permissible particulate-emis-
sion limits for the smaller units. This dis-
tinction is dropped for new certifications
with the introduction of Euro IV.
In October 2005 the Euro IV emission-­
limit level came into force initially for new
type approvals, and for serial production
one year later. All emission limits were sig-
nificantly lower than specified by Euro III,
but the biggest increase in severity ap-
plied to particulates, for which the limits
were reduced by approximately 80 %. The
following changes also applied after intro-
duction of Euro IV:
– The dynamic exhaust-gas emission
test (ETC) was obligatory – in addition
to ESC and ELR – for all diesel engines.
– The continued functioning of emis-
sions-related components must be
documented for the entire service life
of the vehicle (see Durability).
The Euro V emission-limit level was intro-
duced in October 2008 for all new engine
approvals, and one year later for all new
serial-production vehicles. Only the NOx
emission limits were more severe com-
pared to Euro IV.
In January 2013 the Euro VI emis-
sion-limit level for new engine types came
into force (year later for all newly pro-
duced engines). Compared with Euro V,
the nitrogen-oxide emissions are again
reduced by 80 % and the particulate
emissions by more than 60 % (referred to
ETC limits for Euro V). New harmonized
engine tests have been introduced with
Euro VI. Here, too, there is a stationary
test (WHSC, World Harmonized Station-
ary Cycle), a dynamic test (WHTC, World
Emission-control legislation 1065
Harmonized Transient Cycle), and ran-
dom tests within specified engine-speed/
torque ranges (WNTE, World Harmonized
Not-to-Exceed Zone). Unlike the previous
Euro V regulations, from Euro VI no spe-
cific particulate-matter limits will be given
for the transient test; the limits given will
be identical to those for the stationary test.
Particulate-number limits are additionally
demanded with Euro VI (separately for
stationary and transient tests).
Durability
Compliance with emission limits must be
demonstrated over a defined mileage or a
specific time period in which a distinction
is drawn between three classes, each with
increasing durability requirements:
– Light commercial vehicles up to 3.5 t
gross vehicle weight (GVW): 6 years or
100,000 km (Euro IV and Euro V) and
160,000 km (Euro VI).
– Medium-duty commercial vehicles
smaller than 16 t GVW: 6 years or
200,000 km (Euro IV and Euro V) and
300,000 km (Euro VI).
– Heavy commercial vehicles over 16 t
GVW: 7 years or 500,000 km (Euro IV
and Euro V) and 700,000 km (Euro VI).
Fuel consumption
CO2 emissions from heavy commercial
vehicles with a permissible gross vehicle
weight of more than 16 t are to be reduced
by 15 % by 2025 and by 30 % by 2030.
These targets signify a relative lowering
referred to average determined emissions
from vehicles of a manufacturer with a
reference time period of 07/2019 through
06/2020.
Subcategories are created with regard
to the CO2 output values, depending on
vehicle type (box body or semitrailer truck)
and axle configuration.
CO2 is calculated by means of a simu-
lation tool (VECTO, Vehicle Energy and
Consumption Calculation tool), which
takes into account a large number of pa-
rameters (vehicle application, drivetrain
configuration, etc.).
1066 Emission-control and diagnosis legislation
Very low-emission vehicles
Prior to the introduction of the Euro V
standard it was possible to meet volun-
tarily at an early stage more demanding,
so-called EEV limit values (Enhanced En-
vironmentally-Friendly Vehicle). Voluntary
early meeting of these limits permitted
tax incentives. EEV limit values for HC,
NMHC, CO, and exhaust-gas opacity
were lower than the Euro V limit values.
NOx and particulate limits were equiva-
lent to the Euro V ESC limits. Natural-­gas-
powered city and tourist buses are typical
examples of EEV vehicles.
Japanese legislation
Vehicle classes
In Japan, vehicles with a permissible
gross vehicle weight of over 3.5 t, or ca-
pable of transporting more than ten per-
sons are classified as heavy commercial
vehicles (see Figure 9).
Emission limits
In October 2005 the “New Long Term
Regulation” was introduced and was
valid until the end of 2009. It stipulated
emission limits for hydrocarbons (HC),
nitrogen oxides (NOx), carbon mono­
xide (CO), particulates, and exhaust-gas
opacity. Emission levels were measured
in the newly introduced transient JE05
test cycle (hot test), and exhaust-gas
opacity in the Japanese smoke test. The
smoke test was conducted with three
full-load operating points at 40.6 % and
100 % rated speed. With the introduction
of the “Post New Long Term” emissions
stage (09/09) there are now no smoke-
test specifications.
The “Post New Long-Term Regulation”
came into force in September 2009. The
particulate and NOx limits were reduced
by almost two-thirds compared with 2005
levels.
Since October 2016 the “Post Post New
Long Term” (Post PNLT, PPNLT) has ap-
plied to vehicles > 7.5 t with a renewed
NOx reduction to approximately 60 % of
the previous PNLT requirements. The
introduction of PPNLT will be completed
in October 2018 also with limits for com-
mercial vehicles ≤ 7.5 t. The deadlines at
a glance:
– 10/2016 for heavy commercial vehicles
> 7.5 t gross vehicle weight (GVW, not
including semitrailer trucks),
– 10/2017 for heavy semitrailer trucks
> 7.5 t GVW,
– 10/2018 for vehicles with 3.5 to 7.5 t
GVW.
The harmonized test cycles WHSC and
WHTC are used as the test cycle.
Durability
Compliance with the emission limits must
be demonstrated over a defined mileage
in which a distinction is drawn between
three classes, each with increasing dura-
bility requirements.
– Commercial vehicles smaller than
8 t gross vehicle weight (GVW):
250,000 km.
– Medium-duty commercial vehicles
smaller than 12 t GVW: 450,000 km.
– Heavy commercial vehicles over 12 t
GVW: 650,000 km.
Fuel-consumption requirement
Fuel-consumption limits are prescribed
for trucks and buses with a permissible
gross vehicle weight of over 3.5 t. Two
driving cycles (urban and extra-urban)
are used.
Fuel consumption is determined on the
engine test bench. Because consumption
is very much dependent on the individual
vehicle engine and equipment specifica-
tion (e.g., drivetrain, rolling resistance,
vehicle weight), the calculation is made
using a conversion program. The re-
quirements are for a commercial vehicle
with a gross vehicle weight smaller than
10 t 13.4 l/100 km, for semitrailer trucks
with a gross vehicle weight smaller than
20 t 32.1 l/100 km/l, and for buses with
a gross vehicle weight smaller than 14 t
18.9 l/100 km. The figures apply to 2025.
Regional programs
In addition to the nationwide regulations
for new vehicles, there are also regional
requirements for the overall vehicle popu-
lation aimed at reducing existing emission
levels by replacing or upgrading old diesel
vehicles.
 Emission-control legislation 1067

The “Vehicle NOx Law” has been in force
since 2003 within, among other places,
the greater urban area of Tokyo to vehi-
cles with a gross vehicle weight of over
3,500 kg. It states that 8 to 12 years after
a vehicle is first registered, the NOx and
particulate limits of the relevant preceding
phase of emission limits must be adhered
to. The same principle also applies to par-
ticulate emissions. Here, the regulation
will already apply seven years after first
vehicle registration.
Test cycles for heavy
commercial vehicles
For heavy commercial vehicles, all test
cycles are run on the engine test bench.
In the transient test cycles, the emissions
are collected and evaluated according to
the CVS principle. The untreated emis-
sions are measured in the stationary test
cycles. Emissions are specified in g/kWh.
USA
EPA Engine Dynamometer Schedule
for Heavy-Duty Diesel Engines
(HD FTP Transient)
Since 1987 engines for heavy commer-
cial vehicles have been tested from a cold
start on an engine test bench in a tran-
sient driving cycle (US HDDTC, Heavy
Duty Diesel Transient Cycle). The test
cycle is basically equivalent to operating
an engine under realistic road-traffic con-
ditions (Figure 16). It includes significantly
more idle sections than the WHTC (see
section “Europe”).

Figure 16: US FTP (Heavy-Duty Diesel Transient Cycle, HDDTC) for heavy
commercial-­vehicle engines
Both the nominal engine speed n* and the nominal torque M* are taken from tables specified
by legislation.

100
Engine speed n*

80
60
40
20
0

100
80
Torque M*

60
40
20
0
UMK1632-2E

0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1,000 1,100 s
Time
1068 Emission-control and diagnosis legislation

Federal Smoke Cycle Additional test cycle

An additional test, the Federal Smoke
Cycle, tests exhaust-gas opacity under
dynamic and quasi steady-state condi-
tions. In this test, for different load con-
ditions (torque specifications), a number
of sudden full-load accelerations are run
on an engine test bench to determine ex-
haust-gas opacity.
Since model year 2007 US emission limits
have also had to comply with the Euro-
pean 13-stage test (ESC). Furthermore,
emissions in the not-to-exceed zone (i.e.,
with any driving mode within a specified
engine-speed/torque range) may be max.
50 % above the emission limits.

Figure 17: Steady-state 13-stage test ESC (Europe)

Maximum Load %
Power 100 8% 9% 8%
2 X 8 10
30 %
50% 75 5% 10% 5%
6 4 12
X
50 5% 10% 5%
5 3 13
X
25 5% 10% 5%

A B C 7 11
9
0 15%
25 1 A B C
Idle Speed
50
SMA0043-1E
Idle Speed
75
100 %
X NOx measurement at 3 random operating points

Figure 18: Transient driving cycle ETC (Europe)

Urban traffic Highway Interstate/expressway

100%
Engine speed n

80
60
40
20
Low idle
100%
80
Torque M

60
40
20
0
Trailing throttle
SMA0044E

0 200 400 600 800 1,000 1,200 1,400 1,600 s

 Emission-control legislation 1069

Europe (October 2000). The test procedure speci-

Up to Euro V all European test cycles
started with a hot engine. Since EU VI a
cold-start test and a hot-start test have
been used
European Steady-State Cycle
For vehicles over 3.5 t permitted gross ve-
hicle weight and more than 9 seats, the
13-stage test ESC (European Steady-
State Cycle, Figure 17), has been in force
in Europe since the introduction of Euro III
Figure 19: European Load Response Test
(ELR)
SMA0100E
fies measurements in 13 steady-state op-
erating states calculated from the engine
full-load curve. The emissions measured
at each operating point are weighted
according to certain factors. This also
applies to power output. The test results
are obtained for each pollutant by calcu-
lating the total of the weighted emissions
divided by the total of the weighted power
output.
An additional three NOx tests may be
performed in the test range when certifi-
cation is performed. The NOx emissions
may not vary by a significant degree from
the levels measured at the adjacent op-
erating points. The additional measuring

has the goal of preventing engine modi-

fications performed specially for the test.
%
European Transient Cycle
C As well as Euro III, the ETC (European
Cycle Cycle Cycle Cycle Transient Cycle, Figure 18) was also
1 2 3 4
B introduced to determine gaseous emis-
sions and particulate, and the ELR (Euro-
Load

A pean Load Response, Figure 19) test to

Speed

100 measure exhaust-gas opacity. Under the

Euro III standards, the ETC applies only
50 to commercial vehicles with exhaust-gas
treatment (particulate filter, NOx reduc-
tion measures with NOx storage catalytic
0 converter or active SCR system); starting
0 100 200 300 400 s
with Euro IV (October 2005) it has been
Time obligatory for all vehicles.

Figure 20: World Harmonized Transient Cycle (WHTC)

SMA0101-1E

nref Cold start Hot-start test

80%
60
Speed

40
20
Idle

100%
600 s standstill

80
60
Load

40
20
0
Motoring
180 s 180 s
1070 Emission-control and diagnosis legislation
The test cycle is derived from realistic
road-driving patterns and is subdivided
into three sections: an urban section, an
extra-urban section, and an expressway
section. The length of the test is 30 min-
utes, and the periods of time for which
engine speeds and torque levels must be
maintained are specified in seconds.
World harmonized cycles
Since 2013 world harmonized engine
test cycles have had to be applied with
the introduction of the Euro VI emission-­
limit level. The prescribed limits must be
equally met both in the WHSC (World
Harmonized Stationary Cycle) and in the
WHTC (World Harmonized Transient Cy-
cle, Figure 20). A new feature is a WNTE
zone (World Harmonized Not To Exceed
Zone), as was previously customary only
in the USA. The NTE test is conducted in
any driving mode within a specified en-
gine-speed/torque range.
In relation to the WHTC limits WNTE
emissions may exhibit an increase for NOx
(by 30 %) and particulates (by 60 %).
Figure 21: Comparison of ETC and WHTC test cycles
ETC
WHTC
100
%
75
Load
50
25
0
0 20
Idle
Speed/rated speed
Compared with the current European
tests, the harmonized engine tests are
conceived in the direction of lower loads
with fewer full-load operating points
(Figure 21) and during the transient test
clearly more overrun phases. The asso-
ciated lower exhaust-gas temperatures
pose a challenge to active exhaust-gas
treatment systems, which must be regu-
larly regenerated.
Real Road PEMS Tests
With the Euro VI legislation, in addition to
the certification tests on the engine test
bench, emissions from real road jour-
neys are determined both for type ap-
proval and for checking vehicles already
in operation (ISC, In-Service Conformity).
Commercial vehicles are equipped with a
mobile measuring device (PEMS, Porta-
ble Emissions Measurement System) for
this purpose. The procedure is compara-
ble with the RDE test of passenger cars
and light commercial vehicles.
SMA0104-1E
60 60 80 %

Japan
JE05 test cycle
Pollutant emissions were determined be-
tween October 2005 and October 2016 in
the transient JE05 test cycle (Figure 22).
Similarly to the European transient test
for passenger cars, the JE05 test cycle
for commercial vehicles comprises an
extra-urban part, an urban part, and an
expressway part. The test lasts 1,830 sec-
onds and is started when the engine is
hot.
Unlike the European and US commer-
cial-vehicle tests, the JE05 test specifies
the driving speed instead of the engine
speed and engine torque. Because the
test is conducted on an engine test bench,
the quantities required of engine speed
and torque are determined from the
specified speeds and from the individual
vehicle data using a conversion program.
Required quantities include, among oth-
ers, vehicle weight, tire rolling resistance,
transmission ratios, torque curve, and
maximum engine speed. With the intro-
duction of the Post PNLT limit stages the
harmonized European test cycles WHSC,
WHTC, and WNTE are used for certifica-
tion.
Figure 22: Japanese JE05 test cycle
Average speed: 27.3 km/h.
Urban
Country road cycle
100
km/h
80
Driving speed
60
40
20
0
0 400 800 1,200
Time
Emission-control legislation 1071
Emission legislation for
motorcycles
The USA also led the way in introducing
emission regulations for motorcycles. But
because motorcycles only constitute a
very small percentage of the overall traf-
fic volume and consequently a very small
percentage of the overall emissions and
immissions, these requirements were
for a long time not subject to further de-
velopment compared with those for pas-
senger cars and commercial vehicles. It
was therefore left to the EU and Asian
countries such as Japan to drive forward
requirements for motorcycles and other
L-category vehicles (i.e., two-, three-,
and four-wheel vehicles such as mopeds,
three-wheel delivery vans, minicars, and
quad bikes). The EU regulations were in-
corporated into ECE Regulations, which
are used by countries where two- and
three-wheel vehicles are popular such as
India, China, and other Southeast Asian
countries as the basis for their national
legislation. In these countries motorcy-
cles play an important role as a means
of transport for persons and goods, with
high mileages in both urban and rural
areas. Japan, Taiwan, and Thailand have
introduced their own regulations for mo-
torcycles.
The targets and instruments such as
emission limits, test cycles, test proce-
dures, and monitoring options are basi-
SMA0103-1E
cally the same as those for passenger
cars and light commercial vehicles (see
Emission-control legislation, Overview).
Only the requirements for motorcycles
Freeway
(category L3/L4) with gasoline engines
are considered here.
US legislation
Exhaust-gas emissions
The EPA introduced the first require-
ments for motorcycles in 1978. Califor-
nia had between 1988 and 2003 its own
requirements, which were extended and
tightened from 2004/2008. The EPA in-
troduced only in 2006/2010 new require-
ments which are based on the Californian
requirements from 2004/2008 and carry
1,600 s over to the entire USA.
Motorcycles are subdivided into
on-highway and off-highway, each with
1072 Emission-control and diagnosis legislation
their own legislation, and encompass
two- and three-wheel vehicles. Only
on-highway motorcycles are considered
here. These have since 2004 (CARB) and
since 2006 (EPA) been classified accord-
ing to their piston displacement into four
classes to which the different durability
requirements regarding mileage apply:
– Class I-A: < 50 ccm,
5 years/6,000 km,
– Class I-B: 50 to 169 ccm,
5 years/12,000 km,
– Class II: 170 to 279 ccm,
5 years/18,000 km,
– Class III: ≥ 280 ccm,
5 years/30,000 km.
The exhaust-gas emissions are mea-
sured in the FTP cycle on a chassis dy-
namometer at a temperature of between
20 °C and 30 °C. The emission limits are
correlated with the route ridden during the
test and are expressed in grams per km.
The limits depend on the class and are not
fuel-dependent.
Class I-A / I-B and Class II from 2004
(CARB) and from 2006 (EPA):
– carbon monoxide (CO) 12.0 g/km,
– hydrocarbons (HC) 1.0 g/km.
Class III 2004 − 2007 (CARB) and 2006 −
2009 (EPA Tier 1):
– carbon monoxide (CO) 12.0 g/km,
– hydrocarbons (HC) + nitrogen oxides
(NOx) 1.4 g/km.
Class III from 2008 (CARB) and from
2010 (EPA Tier 2):
– carbon monoxide (CO) 12.0 g/km,
– hydrocarbons (HC) + nitrogen oxides
(NOx) 0.8 g/km.
For Class III the manufacturer can aver-
age the aggregate limit value for HC + NOx
over its sold fleet.
A manufacturer can optionally certify
Class I and Class II vehicles in accor-
dance with the requirements for Class III
as well.
There are no requirements with re-
gard to particulate emissions. Unlike
passenger cars, there are also no further
exhaust-­gas requirements.
Evaporative emissions
CARB introduced requirements for evap-
orative emissions from 1983. Since 2001
all classes have been governed by a limit
value of 2.0 g per test in the SHED test
(cf. Exhaust-gas measuring techniques),
which differs in terms of procedure and
duration from the test for passenger cars.
Here, after the vehicle has undergone
preconditioning including preparation of
the activated carbon canister and with the
tank filled to the defined level of 40 %, the
actual tests start.
1st test: Tank-breathing losses
A linear temperature increase is con-
ducted over 60 minutes in the SHED. Here
a distinction is made between exposed
and non-exposed tank and between fuel-­
liquid and fuel-vapor temperature. The
hydrocarbon emissions given off by the
vehicle are measured.
2nd test: Hot-soak losses
Following the first test the vehicle is
heated in a defined riding cycle and then
the increase in HC concentration is mea-
sured in the SHED over a period of one
hour as the vehicle cools down.
The limit value applies to the sum total of
the HC emissions in the two tests.
The EPA does not demand a SHED
test, but instead focuses on limiting the
permeability for hydrocarbons from fuel
tank and lines by means of permeation
limits. To this end, the vehicle manufac-
turer can either carry out a permeation
test, use EPA-certified materials (defined
permeation factors), or install certified
components from suppliers.
Permeation limits:
– Fuel tank ≤ 1.5 g/m2 and day,
– Fuel line ≤ 15 g/m2 and day.
There are not requirements for consump-
tion measurement or greenhouse-gas
emissions for motorcycles.
CARB is working on an update of the
legislation including OBD for motorcy-
cles and checking a harmonization with
the EU requirements. EPA is following
the development at CARB and within the
 Emission-control legislation 1073

framework of UN ECE and is planning
from Spring 2021 a reassessment of the
motorcycle regulations.
EU/ECE legislation
The basis of the EU emission legislation
for motorcycles and other L-category
vehicles with two, three and four wheels
is the General Type Approval Directive
92/61/EEC [10]. With Directive 97/24/
EC [11] limits and exhaust-gas emissions
were defined on a European level for the
first time and have been constantly up-
dated ever since.
As for passenger cars and light com-
mercial vehicles, so too for L-category
vehicles the EU legislation serves as the
model for the UN Regulations. These fea-
ture all the contents of the EU legislation,
i.e., they reflect the EU stages described
below. New requirements, which are aim-
ing for worldwide harmonization and ac-
ceptance, are elaborated on a UN level.
This applies in particular to the Worldwide
harmonized Motorcycle Testing Cycle
(WMTC) in the Global Technical Regula-
tion GTR No. 2 [12].
The legislative stages for motorcycles are
designated Euro or EU and denote an
ever-further tightening of the exhaust-gas
limits in the Type I test:
– Euro 1 (from 1999),
– Euro 2 (from 2003),
– Euro 3 (from 2006),
– Euro 4 (from 2016),
– Euro 5 (from 2020).
As for passenger cars, a type approval ap-
plies to an EU stage up to the point when
the next stage is prescribed with binding
effect.
The exhaust-gas emissions are mea-
sured in a defined test cycle on a chas-
sis dynamometer in the Type I test at a
temperature of between 20 °C and 30 °C.
The emission limits are correlated with
the route ridden during the test and are
expressed in milligrams per km. They are
in part fuel-dependent, i.e., different for
gasoline and diesel engines.
For motorcycles, the test cycle or its ap-
plicable parts and their weighting are de-
termined, depending on parameters like
piston displacement and top speed. Here,
from Euro 3 the synthetic cycle ECE-R40

Table 4: Emission limits Euro 3 to Euro 5 for Class L3 vehicles with gasoline engines
(PM only for direct-injection gasoline engine)

Stage Classification Cycle/ CO HC NMHC NOx PM

weighting mg/km mg/km mg/km mg/km mg/km
Euro 2 Displacement R40 UDC 5,500 1,200 – 300 –
< 150 cm3
Displacement R40 UDC 5,500 1000 – 300 –
≥ 150 cm3
Euro 3 Displacement R40 UDC 2,000 800 – 150 –
< 150 cm3
Displacement R40 UDC 2,000 300 – 150 –
≥ 150 cm3 + EUDC
υmax < 130 km/h WMTC 2,620 750 – 170 –
υmax ≥ 130 km/h WMTC 2,620 330 – 220 –
Euro 4 υmax < 130 km/h WMTC 1,140 380 – 70 –
30 : 70
υmax ≥ 130 km/h WMTC 1,140 170 – 90 –
25 : 50 :25
Euro 5 υmax < 130 km/h WMTC 1000 100 68 60 4.5
30 : 70
υmax ≥ 130 km/h WMTC 1000 100 68 60 4.5
25 : 50 :25
1074 Emission-control and diagnosis legislation
is superseded by the more realistic dy-
namic cycle WMTC.
The EU emission legislation specifies
for vehicles with gasoline engines limits
for the following pollutants:
– Carbon monoxide (CO),
– Hydrocarbons (HC), from Euro 5 also for
non-methane hydrocarbons (NMHC),
– Nitrogen oxides (NOx),
– Particulate matter (PM) (from Euro 5 for
gasoline direct-injection engines).
The emission limits for motorcycles (L3)
and the test cycles are shown in Table 4.
Nominally the Euro 5 limits match the lim-
its for passenger cars Euro 5b.
To obtain approval for each vehicle
model, the manufacturer must prove that
the emissions of the limited pollutants do
not exceed the respective limits over the
service life prescribed by law (as distance
traveled in kilometers). From Euro 4 for
motorcycles with a top speed of 130 km/h
or more the service life is 35,000 km, for
a top speed of less than 130 km/h it is
20,000 km.
The type-approval test in the Type I test
is conducted with a test vehicle which has
been broken in for 1,000 km (from Euro 5
2,500 km or 3,500 km for top speed ≤ or
> 130 km/h). Since the emission limits ap-
ply to the vehicle at the end of its service
life, the measured values are multiplied by
deterioration factors (from Euro 5 also ad-
ditive factors) and then compared with the
limit values. For this purpose either legally
prescribed deterioration factors are used
or the manufacturer determines these
specially for this vehicle type in the Type V
test (vehicle endurance run or from Euro 5
component aging).
Aside from the primary requirement in
the Type I test, there is as a further ex-
haust-gas requirement the Type II test, in
which the CO emissions are determined
at idle.
As for passenger cars, there is no
Type VI test at –7 °C for motorcycles.
OBD I is introduced with Euro 4, OBD II
in two stages as of Euro 5.
Evaporative emissions
As with passenger cars, motorcycles with
gasoline engines are subject to require-
ments to limit evaporative emissions (see
Exhaust-gas measuring techniques) in
the Type IV test. Evaporative emissions
are determined from Euro 4 in the SHED
(for L3 motorcycles). The procedure and
the duration differ from the test for pas-
senger cars and correspond to the Cali-
fornian SHED test (see Evaporative emis-
sions CARB).
The limit value applies to the sum to-
tal of the HC emissions in the two tests
(tank-breathing and hot-soak losses):
– 2 g/test for Euro 4 (from 1/2016),
– 1.5 g/test for Euro 5 (from 1/2020).
CO2 emissions
For motorcycles, the CO2 emissions must
also be measured in the same test as for
the Type I test and from them the fuel con-
sumption calculated. There are however
no fleet targets as for passenger cars and
light commercial vehicles.
Japanese legislation
The permissible emissions are being re-
duced in stages in Japan (similarly to in
the EU).
The Japan-specific legislation with a
synthetic cycle was replaced from 2012
on the basis of GTR No. 2 by the WMTC,
with limit values equivalent to the previous
stage.
The next WMTC stage applies from
10/2016 to new domestic types and from
9/2017 to all types and to imports.
A new requirement added from 10/2017
is the limitation of evaporative emissions.
The test procedure corresponds to the
Californian SHED test with a limit value of
2.0 g HC per test.
From 10/2017 Japan will also introduce
its own J-OBD I regulation. This is based
on Euro 4-OBD I and on the general OBD
requirements of CARB‑OBD II. J-OBD II
on the basis of Euro 5 is planned.
For motorcycles there are no require-
ments with regard to consumption mea-
surement or to CO2 emissions.

Chinese legislation
China has introduced the EU legisla-
tion in stages. The stage China 3 from
7/2008 will be replaced from 7/2018 by
China 4, which corresponds in terms of
exhaust-gas and evaporative emissions
to Euro 4. Euro 4-OBD I on the other
hand has not been adopted; instead, a
China-specific basic OBD I regulation is
being developed. The next stage China 5
based on Euro 5 is in development and is
to be published in 2022.
Indian legislation
India has introduced the EU legislation in
stages. The stage Bharat IV from 4/2016
corresponds to Euro 3. The stage Euro 4
is to be skipped and from 4/2020 replaced
by Bharat VI, which corresponds in terms
of exhaust-gas and evaporative emissions
to Euro 5. OBD I is to be introduced in
4/2020 and OBD II from 4/2023, if neces-
sary in two stages as in the EU.
Emission-control legislation 1075
________________________________
References
[1] 70/220/EEC: Council Directive (of the
European Communities) of 20 March
1970 on the approximation of laws of the
Member States relating to measures to
be taken against air pollution by gases
from positive-ignition engines of motor
vehicles.
[2] Regulation (EC) No. 715/2007 of the
European Parliament and of the Council
of 20 June 2007 on type approval of motor
vehicles with respect to emissions from
light passenger and commercial vehicles
(Euro 5 and Euro 6) and on access to
­vehicle repair and maintenance informa-
tion.
[3] UN GTR No. 15: Global Technical
Regulation No. 15 on Worldwide harmo-
nized Light vehicles Test Procedure (ECE/
TRANS/180/Add.15).
[4] UN GTR No. 19: Global Technical
Regulation No. 19 – EVAPorative emis-
sion test procedure for the Worldwide
harmonized Light vehicle Test Proce-
dure (WLTP EVAP) (ECE/TRANS/180/
Add.19).
[5] Regulation (EC) No. 595/2009 of the
European Parliament and of the Council
of 18 June 2009 on type approval of mo-
tor vehicles and engines with respect to
emissions from heavy commercial vehi-
cles (Euro VI) and on access to vehicle
repair and maintenance information, and
amending Regulation (EC) No. 715/2007
and Directive 2007/46/EC and repealing
Directives 80/1269/EEC, 2005/55/EC and
2005/78/EC.
[6] 88/77/EEC: Council Directive of 3 De-
cember 1987 on the approximation of the
laws of the Member States relating to
measures to be taken against the emis-
sion of gaseous pollutants from diesel
engines for use in vehicles.
[7] Commission Regulation (EU) No.
64/2012 of 23 January 2012 amending
Regulation (EU) No. 582/2011 imple-
menting and amending Regulation (EC)
No. 95/2009 of the European Parliament
and of the Council with respect to emis-
sions from heavy commercial vehicles
(Euro VI) (Text with EEA relevance).
1076 Emission-control and diagnosis legislation

[8] Commission Regulation (EU) [10] Council Directive 92/61/EEC of

2016/1718 of 20 September 2016 amend- 30 June 1992 relating to the type-approval
ing Regulation (EU) No. 582/2011 with re- of two or three-wheel motor vehicles.
spect to emissions from heavy commer- [11] Directive 97/24/EC of the European
cial vehicles as regards the provisions on Parliament and of the Council of 17 June
testing with portable emission measure- 1997 on certain components and char-
ment systems (PEMS) and the procedure acteristics of two or three-wheel motor
for the testing of the durability of replace- vehicles.
ment pollution control devices (Text with [12] UN GTR No. 2: Measurement pro-
EEA relevance). cedure for two-wheeled motorcycles
[9] Commission Regulation (EU) equipped with a positive or compression
2020/1181 of 7 August 2020 correcting ignition engine with regard to the emission
certain language versions of Directive of gaseous pollutants, CO2 emissions
2007/46/EC of the European Parliament and fuel consumption (ECE/TRANS/180/
and of the Council establishing a frame- Add.2).
work for the approval of motor vehicles [13] K. Reif (Editor): Ottomotor-Manage-
and their trailers, and of systems, com- ment – Bosch Fachinformation Automobil.
ponents and separate technical units 4th Edition, Springer Vieweg, 2014.
intended for such vehicles (Framework
Directive), correcting certain language
versions of Commission Regulation (EU)
No. 582/2011 implementing and amend-
ing Regulation (EC) No 595/2009 of the
European Parliament and of the Council
with respect to emissions from heavy-
duty vehicles (Euro VI) and amending
Annexes I and III to Directive 2007/46/EC
of the European Parliament and of the
Council, and correcting the Danish lan-
guage version of Commission Regulation
(EU) 2017/2400 implementing Regula-
tion (EC) No. 595/2009 of the European
Parliament and of the Council as regards
the determination of the CO2 emissions
and fuel consumption of heavy-duty ve-
hicles and amending Directive 2007/46/
EC of the European Parliament and of the
Council and Commission Regulation (EU)
No. 582/2011 (Text with EEA relevance).
1078 Emission-control and diagnosis legislation

Exhaust-gas measuring techniques

Exhaust-gas testing
Requirements
Exhaust-gas tests on chassis dynamom- Provided for information purposes
eters are used for the type approval to only, no liability assumed for com-
attain General Certification, as well as pleteness!
to develop engine or other components.
They differ from exhaust-gas tests that
are conducted in Germany for example out on engine test benches, for instance
in the course of “general and partial in- for the type approval of heavy commercial
spection for exhaust gas” (§29 StVZO, vehicles.
[1]) using workshop measuring devices.
In addition, exhaust-gas tests are carried

Figure 1: Exhaust-gas test on the chassis dynamometer

1 Roller with dynamometer, 2 Upstream catalytic converter, 3 Underfloor catalytic converter,
4 Filter, 5 Particulate filter, 6 Dilution tunnel, 7 Mix-T, 8 Valve, 9 Dilution-air conditioner,
10 Dilution air, 11 Exhaust-gas/air mixture, 12 Blower, 13 CVS system (Constant Volume Sampling),
14 Dilution-air sample bag, 15 Exhaust-gas sample bag (from Mix-T),
16 Exhaust-gas sample bag (from dilution tunnel), 17 Particulate counter.
① Path for exhaust-gas measurement via Mix-T (without determination of particulate emission),
② Path for exhaust-gas measurement via dilution tunnel (with determination of particulate emission).

10 11 Sampling
bag
9 12

14

1 2 8
1
1
7 13 15
1 1 8
1 4
Exhaust-gas system 2 8 2
Path
2 3
Path
Primary

PMCC

MainCC

16
CC

2
6
Bag analysis
4 4 4
5 5 17

Analysis system Heated FID Analysis system Analysis system

continuously continuously continuously bag analysis/
UWT0101-1E

undiluted diluted diluted/ continuously

undiluted diluted
 Exhaust-gas measuring techniques
The exhaust-gas test on chassis dyna-
mometers is carried out on vehicles. The
methods used are defined to simulate ac-
tual vehicle operation on the road as far
as possible. Measurement on a chassis
dynamometer offers the following advan-
tages here:
– Highly reproducible results, as environ-
mental conditions can be kept constant.
– Good comparability of tests, as a de-
fined speed-time profile can be driven
independently of traffic flow.
– Stationary setup of the measuring tech-
niques required.
Test setup
General setup
The test vehicle is parked on a chassis
dynamometer with its drive wheels on
the rollers (Figure 1). This means that the
forces acting on the vehicle, i.e., the vehi-
cle’s moments of inertia, rolling resistance
and aerodynamic drag, must be simulated
so that the trip on the test bench repro-
duces emissions comparable to those
obtained during an on-road trip. For this
purpose, asynchronous machines, direct-­
current machines, or even electrodynamic
retarders on older test benches, gener-
ate a suitable speed-dependent load
that acts on the rollers for the vehicle to
overcome. More modern machines use
electric flywheel simulation to reproduce
this inertia. Older test benches use real
flywheels of different sizes attached by
rapid couplings to the rollers to simulate
the vehicle weight. A blower mounted in
front of the vehicle provides the necessary
engine cooling.
The test-vehicle exhaust pipe is gen-
erally a gas-tight attachment to the ex-
haust-gas collection system – the dilution
system is described below. A proportion
of the exhaust gas is collected there. At
the end of the driving test, the gas is an-
alyzed for gaseous emission-limit compo-
nents (hydrocarbons, nitrogen oxides and
carbon monoxide) and carbon dioxide (to
determine fuel consumption).
Following the introduction of the emis-
sion-control legislation, particulate emis-
sions were initially limited in diesel-engine
vehicles only. In the last few years, legisla-
tors have also begun to limit these emis-
1079
sions in vehicles with gasoline engines.
To determine particulate emissions, a
“dilution tunnel” is used with a high in-
ternal flow turbulence (Reynolds number
> 40,000). Particulate filters are also used
to calculate particulate emission based
on load.
In addition, and for development pur-
poses, part of the exhaust gas flow can
be extracted continuously from sampling
points in the vehicle’s exhaust-gas system
or dilution system to analyze the pollutant
concentrations.
The test cycle is repeated by a driver
in the vehicle. The required and current
driving speeds are displayed on a driver
control-station monitor. In some cases,
an automated driving system replaces
the driver to increase the reproducibility
of test results.
Test setup for diesel-engine vehicles
To determine the pollutant emissions from
diesel vehicles, it is necessary to make
some changes to the test-bench setup
and to the measuring techniques used.
The complete sample-taking system, in-
cluding the exhaust-gas measuring de-
vice for hydrocarbons, must be heated to
190 °C. This is to prevent condensation
of hydrocarbons which have high boiling
points, and to evaporate the hydrocarbons
that have already condensed in the diesel
exhaust gas.
Dilution system
Purpose of the CVS method
The most commonly used method of col-
lecting the exhaust gases emitted from
an engine is the CVS dilution procedure
(Constant Volume Sampling). It was in-
troduced for the first time in the USA in
1972 for passenger cars and light-duty
commercial vehicles. In the meantime, it
has been improved in several stages. The
CVS method is used in other countries,
such as Japan. It has also been in used
in Europe since 1982. It is therefore an
exhaust-gas collection method that is rec-
ognized throughout the world.
In the CVS method, the exhaust gas is
only analyzed at the end of the test. There-
fore the condensation of water vapor and
the resulting nitrogen-oxide losses and
1080 Emission-control and diagnosis legislation
secondary reactions in the collected ex-
haust gas must be avoided.
Principle of the CVS method
The exhaust gases emitted by the test
vehicle are diluted in the Mix-T or in
­ compounds) in the diluted exhaust gas
the dilution tunnel with ambient air at a
mean ratio of 1:5 to 1:10, and extracted
using a special system of pumps in such
a way that the total volumetric flow com-
posed of exhaust gas and dilution air is
constant. The admixture of dilution air is
therefore dependent on the momentary
exhaust-gas volumetric flow. A represen-
tative sample is continuously extracted
from the diluted exhaust-gas flow and
is collected in one or more exhaust-gas
sample bags. The sampling volumetric
flow is constant during the bag-filling
phase. Therefore, the pollutant concentra-
tion in a sample bag at the end of the filling
process is identical to the mean value of
the concentration in the diluted exhaust
gas during the bag-filling process.
While the exhaust-gas sample bags
are being filled, a sample of the dilution
air is taken and collected in one or more
air sample bags in order to measure the
pollutant concentration in the dilution air.
Filling the sample bags generally cor-
responds to the phases in which the test
cycles are divided (e.g., the ht phase in
the FTP 75 test cycle).
The pollutant mass emitted during the
test is calculated from the total volume of
the diluted exhaust gas and the pollutant
concentrations in the exhaust-gas and
air-sample bags.
Dilution systems
There are two alternative methods for
achieving the constant volumetric flow in
the diluted exhaust gas:
– PDP method (Positive Displacement
Pump): A rotary-piston blower (Roots
blower) is used.
– CFV method (Critical Flow Venturi): A
venturi tube and a standard blower are
used in the critical state.
Advances in the CVS method
Diluting the exhaust gas causes a reduc-
tion in pollutant concentrations as a fac-
tor of the dilution. The concentrations of
some pollutants (especially hydrocarbon
are comparable to the concentrations in
the dilution air (or lower) in certain test
phases, since pollutant emissions have
been significantly reduced in recent years
as emission limits have become more
stringent. This poses a problem from the
measuring-process aspect as the differ-
ence in the two values is crucial for the
pollutant emissions. A further challenge
is presented by the precision of the mea-
suring devices used to analyze the pol-
lutants.
The following measures have been
generally implemented in order to counter
the problems described above:
– Lowering the dilution; this requires
precautions to prevent water from con-
densing, e.g., by heating sections of the
dilution systems, or drying or warming
dilution air on vehicles with a gasoline
engine.
– Reducing and stabilizing pollutant con-
centrations in the dilution air, e.g., by
using activated charcoal filters.
– Optimizing the measuring devices (in-
cluding dilution systems), e.g., by ap-
propriately selecting or preconditioning
the materials used and system setups
or by using modified electronic compo-
nents.
– Optimizing processes, e.g., by applying
special purge procedures.
Bag Mini Diluter
As an alternative to the improvements
in CVS technology described above, a
new type of dilution system was devel-
oped in the USA: the Bag Mini Diluter
(BMD). Here, part of the exhaust gas flow
is diluted at a constant ratio with dried,
heated, pollutant-free zero gas (e.g.,
cleaned air). During the test, part of this
diluted exhaust-gas flow that is propor-
tional to the exhaust-gas volumetric flow
is filled in exhaust-gas sample bags and
analyzed at the end of the driving test.
 Exhaust-gas measuring techniques
In this procedure, dilution is performed
with a pollutant-free zero gas free of pol-
lutants and not with air containing pollut-
ants. This has the purpose of avoiding the
air-sample bag analysis and the subse-
quent differential formation of exhaust-gas
and air-sample bag concentrations. How-
ever, a more complex procedure is re-
quired than that for the CVS method, e.g.,
one requirement is to determine the (un-
diluted) exhaust-gas volumetric flow and
the proportional sample-bag filling.
Table 1: Discontinuous measuring m
­ ethods
Components Procedure
CO, CO2 Non-dispersive infrared
analyzer (NDIR)
Nitrogen oxides Chemiluminescence
(NOx) detector (CLD)
Total hydrocarbon Flame ionization detector
(THC) (FID)
CH4 Combined design of gas
chromatographic proce-
dure and flame ionization
detector (GC FID)
CH3OH, CH2O Combined design of
impinger or cartridge
process and chromato-
graphic analysis tech-
niques; mandatory in the
USA when certain fuels
are used
Particulates 1.) Gravimetric method:
Weighing of particulate
filters before and after
the test drive
2.) Particulate counting
1081
Exhaust-gas measuring
devices
In vehicles with gasoline engines, the
emissions of limited gaseous pollutants
are calculated from the concentrations in
exhaust-gas and air sample bags (CVS
method). Emission-control legislation de-
fines globally standard test procedures for
this purpose (Table 1).
Essentially, the same devices are used
to measure the concentrations of gaseous
pollutants in the exhaust gas of gasoline-­
engine vehicles as for diesel-­engine ve-
hicles. There is however a difference in
how the hydrocarbon emissions (HC)
are determined. This is done not in the
exhaust-gas sample bag, but through
continuous analysis of a partial flow of
diluted exhaust gas and integration of the
measured concentration via the driving
test. The reason for this is that the hy-
drocarbons (which have a high boiling
point) condense in the (non-heated) ex-
haust-gas sample bag.
For development purposes, many test
benches also include the continuous
measurement of pollutant concentrations
in the vehicle exhaust-gas system or the
dilution system. The reason is to capture
data for the components under control, as
well as for other components not subject
to legislation. Other test procedures than
those listed in Table 1 are required for this,
e.g.:
– Paramagnetic method (to measure O2
concentration).
– Cutter FID: a combination of flame
ionization detector and absorber for
non-methane hydrocarbons (to mea-
sure the CH4 concentration).
– Mass spectroscopy (multi-component
analyzer).
– FTIR spectroscopy (Fourier Transform
Infrared, multi-component analyzer).
– IR laser spectroscopy (multi-compo-
nent analyzer).
A description of the main measuring de-
vices is given below.
1082 Emission-control and diagnosis legislation
Test-bench measuring techniques
NDIR analyzer
The NDIR (Non-Dispersive Infrared)
analyzer utilizes the property of certain
gases to absorb infrared radiation within
a narrow wavelength range. Absorbed
radiation is converted to vibration or ro-
tation energy by the absorbing molecules.
In turn, this energy can be measured as
heat. The phenomenon described occurs
in molecules that are formed from atoms
of at least two different elements, e.g.,
CO, CO2, C6H14 or SO2.
There are a number of variants of NDIR
analyzers; the main component parts are
a source of infrared light (Figure 2), an
absorption cell (cuvette) through which
the test gas is routed, a reference cell
generally positioned in parallel (filled with
inert gas, e.g., N2), a rotating chopper,
and a detector. The detector comprises
two chambers connected by a membrane
and containing samples of the gas com-
ponents under analysis. Radiation from
the reference cell is absorbed in one
chamber and radiation from the cuvette in
the other. Radiation from the cuvette may
have already been reduced by absorption
in the test gas. The difference in radiant
energy causes a flow movement that is
measured by a flow sensor or a pressure
sensor. The rotating chopper interrupts
Figure 2: Test chamber acc. to the NDIR
method
1 Gas outlet, 2 Absorption cell,
3 Test-gas inlet, 4 Optical filter,
5 Infrared light source, 6 Infrared radiation,
7 Reference cell, 8 Rotating chopper,
9 Detector.
5
5 2
1
6
2 6
3 3
7
8 4
4
SWT0095Y
9
the infrared radiation in cycles, causing
the flow movement to change direction
and therefore a modulation of the sensor
signal.
NDIR analyzers possess strong cross
sensitivity to water vapor in the test gas
since H2O molecules absorb a wide
range of infrared radiation wavelengths.
This is the reason why NDIR analyzers
are positioned downstream of a test-gas
treatment system (e.g., a gas cooler) to
dry the exhaust gas when they are used
to make measurements on undiluted ex-
haust gas.
Chemiluminescence detector (CLD)
In a reaction chamber, the test gas is
mixed with ozone that is produced from
oxygen in a high-voltage discharge
(­Figure 3). The nitrogen monoxide con-
tent in the test gas oxidizes to nitrogen
dioxide in this environment; some of the
molecules produced are in a state of ex-
citation. When these molecules return to
their basic state, energy is released in the
form of light (chemiluminescence). A de-
tector (e.g., photomultiplier) measures the
emitted luminous energy; under specific
conditions, it is proportional to the nitro-
gen-monoxide concentration (NO) in the
test gas.
Figure 3: Design of chemiluminescence
detector
1 Reaction chamber, 2 Ozone inlet,
3 Test-gas inlet, 4 Gas outlet, 5 Filter,
6 Detector.
1 5 6
SWT0096Y
 Exhaust-gas measuring techniques
It is a requirement to measure the NO and
NO2 molecules as the legislation regular-
izes the emission of the total nitrogen ox-
ides. However, since the test principle of
the chemiluminescence detector is limited
to measuring the NO concentration, the
test gas is channeled through a converter
that reduces the nitrogen dioxide to nitro-
gen monoxide.
Flame Ionization Detector (FID)
The test gas is burned in a hydrogen
flame (Figure 4), where carbon radicals
are formed and some of these radicals
are temporarily ionized. The radicals are
discharged at a collector electrode. The
current produced is measured and is pro-
portional to the number of carbon atoms
in the test gas.
GC FID and Cutter FID
There are two generally common meth-
ods to measure the methane concentra-
tion (CH4) in the test gas. Each method
consists of the combination of a CH4-sep-
arating element and a flame ionization
detector. In these methods, either a
gas-chromatography column (GC FID) or
a heated catalytic converter oxidizing the
non-CH4 hydrocarbons (cutter FID) are
used to separate the methane.
Figure 4: Design of flame ionization
­detector
1 Gas outlet, 2 Collector electrode,
3 Amplifier output, 4 Combustion air,
5 Test-gas inlet, 6 Combustion gas (H2/He),
7 Burner.
1
2 – It is not possible to measure particulate
3 – The process is complex as particulate
4 filters have to be conditioned in order
7
5 – It is not possible to select the chemical
SWT0097Y
6
1083
Unlike the cutter FID, the GC FID can
only determine the CH4 concentration
discontinuously (typical interval between
two measurements: 30 to 45 s).
Paramagnetic detector (PMD)
There are different constructions of para-
magnetic detectors (dependent on the
manufacturer). The constructions are
based on the phenomenon that forces
with paramagnetic properties (such as
oxygen) act on molecules in inhomo-
geneous magnetic fields. These forces
cause the molecules to move. The move-
ment is sensed by a special detector and
is proportional to the concentration of mol-
ecules in the test gas.
Measuring particulate emission
In addition to gaseous pollutants, solid
particulates are also measured, as they
are also pollutants subject to legislation.
Currently, the gravimetric process is the
process specified by law to measure par-
ticulate emissions.
Gravimetric process (particulate-filter
process)
Part of the diluted exhaust gas is sampled
from the dilution tunnel (CVS method)
during the driving test and then channeled
through particulate filters. The particulate
loading is calculated from the weight of
the particulate filters before and after the
test. The particulate emission during the
driving test is then calculated from the
load, the total volume of the diluted ex-
haust gas, and the partial volume chan-
neled through the particulate filters.
The gravimetric process has the follow-
ing disadvantages:
– Relatively high detection limit, only re-
ducible to a limited extent by using com-
plex instrumentation (e.g., to optimize
the tunnel geometry).
emissions continuously.
to minimize environmental influences.
composition of particulates or particu-
late size.
1084 Emission-control and diagnosis legislation
Particulate counting
Because of the disadvantages mentioned
and the ongoing reduction of the limit val-
ues, increasingly the number of emitted
particulates will be limited, as well as the
particulate emission (particulate mass per
distance traveled).
The “Condensation Particulate Counter”
(CPC) has been earmarked as the mea-
suring device for calculating the number
of particulates in compliance with legisla-
tion (particulate counting). In this counter,
a small partial flow of the diluted exhaust
gas (aerosol) is mixed with saturated
butanol vapor. The process of the buta-
nol condensing on the solid particulates
causes the particulates to increase dra-
matically in size so that it is possible to
calculate the number of particulates in
the aerosol with the aid of scattered-light
measurement.
The number of particulates in the di-
luted exhaust gas is continuously calcu-
lated; integration of the measured values
produces the number of particulates over
the driving test.
Determination of particulate size
distribution
There is increasing interest in acquiring
knowledge of the size distribution of par-
ticulates in the exhaust gas of a vehicle.
Examples of devices that supply this infor-
mation are the Scanning Mobility Particle
Sizer (SMPS), Electrical Low Pressure
Impactor (ELPI), and Differential Mobility
Spectrometer (DMS).
Portable emission measuring
devices
A PEMS measuring device (Portable
Emission Measurement Systems) con-
sists primarily of three components to
ensure a complete analysis of the vehicle
emissions.
Gas PEMS
Gas-analysis apparatus is used to mea-
sure the pollutant emissions in the ex-
haust-gas flow. This consists of an NDUV
analyzer (Non-Dispersive Ultraviolet
analyzer) to determine NO and NO2, an
NDIR analyzer (see Test-bench measur-
ing techniques) to measure CO and CO2,
and an O2 sensor.
The NDUV analyzer is a multi-component
UV photometer. The measuring principle
is based here essentially on the charac-
teristic attribute of NO and NO2 to absorb
luminous radiation in a wavelength range
of 200 to 500 nm.
PN PEMS (Particle Number)
Two different measuring principles are
used to measure the particulates. Firstly,
portable “Condensation Particle Count-
ers” (CPCs) are used which through con-
densation of the particulates, for example
with n-butanol vapor make it possible to
detect nanoscale particulates optically
(size range: 23 to 700 nm) (see Test-
bench measuring techniques, particulate
counting).
Secondly, portable “Diffusion Chargers”
(DCs) are used to count particulates. The
measuring principle is based on the elec-
trostatic precipitation of charged partic-
ulates. The particulates are charged by
collisions with ions which are created by
a gas discharge in a charging chamber in
the measuring device. Precipitation of the
charged particulates creates a potential
difference between the metallic precipi-
tation surface and the surrounding area.
It is then possible by means of numerical
methods to use this potential difference
to determine theoretically the particulate
number.
EFM (Exhaust
(Exhaust Flow Meter)
The exhaust-gas volumetric flow is mea-
sured with an exhaust flow meter (EFM).
Here the pressure loss is measured at
a defined flow resistance inside the test
pipe. The differential pressure can then be
used to calculate the volume of exhaust
gas.
The EFM is a test pipe mounted on the
exhaust tailpipe which contains both pres-
sure and temperature sensors. The sam-
pling point for the gas-analysis apparatus
and the sampling point for measuring the
particulate number are also integrated on
this adapter.
 Exhaust-gas measuring techniques
Testing commercial vehicles
In the USA the transient test method has
been prescribed since model year 1987
for testing the emissions from diesel en-
gines in heavy commercial vehicles over
8,500 lbs (EPA) and 14,000 lbs (CARB)
gross vehicle weight. It is performed on dy-
namic engine test benches. In ­Europe this
test method was introduced with Euro III
for engines with active exhaust-gas-treat-
ment (particulate filter or selective cata-
lytic reduction, SCR) and with Euro IV for
all engines in heavy commercial vehicles
over 3.5 t gross vehicle weight. Since
Euro V the test on the engine test bench is
dependent no longer on the gross vehicle
weight but on the reference weight (tare
weight plus 100 kg).
The transient test method also uses
the CVS method. However, the size of
the engines demands a test setup with
a substantially higher throughput in order
to keep to the same dilution ratios as for
cars and light-duty commercial vehicles.
Double dilution (through a secondary
­ tester, Figure 7).
tunnel) approved by legislators helps to
limit the increased complexity of instru-
mentation. The diluted exhaust-gas volu-
metric flow can be set alternatively using
a Roots blower or critical-flow venturi
nozzles.
Another possibility would be to cal-
culate the particulate emissions with a
partial-flow dilution system, provided that
the remaining pollutants in the undiluted
exhaust gas are measured.
With Euro VI (2013) limit values for the
particulate number are binding on all new
model types. The value is 8 ∙ 1011 particles
in steady-state and 6 ∙ 1011 particles per
kWh in transient operation.
1085
Diesel smoke-emission
test
Methods
Separate legislation for testing the smoke
emissions of diesel-engine vehicles came
into force long before the introduction
of legislation for testing gaseous pollut-
ants. All existing smoke tests are coupled
closely with the measuring devices used.
One measure of smoke emission (soot,
particulates) is the smoke number.
Two methods are essentially customary
for measuring this value. In the absorp-
tion method (opacity measurement), the
opacity of the exhaust gas is indicated
by the degree to which it blocks the pas-
sage of a beam of light shining through it
(­Figure 5). In the filter method (measure-
ment of reflected light), a specified quan-
tity of exhaust gas is routed through a filter
element. The degree of filter discoloration
provides an indication of the amount of
soot contained in the exhaust gas (smoke
Measurement of diesel smoke emis-
sions is relevant only if the engine is un-
der load, since it is only when the engine
is operated under load that emission of
significant levels of particulates occur.
Two different test procedures are also
commonly used here. Firstly, measure-
ments under full load, e.g., on a chas-
sis dynamometer, or on a defined test
circuit. Secondly, measurements under
unrestricted acceleration using a defined
throttle burst under the load of the engine
flywheel (­Figure 6).
As the results of testing for diesel
smoke emissions vary according to both
test procedure and type of load, they are
not generally suitable for direct mutual
comparisons.
Opacimeter (absorption method)
Exhaust-gas opacity denotes the atten-
uation of light by absorption, diffraction,
scatter and reflection on the particulates
contained in the exhaust gas.
A transmitter and a photodetector are
mounted on the exhaust pipe for mea-
surement of the full flow with the opacime-
ter. In partial-gas devices, the exhaust gas
is routed through an exhaust-gas sample
probe and heated lines by a pump into the
1086 Emission-control and diagnosis legislation

measuring chamber (Figure 5). Using a by means of a reflex photometer. The

longer measuring chamber improves the degree of paper blackening is divided
device’s detection limit. into numbers ranging between 0 and 10
During the unrestricted acceleration (smoke number according to Bosch,
part of the exhaust gas is delivered to the
measuring chamber. A light beam passes
through the measuring chamber now Figure 6: Gas-pulse measurement with
filled with exhaust gas. The attenuation the opacimeter
of lights is determined photoelectrically
and indicated as opacity T in % or as an
absorption coefficient k in m−1 (Figure 6). m –1
A precisely defined measuring-chamber 20
length and keeping the optical window
2
clear of soot (by air curtains, i.e., tangen-
tial air flows) are basic requirements for
high levels of accuracy and reproducibility
of the measurements. coefficient k
Absorption

Opacity T
During testing under load, measure-
ment and display are a continuous pro- 10
cess. The opacimeter automatically deter- 1
mines the maximum value and calculates
the mean from several gas pulses.

Smoke tester (filter method)

During soot measurement according to
Bosch a defined exhaust-gas volume

UWT0065-2E
0 0
(330 cm3) is drawn by means of a hand 0 1.0 2.0 s
pump through a white filter paper. The Time
blackening of the paper is determined

Figure 5: Opacimeter (absorption method)

1 Sample probe, 2 Light source, 3 Purge air for calibration, 4 Calibrating valve, 5 Heater,
6 Receiver, 7 Measuring chamber, 8 Electronic analyzer and display, 9 Optical window,
10 Measuring-chamber outlet, to pump.
• Exhaust-gas path,
• Purge air flowing past to keep the
optical window clear.
1

4
2 5 5 6

7
8
UWT0064-6Y

10

9 9
 Exhaust-gas measuring techniques 1087

Bosch number), where 0 denotes white, Evaporative-emission test

unused ­paper and 10 denotes fully black-
ened measuring points.
An empirical correlation can be used
to convert to soot-mass concentration in
mg/m3.
The method has been developed over de-
cades. Thus, the hand pump, for example,
was replaced by a continuously operating
pump, the dead volume between the sam-
ple probe and the filter paper is taken into
consideration, and the devices are heated
to prevent condensation (Figure 7).
The filter smoke number (FSN) is de-
fined in ISO 10054 [2]. It corresponds to
the Bosch number for an effective suction
length of 405 mm at a temperature of
298 K and a pressure of 1 bar.
Independently of the combustion pollut-
ants produced in the engine, a gasoline-­
engine vehicle emits additional quantities
of hydrocarbons (HC) through evap-
oration of fuel from the fuel tank and
fuel system. The quantity evaporated is
dependent on the design of the vehicle
and on the fuel temperature. An acti-
vated carbon canister, in which the fuel
vapors are stored, is generally used as
a limiting measure. Since it only has a
limited absorption capacity, the activated
carbon canister must be regenerated at
certain intervals. This is done by purging
with fresh air while driving. The air/fuel
mixture is delivered to the induction tract
and combusted in the engine (see Evap-
orative-emissions control system). Many
countries (e.g., the USA and E ­ urope)
have regulations which limit these evap-
orative losses.

Test methods
Figure 7: Smoke tester (filter method) These evaporative emissions are usu-
1 Filter paper, 2 Gas passage, ally quantified with the aid of a her-
3 Heater, 4 Reflex photometer, metically sealed climate chamber, the
5 Paper transport, 6 Volume measurement, SHED (Sealed Housing for Evaporative
7 Purge-air changeover valves, emissions Determination). For the test,
8 Pump.
HC concentrations are measured at the
beginning and the end of the test with a
flame ionization detector (FID), with the
difference representing the evaporative
losses.
7 The evaporative losses must – depend-
ing on the country – be measured in some
or in all of the operating states below and
8 satisfy emission limits:
– Evaporation that emerges from the fuel
system when the vehicle is parked with
7 the engine warm following operation:
hot-soak test (EU, USA, and others).
– Evaporation emerging from the fuel
6 system as a result of temperature
changes in the course of the day:
tank-breathing test or diurnal test (EU,
USA, and others).
1 – Evaporative emissions while driving,
2 4 5 e.g., due to permeation: running-loss
test (USA only).
UWT0066-3Y

3
1088 Emission-control and diagnosis legislation
Test procedures (examples for
­passenger cars and light commercial
vehicles)
Evaporations are measured in several
phases during a detailed prescribed test
procedure. After the vehicle has under-
gone preconditioning including prepara-
tion of the activated charcoal canister ad
with the tank filled to the defined level of
40 %, testing starts.
First test: Hot-soak losses (hot
(hot soak)
To measure the evaporative emissions in
this test phase, the vehicle is heated up
before the test by running through the test
cycle valid for the country concerned. The
engine is then turned off when the vehicle
is in the climate chamber. The increase in
HC concentration is measured for a pe-
riod of one hour as the vehicle cools.
The vehicle’s windows and trunk lid
must remain open during the test. This al-
lows evaporative losses from the vehicle
interior to be included in measurements.
Second test: Tank-breathing losses
For this test, a typical temperature profile
for a warm summer day (maximum tem-
perature for EU: 35 °C; for EPA: 35.5 °C;
for CARB: 40.6 °C) is simulated inside
the hermetically sealed climate cham-
ber. The hydrocarbons emitted by the
vehicle under these conditions are then
collected.
In the USA, both a 2-day diurnal test
(48 hours; in-use test) and a 3-day diurnal
test (72 hours; certification) must be car-
ried out (the highest value over the course
of the day is used in each case), where the
preconditioning runs in each case slightly
differently. The aim of the 3-day diurnal
test is to check the sufficient capacity of
the activated carbon canister. The 2-day
diurnal test serves to check whether the
activated carbon canister was sufficiently
purged during the preconditioning pre-
ceding this test.
EU legislation from Euro 3 provided for
a 24-hour test. For Euro 6d the test pro-
cedure was revised and a new test cycle
WLTC, a 48-hour diurnal test and further
tests for checking durability were added.
Before the test procedure the activated
carbon canister is to be aged according to
a defined process. For further information,
see Emission-control legislation.
Third test: Running losses
The running-loss test is conducted prior to
the hot-soak test. It is used to assess the
hydrocarbon emissions generated during
vehicle operation in the prescribed test cy-
cles (1 x FTP 72, 2 x NYCC, 1 x FTP 72;
see US test cycles).
Limits
EU legislation
The total of the measurement results from
the first and second days of the 48-hour
diurnal test, the hot-soak tests and a dou-
ble so-called permeation factor measured
in an upstream procedure produces the
evaporative losses. The tank is checked
in a separate test procedure with regard
to permeation emissions. The factor cal-
culated from this has a bearing of the final
calculation of the evaporative emissions.
This total must lie below the demanded
limit value of 2 g of evaporated hydrocar-
bons for all the measurements.
USA
In the USA (legislation according to CARB
LEV II and EPA Tier 2), the evaporative
losses monitored in the running-loss test
must remain below 0.05 g per mile. The
limit values for the hot-soak losses and
the tank-breathing losses are defined for
Tier 2 and LEV II as follows:
– 2-day diurnal + hot soak:
1.2 g (EPA) / 0.65 g (CARB),
– 3-day diurnal + hot soak:
0.95 g (EPA) / 0.50 g (CARB).
These limits must be adhered to over
120,000 miles (EPA) or 150,000 miles
(CARB). They have been introduced in
stages since model year 2004 and have
applied in full since model year 2007
(EPA) and 2006 (CARB). Since model
year 2009, EPA has alternatively permit-
ted certification in accordance with CARB
limits and CARB regulations (harmoniza-
tion).
For PC (Passenger Car) and LDT1
(Light-Duty Truck), which are certified in
accordance with the CARB ZEV legisla-
tion, a lower limit value in the SHED test
 Exhaust-gas measuring techniques
of 0.350 g HC per test and additionally the
“zero evaporative emissions” requirement
apply. Practically no emissions of fuel
(limit value: 0.054 g HC/test) are meant.
To this end, the above-described “3-day
diurnal + hot soak” is carried out in the
“rig test”, i.e., a setup of tank, fuel lines,
activated carbon canister, and engine by
arrangement between CARB and the ve-
hicle manufacturer.
With LEV III (phase-in 2015 through
2022) and Tier 3 (phase-in 2017 through
2022) the requirements for limiting evap-
orative emissions of the ZEV legislation
is extended to all vehicles. The manufac-
turers can either adhere to the above-de-
scribed ZEV limit values or alternatively
the combination of slightly stricter limit
values in the SHED test (for PC/LDT1
0.300 g HC/test) and the new BETP test
(“Bleed Emissions Test Procedure”),
with which the tightness and the purging
performance only of tank, fuel lines and
carbon canister but without engine are
tested (limit value for PC/LDT1 0.020 g
HC per test). The durability requirement
is 150,000 miles.
China
China has adopted up to and including
Stage 5 the EU requirements for limiting
evaporative emissions. With China 6a
(7/2020) China introduced its own legis-
lation, which combines the US procedure
with WLTC elements. The limit value for
the sum total of hot-soak test and 2-day
diurnal test (max. temperature 38 °C,
counting the higher 24-hour HC value) is
0.7 g HC.
1089
Refueling emissions
Refueling test
In the refueling test the HC emissions
when refueling are measured in order
to monitor evaporation of the fuel vapors
displaced during refueling (limit value
Tier 2/3 / LEV II/III: 0.053 g HC per liter of
pumped fuel, corresponds to 0.20 g per
gallon). In the USA, this test applies to
both CARB and EPA.
With China 6a (7/2020) China intro-
duced its own legislation, which combines
the US procedure with WLTC elements.
The limit value is 0.05 g HC/test.
There is to date no refueling test in
­Europe and in Japan.
Spitback test
In the spitback test, the quantity of fuel
splashed out during each refueling oper-
ation is measured. The tank must be re-
fueled to at least 85 % of its total volume
(limit value only for EPA: 1 g HC per test).
The spitback test does not have to be
carried out in the refueling test; instead,
a declaration that the vehicle meets the
requirements of the spitback test is suf-
ficient.
________________________________
References
[1] § 29 StVZO: Untersuchung der Kraft-
fahrzeuge und Anhänger (Inspection of
motor vehicles and trailers).
[2] ISO 10054: Internal combustion com-
pression-ignition engines – Measurement
apparatus for smoke from engines operat-
ing under steady-state conditions – Filter-­
type smokemeter (1998).
1090 Emission-control and diagnosis legislation

Diagnostics
The rise in the sheer amount of electron-
ics in the vehicle, the use of software to
control the vehicle, and the increased
complexity of modern electronic systems
place high demands on the diagnos-
tic concept, monitoring in driving mode
(on-board diagnostics), and workshop
diagnostics.
As emission-control legislation be-
comes more and more stringent and
continuous monitoring in driving mode
is now called for, lawmakers have now
­acknowledged on-board diagnostics as
an aid to monitoring exhaust-gas emis-
sions, and have produced manufactur-
er-independent standardization. This
additional system is termed the OBD
system (On-Board Diagnostic system).
Diagnosis of engine management sys-
tems is thus particularly important.
Monitoring in driving mode
The diagnosis integrated in the control
unit is a basic feature of electronic engine
management systems. Besides a self-
test of the control unit, input and output
signals, and control-unit intercommuni-
cation are monitored.
Monitoring algorithms check input and
output signals during vehicle operation,
and check the entire system and all the
relevant functions for malfunctions and
disturbances. Any errors or faults de-
tected are stored in the control-unit fault
memory. When the vehicle is serviced in
the dealer’s workshop, the stored infor-
mation is exported over a serial interface.
This allows troubleshooting and repairs
to be carried out quickly and reliably
(Figure 1).

Provided for information purposes

only, no liability assumed for com-
pleteness!

Figure 1: Diagnostic system consisting of a diagnostic tester for reading out OBD data and
an external offboard tester for further selective troubleshooting and fault localization

Offboard
tester

OBD interface
Te
st l
ine
s

Diagnosis
tester
UWT0104-2E

OBD
connector

Monitoring input signals
The sensors, connectors and connecting
lines (in the signal path) to the control
unit are monitored by using the evaluated
input signals. With this monitoring strat-
egy, it is possible to detect sensor faults,
short circuits to battery voltage UB and to
ground, and open circuits. The following
procedures are used for this purpose:
– Monitoring sensor supply voltage (if
applicable)
– Examining measures recorded for per-
missible value ranges (e.g. 0.5 to 4.5 V)
– Plausibility check of different physical
signals (e.g. comparison of crankshaft
and camshaft speeds)
– Plausibility check of a physical variable
which is detected redundantly with dif-
ferent sensors (e.g. pedal-travel sen-
sor)
Monitoring output signals
Actuators triggered by a control unit via
output stages are monitored. The mon-
itoring functions detect open circuits
and short circuits in addition to actua-
tor faults. The following procedures are
used for this purpose: On the one hand,
the electric circuit of an output signal is
monitored by the output stage; the circuit
is monitored for short-circuits to battery
voltage UB, to ground, and for open cir-
cuit. On the other hand, impacts on the
system by the actuator are detected di-
rectly or indirectly by a function or plausi-
bility monitor. System actuators, e.g. the
exhaust-gas recirculation valve or the
throttle valve, are monitored indirectly
via closed-control loops (e.g. for continu-
ous control variance), and also partly by
means of position sensors (e.g. position
of throttle valve).
Monitoring of internal ECU functions
Monitoring functions are implemented in
control-unit hardware (e.g. “intelligent”
output-stage modules) and software to
ensure that the control unit functions
correctly at all times. The monitoring
functions check each of the control-unit
components (e.g. microcontroller, flash
EPROM, RAM). Many tests are per-
formed immediately after switch-on. Fur-
ther monitoring functions are repeated at
Diagnostics 1091
regular intervals during normal operation
so that component failure can also be de-
tected during operation. Test procedures
that require a high amount of computing
capacity, or which cannot be performed
during vehicle operation for other rea-
sons, are carried out in the after-run
after “engine off”. This avoids impacting
the other functions. An example of such
a function is the checksum check of the
flash EPROM.
Monitoring ECU communication
Communication with the other control
units normally takes place over the CAN
bus. Control mechanisms for error detec-
tion are incorporated in the CAN proto-
col so that transmission errors can be
detected in the CAN chip already. The
control unit also runs a variety of other
tests. Since the majority of CAN mes-
sages are sent at regular intervals by the
individual control units, the failure of a
CAN controller in a control unit is detect-
able by checking these regular intervals.
If redundant information is stored in the
control unit, all input signals are checked
against this information.
Error/fault handling
Error/fault detection
A signal path (e.g. sensor with plug con-
nector and connecting line) is catego-
rized as totally defective if a fault occurs
over a specific length of time. The system
will continue to use the last valid value
until the defect is categorized. When the
defect is categorized, a standby function
is triggered (e.g. engine-temperature
substitute value T = 90 °C).
A healing or “restored-signal recogni-
tion” feature is available during driving
mode for most errors. The signal path
must be detected as intact for a specific
period of time for this purpose.
Error/fault storage
All faults are stored as a fault code in
the non-volatile area of the data mem-
ory. The fault code also describes the
fault type (e.g. short circuit, open circuit,
plausibility, value range exceeded). Each
fault-code input is accompanied by addi-
tional information, e.g. the operating con-
1092 Emission-control and diagnosis legislation
ditions (freeze frame) at the time of fault
occurrence (e.g. engine speed, engine
temperature).
Limp-home functions
If a fault is detected, limp-home strate-
gies can be triggered in addition to sub-
stitute values (limp home, e.g. engine
output power or speed limited). These
measures are used to maintain driving
safety, prevent consequential damage
(e.g. catalytic converter overheating),
and minimize exhaust-gas emissions.
On-board diagnostics
The engine system and components
must be continuously monitored in driv-
ing mode so that compliance with the
emission limits required by law can be
achieved in everyday use. Therefore,
starting in California, regulations were
adopted to monitor exhaust-gas-related
systems and components. This has
standardized and expanded manufactur-
er-specific on-board diagnostics (OBD)
with respect to the monitoring of emis-
sion-related components and systems
[6].
OBD I (CARB)
In 1988 the first stage of CARB legis-
lation (California Air Resources Board)
came into force in California with OBD I.
This first OBD stage requires the moni-
toring of emission-related electrical com-
ponents (short-circuits, line breaks) and
storage of the faults in the control-unit
fault memory as well as a malfunction
indicator lamp (MIL) that alerts the driver
to detected faults. On-board means (e.g.
flashing code on a diagnosis lamp) must
also be in place to provide a readout of
which component has malfunctioned.
OBD II (CARB)
In 1994 the second stage of diagnosis
legislation was introduced in California
with OBD II. OBD II became mandatory
for diesel-engine cars with effect from
1996. In addition to the scope of OBD I,
system functionality was now monitored
(e.g. plausibility check of sensor signals).
OBD II stipulates that all emission-­
related systems and components must
be monitored if they cause an increase
in toxic exhaust-gas emissions (and
thus the OBD threshold values to be ex-
ceeded) in the event of a malfunction. In
addition, all components used to monitor
emission-related components or which
affect the diagnosis result must be mon-
itored.
Normally, the diagnostic functions for
all components and systems under sur-
veillance must run at least once during
the exhaust-gas test cycle (e.g. FTP 75,
Federal Test Procedure).

The OBD II legislation furthermore
prescribes standardization of the fault-­
memory information and access to the
information (connector, communica-
tion) compliant with ISO 15031 [1] and
the corresponding SAE standards (So-
ciety of Automotive Engineers), e.g.
SAE J1979 [2] and SAE J1939 [3]. This
permits a fault-memory readout over
standardized, commercially available
testers (scan tools).
OBD II expansions
From model year 2004
The law has been revised several times
since OBD II was introduced. The legal
requirements are generally revised by
the authorities every two years (“biennial
review”). Since model year 2004 it has
been necessary, in addition to meeting
tighter and additional functional require-
ments, to check the diagnostic frequency
(from model year 2005) in everyday oper-
ation (In-use Monitor Performance Ratio,
IUMPR).
From model year 2007 through 2013 for
gasoline passenger cars
New requirements for gasoline engines
are essentially the diagnosis of cylin-
der-individual mixture trimming (air/fuel
imbalance), extended requirements with
regard to diagnosis of the cold-start strat-
egy, and permanent error/fault storage,
which also applies to diesel systems.
From model year 2007 through 2013 for
diesel vehicles
For diesel passenger cars and light
commercial vehicles the tightened OBD
emission limits are classified into three
stages (up to model year 2009, model
years 2010 through 2012, from model
year 2013). Significantly extended func-
tions are additionally required for the
­fuel-injection system, the air system, and
the exhaust-gas treatment system. Thus,
for example, the fuel-injection system
is required to monitor the injected fuel
quantity and the injection timing. The air
system is required, for example, to mon-
itor boost-pressure control and addition-
ally the dynamic response of exhaust-gas
recirculation control and boost-pressure
Diagnostics 1093
control. In the exhaust-gas treatment
system, new monitoring functions are
required of the oxidation-type catalytic
converter, the particulate filter, the NOx
storage catalytic converter, and the SCR
dosing system (Selective Catalytic Re-
duction) with SCR catalytic converter.
Thus, to be monitored are, for example,
the regeneration frequency in the partic-
ulate filter and the dosing quantity of the
NOx reducing agent in the SCR dosing
system.
One of the new requirements for diesel
systems since 2009 is that, as well as the
regulators, controlled functions – where
they are relevant to exhaust gas – are to
be monitored as well. Likewise, the mon-
itoring of cold-start functions is subject to
extended requirements.
From model year 2014/2015
Enhanced requirements have already
been formulated for model year 2015
for individual components in diesel pas-
senger cars, light commercial vehicles,
and general commercial vehicles. These
relate to the monitoring of the oxidation
catalytic converter for “feedgas” (ratio
between NO and NO2 to operate the
SCR catalytic converter), to the moni-
toring of the coated particulate filter for
NMHC conversion (non-methane hydro-
carbons), and to the monitoring of the
injection system for quantity-encoded
­injectors. Likewise, in the course of the
revision of the LEV III emission legis-
lation some requirements pertaining
to hybrid vehicles were defined more
precisely with an impact on the IUMPR
calculation.
From model year 2017/2023
The last revision of the OBD legisla-
tion saw among others an adaptation
of the OBD threshold values to the
LEV III emission legislation. The OBD II
threshold value for NOx and NMHC will
be defined from LEV III as a quantity
(NOx + NMHC). The OBD threshold val-
ues as multiples of the emission limit
(multipliers) were adapted in stages to
the new emission categories (ULEV 50,
ULEV 70, SULEV 20). For the first time
an OBD threshold value was also de-
1094 Emission-control and diagnosis legislation

Table 1: OBD threshold values

Gasoline passenger cars Diesel passenger cars Diesel commercial vehicles
CARB – Dependent on the – Dependent on the emission 2010 – 2012:
emission category and category and diagnostic CO: 2.5 × limit
diagnostic requirement ­requirement between 1.5 and NMHC: 2.5 × limit
between 1.5 and 2.5 times the emission limit NOx: +0.4/0.6 g/bhp-hr 2
2.5 times the emission – PM OBD limit: absolute PM: +0.06/0.07 g/bhp-hr
limit 17.5 mg/mile From 2013:
– PM OBD limit: absolute – But from 2007 to 2013 intro- CO: 2.0 × limit
17.5 mg/mile duction of stricter limits in three NMHC: 2.0 × limit
stages: e.g. for particulate filter NOx: +0.2/0.4 g/bhp-hr 2
2007 – 2009 5 x limit PM: +0.02/0.03 g/bhp-hr
2010 – 2012 4 x limit Transition phase for some
from 2013 1.75 x limit monitors up to 2016
EPA see CARB see CARB 2010 – 2012:
(US CO: 2.5 × limit
Federal) CARB certificates with CARB certificates with corre- NMHC: 2.5 × limit
corresponding limits are sponding limits are recognized NOx: +0.6/0.8 g/bhp-hr 2
recognized by EPA by EPA PM: +0.04/0.05 g/bhp-hr
From 2013:
CO: 2.0 × limit
NMHC: 2.0 × limit
NOx: +0.3/0.5 g/bhp-hr 2
PM: +0.04/0.05 g/bhp-hr
EOBD Euro 5 (09/2009): Euro 5 (09/2009): Euro IV (10/2005)/
CO: 1,900 mg/km CO: 1,900 mg/km Euro V (10/2008):
NMHC: 250 mg/km NMHC: 320 mg/km NOx: 7.0 g/kWh
NOx: 300 mg/km NOx: 540 mg/km PM: 0.1 g/kWh
PM: 50 mg/km 1 PM: 50 mg/km NOx control-system moni-
Euro 6-1 (09/2014): Euro 6 interim (09/2009): toring (since 11/2006):
CO: 1,900 mg/km CO: 1,900 mg/km NOx emission limit
NMHC: 170 mg/km NMHC: 320 mg/km + 1.5 g/kWh
NOx: 150 mg/km NOx: 240 mg/km Euro IV: (3.5 + 1.5) g/kWh
PM: 25 mg/km 1 PM: 50 mg/km Euro V: (2.0 + 1.5) g/kWh
Euro 6-2 (09/2017): Euro 6-1 (09/2014): Euro VI-A (2013):
CO: 1,900 mg/km CO: 1,750 mg/km NOx: 1.5 g/kWh
NMHC: 170 mg/km NMHC: 290 mg/km PM: 0.025 g/kWh
NOx: 90 mg/km NOx: 180 mg/km (CI engine)
PM: 12 mg/km 1 PM: 25 mg/km Functional alternative
Euro 6-2 (09/2017): for DPF monitor
CO: 1,750 mg/km NOx control system:
NMHC: 290 mg/km SCR reagent
NOx: 140 mg/km NOx: 0.9 g/kWh
PM: 12 mg/km Euro VI-B (09/2014):
SI engine
Like Euro VI-A, but
threshold value for CO:
7.5 g/kWh
Euro VI-C (2016):
NOx: 1.2 g/kWh
PM: 0.025 g/kWh
(CI engine)
CO: 7.5 g/kWh
(SI engine)
NOx control system:
SCR reagent
NOx: 0.46 g/kWh
1 For gasoline direct injection.
2 g/bhp-hr: grams per “brake horse power” × “hour” (brake horse power corresponds to the
German unit PS).

fined for the particulate matter for gaso-
line engines from model year 2019 at a
fixed value of 17.5 mg per mile. Further
new requirements are, for example, the
output of characteristics for assessing
the use and activation of “Active off-­
cycle technologies” and fuel-consump-
tion-specific quantities from model year
2019, improved monitoring of the crank-
case-breather lines from model year
2023, and specification of a multitude of
diagnostic requirements for components
of hybrid vehicles.
Considerations are being given to ex-
tending the OBD requirements to CO2
monitoring for future legislation.
Scope of application
The previously presented OBD regula-
tions for the CARB and apply to all pas-
senger vehicles with up to 12 seats as
well as small commercial vehicles up to
14,000 lbs (6.35 t).
The current CARB OBD II legislation
for California is at present also in force
in some other US states. Furthermore,
other US states are planning to adopt this
legislation in future.
EPA OBD
Laws enforced by the EPA (Environmen-
tal Protection Agency) have been in force
since 1994 in those US states which
have not adopted the CARB legislation.
The requirements of this diagnosis are
essentially equivalent to the CARB leg-
islation (OBD II). Within the framework of
revising the Tier 3 emission legislation,
from model year 2017 the EPA OBD re-
quirements were adapted to the CARB
OBD requirements. A CARB certificate
is already recognized now by the EPA.
EOBD (European OBD)
On-board diagnostics attuned to Euro-
pean conditions is termed EOBD. EOBD
has applied since January 2000 to pas-
senger cars and light commercial vehi-
cles with gasoline engines. The regula-
tion has been valid for passenger cars
and light commercial vehicles equipped
with diesel engines since 2003, and for
heavy commercial vehicles since 2005
Diagnostics 1095
(see OBD requirements for heavy com-
mercial vehicles).
In 2007 and 2008 new EOBD require-
ments were adopted for gasoline and
diesel passenger cars within the frame-
work of the Euro 5 and Euro 6 emission
and OBD legislation (Euro 5 emission
level from September 2009; Euro 6 from
September 2014).
A general new requirement for gas-
oline and diesel passenger cars is for
checking the diagnostic frequency in
everyday operation (In-Use Performance
Ratio, IUPR) in accordance with the
CARB OBD legislation (In-use Monitor
Performance Ratio, IUMPR) as from
Euro 5+ (September 2011).
EOBD Euro 5 and Euro 5+ requirements
for diesel and gasoline engines
For gasoline engines, the introduction of
Euro 5 as from September 2009 involved
primarily a reduction in the OBD threshold
values. In addition to a particulate-matter
OBD threshold value (for direct-injection
engines only), an NHMC OBD ­threshold
value was introduced (non-methane hy-
drocarbons, instead of the previous HC).
Direct functional OBD requirements re-
sult in the monitoring of the three-way
catalytic converter for NMHC. Since
September 2011 the Euro 5+ level has
applied with unchanged OBD threshold
values compared with Euro 5. A signifi-
cant functional requirement with regard
to EOBD is the additional monitoring of
the three-way catalytic converter for NOx.
For diesel passenger-car engines,
Euro 5 involved a reduction of the OBD
threshold values for particulate matter,
CO and NOx. In addition, there are ex-
tended requirements with regard to the
monitoring of the exhaust-gas recircula-
tion system (cooler) and above all with
regard to the exhaust-gas treatment
components. Here, monitoring of the
SCR DeNOx system (dosing system
and catalytic converter) is subject to
very stringent requirements. Functional
monitoring of the particulate filter is
mandatory, irrespective of the untreated
emissions.
1096 Emission-control and diagnosis legislation
EOBD Euro 6 requirements for diesel
and gasoline vehicles
With Euro 6-1 from September 2014 and
Euro 6-2 from September 2017 a fur-
ther two-stage reduction of some OBD
threshold values has been decided on
(see Table 1). Furthermore, diesel sys-
tems are governed by tighter regulations
for monitoring the oxidation catalytic
converter and the NO x exhaust-gas
treatment system (NOx storage catalytic
converter or SCR catalytic converter with
dosing system).
From September 2017 the NEDC
is being replaced by the WLTC with
Euro 6d-temp for the Type 1 emission
test [8]. Here the emission limits as well
as the OBD threshold values have not
been adapted, but rather adopted un-
changed. With regard to the OBD test
the vehicle manufacturer can choose
whether the die OBD threshold-value
check is carried out on the basis of the
NEDC or the WLTC. This right to choose
will only exist until the end of 2021. From
this point on, the OBD threshold values
will exclusively be checked on the basis
of the WLTC.
China OBD
In December 2016 the MEP (Ministry of
Environmental Protection of the People’s
Republic of China) published a new law
with significantly tightened emission and
OBD requirements will come into force
with regard to emissions in two stages
(CN6a from 07/2020 and CN6b from
07/2023). The OBD requirements from
07/2020 will also apply unchanged to
stage CN6b. While the previous Chinese
legislation was geared very closely to-
wards the European standard, the new
CN6 law combines elements of the EU
and US legislation and some coun-
try-specific new requirements. With re-
gard to OBD, the requirements are based
to the greatest possible extent on US re-
quirements of the legislation from 2013,
where some requirements have been
removed or simplified and others have
been enhanced. While the actual OBD
requirements are geared towards the US
standard, the European OBD threshold
values for Euro 6-2 and the European
test cycle WLTC have on the other hand
been adopted.
Other countries
Some other countries have adopted dif-
ferent stages of the EU or the US OBD
legislation (Russia, South Korea, India,
Brazil, Australia).
OBD system requirements
The engine control unit must use suit-
able measures to monitor all on-board
systems and components whose mal-
function may cause a deterioration in ex-
haust-gas test specifications stipulated
by law. A malfunction must be displayed
to the driver by means of the malfunction
indicator lamp (MIL) if a fault results in an
excess in OBD threshold values.
OBD threshold values
US OBD II (CARB and EPA) prescribes
thresholds that are defined based on
emission limits. Accordingly, there are
different permissible OBD threshold val-
ues for the various exhaust-gas catego-
ries that are applied during vehicle cer-
tification (e.g. LEV, ULEV, SULEV). The
European EOBD regulations are based
on absolute threshold values (Table 1).
Functional requirements
All exhaust-gas-related systems and
components must, within the framework
of On-Board Diagnostics (OBD) required
by law, be monitored for malfunctions
and for exceeded exhaust-gas threshold
values.
Legislation demands the monitoring
of electrical functions (short-circuit, line
breaks), a plausibility check for sensors,
and a function monitoring for actuators.
The pollutant concentration expected
as the result of a component failure (can
be measured in the exhaust-gas cycle)
and the monitoring mode partly required
by law determine the type of diagnos-
tics. A simple functional test (black/white
test) only checks system or component
operability (e.g. swirl control valve opens
or closes). The extensive functional test
provides more detailed information about
system operability and also identifies if
necessary the quantitative influence of

defective components on emissions. As
a result, the limits of adaptation must be
monitored when monitoring adaptive fu-
el-injection functions (e.g. zero delivery
calibration for a diesel engine, λ adapta-
tion for a gasoline engine).
Diagnostic complexity has constantly
increased as emission-control legislation
has evolved.
Malfunction indicator lamp
The malfunction indicator lamp (MIL),
also called the warning lamp, informs
the driver that a component has malfunc-
tioned. When a malfunction is detected,
the CARB and the EPA stipulate that it
must light up no later than after one driv-
ing cycle of its occurrence. In the area
where EOBD applies, it must light up no
later than the third driving schedule after
the fault was detected.
If the malfunction disappears (e.g. a
loose contact), the malfunction remains
entered in the fault memory for 40 trips
(“warm-up cycles”). The malfunction indi-
cator lamp goes out after three fault-free
driving schedules. The malfunction indi-
cator lamp flashes for faults in the gas-
oline system if such a fault could cause
damage to the catalytic converter (e.g.
combustion misses).
Communication with the scan tool
The OBD legislation prescribes stan-
dardization of the fault-memory infor-
mation and access to the information
(connector, communication interface)
compliant with the standard ISO 15031
and the corresponding SAE standards
(e.g. SAE J1979, [2]). This permits a
fault-memory readout over standardized,
commercially available testers (scan
tools).
Only diagnostics via CAN (ISO 15765
[4]) has been permitted for CARB since
2008 and for the EU since 2014.
Vehicle repair
Any workshop can use a scan tool to
read out emission-related fault informa-
tion from the control unit. This permits
even non-franchised workshops to carry
out repairs.
Diagnostics 1097
Manufacturers are obliged to provide the
required tools and information (repair
manuals on the Internet), for a suitable
fee, to ensure that repairs can be carried
out with the correct degree of expertise.
Switch-on conditions
The diagnostic functions are only exe-
cuted if the physical switch-on conditions
are fulfilled. These include, for example,
torque thresholds, engine-temperature
thresholds, and engine-speed thresholds
or limits.
Inhibit conditions
Diagnostic functions and engine func-
tions cannot always operate simultane-
ously. There are inhibit conditions that
prohibit the performance of certain func-
tions. For instance, tank ventilation (with
evaporative-emissions control system)
in the gasoline engine cannot function
while catalytic-converter diagnosis is in
operation. In the diesel engine the hot-
film air-mass meter can only be mon-
itored satisfactorily if the exhaust-gas
recirculation valve is closed.
Temporary interruption of diagnostic
functions
Diagnostic capabilities may only be dis-
abled under certain conditions in order
to prevent false diagnosis. Examples of
such conditions are high elevation (low
air pressure), during engine starting low
ambient temperature, or low battery volt-
age.
Readiness codes
When the fault memory is checked, it
is important to know that the diagnostic
functions have run at least once. This can
be checked by reading out the readiness
codes over the diagnostics interface.
These readiness codes are set for the
most important monitored components
on completion of the relevant diagnoses
required by law.
1098 Emission-control and diagnosis legislation
Diagnostic System Management
The diagnostic capabilities for all com-
ponents and systems checked must
regularly run in driving mode, but also at
least once during the exhaust-gas test
cycle (e.g. FTP 75, NEDC). The Diag-
nostic System Management (DSM) can
dynamically change the sequence for
running the diagnostic functions depend-
ing on the driving condition. The objective
here is to run the diagnostic functions
­frequently in everyday vehicle operation.
Diagnostic System Management con-
sists of the following components:
– Diagnostic Fault Path Management for
storing fault states and associated am-
bient conditions (freeze frames),
– Diagnostic Function Scheduler for co-
ordinating the engine and diagnostic
functions,
– Diagnostic Validator for deciding cen-
trally when faults are detected whether
they are the cause or a consequential
fault. As well as central validation there
are also systems with decentralized
validation, i.e. validation is performed
in the diagnostic function.
Vehicle recall
If vehicles fail to comply with OBD re-
quirements by law, the authorities may
demand the vehicle manufacturer to start
a recall at their own cost.
OBD functions
Overview
Whereas EOBD only contains detailed
monitoring specifications for individual
components, the specific requirements
in CARB OBD II are much more detailed.
The list below shows the current state of
the most significant CARB requirements
(as at 2017) for gasoline-engined and
diesel-engined vehicles. The require-
ments that are also described in detail in
the EOBD legislation are marked by (E).
Gasoline and diesel system:
– Exhaust-gas recirculation system (E),
– Cold-starting emission-control system,
– Crankcase ventilation,
– Combustion misses/misfiring (E, for
gasoline system only),
– Fuel system,
– Variable valve timing,
– Exhaust-gas sensors (λ oxygen sen-
sors (E), NOx sensors (E), particulate
sensor),
– Engine cooling system,
– Air-conditioning system (in the event
of influence on emissions or on OBD)
– Other emission-related components
and systems (E),
– In-use Monitor Performance Ratio
(IUMPR) for checking the frequency of
diagnostic functions in everyday oper-
ation (E),
– Requirements which apply to diesel/
(gasoline) engines must, if the same
technologies are used for the gasoline/
(diesel) engine, be evaluated accord-
ing to the diesel/(gasoline) require-
ments and the diagnostic concept of
the authority/agency presented.
Gasoline system only:
– Secondary-air injection,
– Three-way catalytic converter (E),
heated catalytic converter,
– Tank-leak diagnosis, with (E) at least
electrical testing of the canister-purge
valve,
– Direct ozone-reduction system,
– Cylinder-specific λ irregularity.

Diesel system only:
– Oxidation-type catalytic converter (E),
– SCR DeNOx system (E),
– NOx storage catalytic converter (E),
– Particulate filter (E),
– Fuel-injection system (rail-pressure
control, injected fuel quantity, and in-
jection timing),
– Cooler for exhaust-gas recirculation
(E),
– Boost-pressure control,
– Intercooler.
Other emission-related components
and systems refer to components and
systems not mentioned in this list that,
if they malfunction, may cause the ex-
haust-gas emissions to be increased
­(CARB-OBD II), the OBD threshold val-
ues to be exceeded (CARB OBD II and
EOBD), or the diagnostic system to be
negatively influenced (e.g. by inhibiting
other diagnostic functions). Minimum
values must be maintained with regard
to the frequency of diagnostic functions.
Examples of OBD functions
Catalytic-converter diagnosis
Gasoline system
This diagnostic function monitors the
conversion efficiency of the three-way
catalytic converter. This is measured by
the catalytic converter’s oxygen reten-
tion capability. Monitoring is performed
by observing the signals from the λ ox-
ygen sensors in reaction to a specific
alteration of the setpoint value of the λ
closed-loop control.
Additionally, the NOx storage capacity
(catalytic-converter quality factor) must
be assessed for the NOx storage cata-
lytic converter. For this purpose, the ac-
tual NOx accumulator content resulting
from consumption of the reduction agent
during regeneration of the catalytic con-
verter is compared with an expected
value.
Diesel system
In the diesel system, carbon monoxide
(CO) and unburned hydrocarbons (HC)
are oxidized in the oxidation-type cata-
Diagnostics 1099
lytic converter (pollutant minimization).
Diagnostic functions are used to monitor
the operation of the oxidation-type cata-
lytic converter on the basis of the tem-
perature differential before and after the
catalytic converter (exothermy).
The storage and regeneration capac-
ity of the NOx storage catalytic converter
is monitored. The monitoring functions
run based on loading and regeneration
models, and the measured regeneration
duration. This requires the use of λ or
NOx sensors.
The SCR DeNOx catalytic converter is
monitored using efficiency diagnostics.
NOx sensors located before and after the
catalytic converter are required for this
purpose. The components of the dosing
system and the quantity and dosing of
the reducing agent are monitored sep-
arately.
Tank-leak diagnosis
Gasoline system
Tank-leak diagnosis detects evaporation
from the fuel system that may cause
an increase in HC values, in particular.
EOBD is limited to simply testing the
electrical control circuit of the tank-pres-
sure sensor and the canister-purge valve
(evaporative-emissions control system).
In the USA, on the other hand, it must
be possible to detect leaks in the fuel
system. There are two different methods
of doing this.
The low-pressure method observes
the tank pressure and first tests its oper-
ability by deliberately actuating the tank
ventilation and carbon-canister check
valves. A conclusion can then be drawn
on the leak size using the time curve of
the tank pressure – again by deliberately
actuating the valves.
The overpressure method uses a di-
agnosis module with an integrated elec-
trically powered vane pump that can be
used to pump up the tank system. The
flow from the pump is high when the tank
is hermetically sealed. A conclusion can
then be drawn on leak size by evaluating
the flow from the pump.
1100 Emission-control and diagnosis legislation
Particulate-filter diagnosis
Diesel system
The diesel particulate filter is currently
monitored for the most part for filter
breakage, removal, or blockage. A dif-
ferential-pressure sensor is used to
measure the pressure differential (ex-
haust-gas backpressure downstream
and upstream of the filter) at a specific
volumetric flow. The measured value can
be used to verify whether the filter is de-
fective. An extended function uses load
models to monitor the efficiency of the
particulate filter.
Since model year 2010 the regenera-
tion frequency has also had to be moni-
tored. Since model year 2013 a particu-
late sensor has been used to monitor the
particulate filter in response to tightened
OBD requirements in the USA. The par-
ticulate sensor (from Bosch) operates
according to the “collection principle”,
i.e. the soot collected over a specific dis-
tance driven is evaluated using a model
for a threshold-value filter. If the collected
soot matter, as a function of different pa-
rameters, exceeds a certain threshold,
the particulate filter is detected as faulty.
Combined particulate-filter faults (e.g.
broken and melted filters) can also be
detected with the particulate sensor.
Exhaust-gas recirculation system
­diagnosis
Diesel system
In the exhaust-gas recirculation system
(EGR) the regulator, the exhaust-gas re-
circulation valve, the exhaust-gas cooler,
and other individual components are
monitored.
Functional system monitoring is per-
formed by air-mass regulators and po-
sition controllers. They check for perma-
nent control variances. An excessively
high or low EGR throughflow must be
detected. System response (“slow re-
sponse”) must also be monitored.
The exhaust-gas recirculation valve
itself is monitored for its electrical and
functional operability.
The EGR cooler is monitored by
means of additional temperature mea-
surement after the cooler and with model
Figure 2: Sensor monitoring
1 Sensor curve,
2 Upper threshold for “Signal Range Check”,
3 Upper threshold for “Out of Range Check”,
4 Lower threshold for “Out of Range Check”,
5 Lower threshold for “Signal Range Check”,
6 Plausibility check “Rationality Check”.
2
3
6
Voltage
1
6
4
5
UWT0107-2E
Physical quantity
values. This allows the cooler efficiency
to be calculated.
Comprehensive components
On-board diagnostics requires that all
sensors (e.g. air-mass meter, speed sen-
sor, temperature sensors) and actuators
(e.g. throttle valve, high-pressure pump,
glow plugs) having either an impact on
emissions or are being used to monitor
other components or systems (and con-
sequently may if necessary disable other
diagnoses) have to be monitored.
Sensors monitor the following faults
­(Figure 2):
– Electrical faults, i.e. short-circuits and
line breaks (“Signal Range Check”),
– Range faults (“Out of Range Check”),
i.e. undercutting or exceeding voltage
limits set by the sensors’ physical mea-
surement range,
– Plausibility faults (“Rationality Check”);
these are faults that are inherent in the
components themselves (e.g. drift), or
which may be caused by shunts, for
instance. Monitoring is carried out by
a plausibility check on the sensor sig-
nals, either by using a model or directly
by other sensors.

Actuators must be monitored for electri-
cal faults and – if technically possible –
also for function. Functional monitoring
means that, when a control command
(setpoint value) is given, it is monitored
by observing or measuring (e.g. by a po-
sition sensor) the system reaction (actual
value) in a suitable way by using informa-
tion from the system.
The actuators to be monitored include
all output stages, the throttle valve, the
exhaust-gas recirculation valve, the vari-
able turbine geometry of the exhaust-gas
turbocharger, the swirl flap, the injectors,
the glow plugs (for diesel systems), the
tank-ventilation system (for gasoline
systems), and the active-charcoal check
valve (for gasoline systems).
Diagnostics 1101
OBD requirements for heavy
commercial vehicles
Europe
For commercial vehicles, the first stage
of On-Board Diagnostics was introduced
in the EU (EOBD) together with Euro IV
(10/2005), the second stage together
with Euro V (10/2008). A new OBD reg-
ulation came into force together with
Euro VI in 2013.
Monitoring requirements in Stage 1
– Fuel-injection system: monitoring for
electrical faults and for total failure,
– Engine components: monitoring of
emission-related components for
compliance with the OBD threshold
value,
– Exhaust-gas treatment systems:
­monitoring for serious faults.
Additional requirements in Stage 2
– Exhaust-gas treatment systems:
­monitoring for compliance with the
OBD threshold value.
Additional requirements
Since November 2006 it has been re-
quired to monitor the NOx control sys-
tems for correct operation. The systems
are monitored for their own emission
limits, which are more stringent than the
OBD threshold values.
SCR system
The aim is to ensure that the systems are
supplied with the correct reagent (urea/
water solution, the customary brand
name is AdBlue). The availability of the
reagent must be monitored by way of the
tank fill level. To check the correct quality,
it is necessary to monitor the NOx emis-
sions either with an exhaust-gas sensor
or alternatively via a quality sensor. In the
latter case, it is also necessary to monitor
for correct reagent consumption.
Exhaust-gas recirculation system
The exhaust-gas recirculation system is
monitored for correctly recirculated ex-
haust-gas mass flow and for deactivation
of exhaust-gas recirculation.
1102 Emission-control and diagnosis legislation
NOx storage catalytic converters
Exhaust-gas sensors are used to monitor
NOx emission.
Monitoring of NOx control systems
Faults in NOx control systems must be
permanently stored (i.e. non-erasable)
for 400 days (9,600 hours). Engine
power must be throttled if the NOx OBD
­threshold value is exceeded or if the urea
tank is empty.
Euro VI
The OBD part of the Euro VI regulation
is based on the Global Technical Reg-
ulation (GTR) “World Wide Harmonized
OBD” (WWH OBD). In terms of structure
this WWH OBD GTR corresponds to the
Californian OBD legislation (passenger
cars and commercial vehicles).
WWH OBD leaves opens which mon-
itoring operations are actually selected
in a national regulation (here Euro VI)
which implements WWH OBD.
In addition, emission limits and OBD
threshold values as well as the choice of
test cycles are established by way of the
national regulations.
Special aspects of WWH OBD in-
volve the introduction of new fault stor-
age and new scan-tool communication
(ISO 27145 [5]).
Faults must be classified according
to their severity with regard to emission
deterioration. Emission-related faults
can be distinguished by means of mal-
function-indicator-lamp behavior and
scan-tool communication. The following
different categories are applied:
– A: Emissions above the OBD threshold
value,
– B1: Emissions above or below the
OBD threshold value,
– B2: Emissions below the OBD
­threshold value, but above the emis-
sion limit,
– C: Influence on emissions below the
emission limit.
According to this principle all emis-
sion-related faults are output, even those
which exert a very small influence.
Data for Euro VI
– Drastic reduction of the emission lim-
its and OBD threshold values for NOx
and particulate matter compared with
Euro V,
– Emission limits to be introduced for
NH3 and the number of particulates,
– Use of the harmonized WHSC and
WHTC test cycles,
– The OBD demonstration is performed
with a double WHTC hot start part,
– Introduction of a facility for checking
system conformity with regard to emis-
sions in the field by means of random
measurements with portable emission
measurement systems (PEMS),
– Checking of the diagnostic frequency
of OBD monitoring in everyday opera-
tion (In-Use Monitoring, IUMPR).
Euro VI A
– For new type approvals mandatory
since 31 December 2012,
– Valid up to 31 August 2015,
– Strict OBD threshold values for NOx
and particulate matter (only for en-
gines with auto-ignition). For partic-
ulate-filter monitoring a functional,
non-emission-correlated diagnosis
is possible as an alternative to OBD
threshold-value diagnosis.
Euro VI B
– For new type approval mandatory as
from 1 September 2014,
– Valid up to 31 December 2016,
– Affects only engines with externally
supplied ignition,
– Introduction of an OBD threshold value
for CO.
Euro VI C
– For new type approval mandatory as
from 31 December 2015,
– Changes in respect of Euro VI A
and Euro VI B: Tightened NOx OBD
threshold value and tightening of the
NOx control-system requirements for
SCR reagent quality and consumption
monitoring. Monitoring is performed
with regard to the long-term drift be-
havior of the fuel injectors. Monitoring
of the OBD diagnostic-frequency rate
is mandatory.

Euro VI D and Euro VI E
– For new type approval mandatory as from
1 September 2018 or 1 January 2021,
– No change with regard to OBD.
Required diagnoses from WWH OBD
These diagnoses are compulsory for
particulate filter, SCR catalytic converter,
NOx storage catalytic converter, oxidation
catalytic converter, exhaust-gas recircu-
lation, fuel-injection system, charge-air
pressure system, variable valve control,
cooling system, exhaust-gas sensors,
idle control system, and components.
Required diagnoses outside the
WWH OBD scope
For the particulate filter, the exhaust-gas
recirculation system and the charge-air
pressure control system no exceptions
are permitted in monitoring for specific
diagnoses. The relevant faults must not
be defined as Class C.
Furthermore, as from Euro VI C the
monitoring of possible component-dam-
aging effects of a long-term drift of fuel
injectors is required.
Fundamentally the definition of the
non-emission-correlated “performance
monitors” in WWH OBD has been
changed. In Euro VI these diagnoses
must be demonstrated with emission
correlation for the first certification of an
engine from an engine family.
Gas engines
Gas engines are covered by specific
monitoring requirements with regard to
compliance with the λ setpoint value, to
NOx and CO conversion of the three-way
catalytic converter, and to the λ sensor.
Furthermore, catalytic-converter-dam-
aging combustion-miss detection is re-
quired.
Requirements with regard to NOx control
systems
For SCR systems, monitoring of the re-
agent tank fill level, of the reagent quality,
of reagent consumption, and of dosage
interruption is required.
For exhaust-gas recirculation systems,
monitoring of the exhaust-gas recircula-
tion valve is required.
Diagnostics 1103
Furthermore, all the NOx control systems
must be monitored for system deactiva-
tion by tampering.
Detected faults in the NOx control sys-
tem result in a reduction in stages of
­vehicle drivability. Torque limitation as the
first stage is followed by vehicle-speed
limitation to crawling speed as the sec-
ond stage.
USA
CARB, model year 2007
In California “Engine Manufacturer Di-
agnostics” (EMD) has been called on for
heavy commercial vehicles since model
year 2007. This can be viewed as a pre-
cursor to an OBD regulation. EMD calls
for the monitoring of all components and
of exhaust-gas recirculation.
The requirements are not reflected in a
separate emission limit. Furthermore, no
standardized scan-tool communication is
required.
Model year 2010 and following
With model year 2010 an OBD system
as for passenger-car OBD II was intro-
duced. The technical requirements are at
the same level as the respective require-
ments for passenger cars.
Differences ensue due to the fact that
commercial vehicles are subject to en-
gine certification. All the emission limits
and OBD threshold values apply here
to engine cycles. The absolutely appli-
cable values are scaled with the work
performed in the cycle.
In contrast to passenger-car LEV III, a
new emission regulation (introducing an
NOx and NMHC aggregate limit value)
is not planned for commercial vehicles.
The OBD threshold values for NOx and
NMHC thus remain unchanged, i.e. sep-
arate, for commercial vehicles.
Time frame for introducing OBD
­requirements
Model year 2010
A performance variant of a manufac-
turer’s top-selling engine family must
be equipped with an OBD system. The
other performance variants of this engine
family are covered by a simplified certifi-
cation procedure.
1104 Emission-control and diagnosis legislation

Model year 2013 – Special temperature monitoring for

An engine family of a manufacturer must
be equipped in all the performance vari-
ants with an OBD system. Furthermore,
an OBS system is required in each case
for a performance variant in every engine
family. The other performance variants of
these engine families are covered by a
simplified certification procedure.
Model year 2016
All the engine families of a manufacturer
must have an OBD system in all the per-
formance variants.
Model year 2018
Engines powered by alternative fuels
(e.g. gas) are subject to the OBD re-
quirements.
Japan
Japan has had its own OBD regulation
for commercial vehicles in force since
2004. The requirements are comparable
in terms of content with EMD in California
for model year 2007.
­vanadium catalytic converters,
– Use of a warning and prompt system,
as there is for Euro VI for NOx con-
trol-system requirements, for OBD
faults too. This relates to the OBD
faults for a loss of efficiency of the
most important exhaust-gas treatment
systems DPF (diesel particulate filter),
SCR catalytic converter (selective cat-
alytic reduction), NOx storage catalytic
converter, and three-way catalytic con-
verter,
– Specifically for gas engines: monitor-
ing of crankcase ventilation.
Other countries
Further countries have in the meantime
introduced OBD for commercial vehicles.
These include India, Korea, Australia,
Brazil, and Russia. These countries have
adopted EU regulations in this regard
(Euro IV, Euro V or Euro VI (Korea)).

China
China VI has applied in China since 2020;
this is based on Euro VI and additionally
imposes some further requirements that
also relate to OBD.
– Additional demonstration of the OBD
diagnoses at the vehicle on a special
commercial-vehicle chassis-dyna-
mometer test cycle C-WTVC,
– Monitoring of the injected fuel quan-
tity with regard to the OBD threshold
values,
– Remote transmission of live operat-
ing data which are determined via the
OBD system by way of remote data
transmission to a server,
– So-called “Permanent DTC” fault stor-
age similar to CARB OBD, adapted to
WWH OBD fault storage,

On-board diagnostics for
motorcycles
While there have hitherto been no OBD
requirements for motorcycles in the USA,
OBD is being introduced in three stages
in the EU. Emission stage Euro 4 as
from 2016 saw the introduction of OBD I,
which requires the monitoring of electri-
cal faults for emission-relevant sensors
and actuators. Which diagnoses of elec-
trical faults are required is dependent on
the component. The additional require-
ments such as fault detection and fault
storage, MIL activation, scan-tool com-
munication, etc. conform to the EOBD
passenger-car requirements.
With emission stage Euro 5 as from
2020 OBD I will be extended to include
plausibility checks for sensors and func-
tion checks for actuators. The diagnostic
range is dependent on the component. It
will furthermore be necessary to monitor
for faults which lead to a reduction of the
maximum torque by more than 10 %. At
the same time OBD II requirements as for
EOBD apply as well. Catalytic-converter
diagnosis is excluded. The detection of
Diagnostics 1105
misfires on motorcycles is covered by en-
gine-speed load ranges. The functional
IUPR requirements must be satisfied, but
without prescribed minimum ratios. From
2024 reduced OBD threshold values will
reply; furthermore, catalytic-converter
diagnosis is prescribed and a minimum
ratio of 0.1 will apply to all diagnoses.
The first OBD I stage was carried over
to UN GTR 18, which alternatively also
provides for reduced scopes. The carry-
over of OBD I stage 2 and of OBD II in
Amendment 1 to UN GTR 18 took place
in 2020. India introduced EU OBD I from
4/2020 and is expected to introduce EU
OBD II from 4/2023. Discussions are be-
ing held as to whether the OBD II stage
is, as in the EU, to be split into two stages.
Japan introduced its own OBD I with
a similar scope to EU OBD I in 2016. A
further stage OBD II is to be based on the
previously mentioned UN GTR OBD II.
China has its own simplified variant
of the EU OBD I legislation, valid from
7/2018.
1106 Emission-control and diagnosis legislation
ECU diagnostics and Service
Information System
Function
The function of diagnostics in the work-
shop is to locate quickly and reliably the
smallest replaceable defective unit. In
modern vehicles it is essential to use a
generally PC-based diagnostic tester.
Diagnostics in the workshop utilizes the
results of diagnostics conducting in driving
mode (fault-memory entries), employing
special workshop diagnostic modules in
the vehicle ECU or diagnostic tester and
additional test and measuring equipment.
These diagnostic options are integrated in
the diagnostic tester in prompted trouble­
shooting.
Prompted troubleshooting
The main element of workshop diag-
nostics is the prompted troubleshooting
procedure. The workshop employee is
guided, starting out from the fault pattern
or from the fault-memory entry, through
the relevant diagnostic steps. The choice
and order of the diagnostic steps is dy-
namic and depends on the result of the
previous diagnostic step. The diagnostic
results contain the use of test equipment,
additional sensors or workshop diagnostic
modules.
Symptoms
Faulty vehicle behavior can be either
perceived directly by the driver or docu-
mented by way of a fault-memory entry.
At the beginning of fault diagnosis the
workshop employee must identify the ex-
isting symptom as the starting point for
prompted troubleshooting.
Fault-memory entries
All the faults that occur during driving are
stored in the fault memory together with
defined ambient conditions prevailing at
the time of their occurrence, and can be
read out via an interface protocol. This
protocol is based on one of the established
standards and is generally extended to in-
clude manufacturer-specific components.
The fault memory can also be deleted with
the diagnostic tester.
Additional test equipment and sensors
The diagnostic options in the workshop
are expanded by using additional sensors
(e.g. clamp-on current pickup, clamp-on
pressure pickup) or test equipment (e.g.
Bosch vehicle-system analyzer). In the
event of a fault detected in the workshop,
the equipment is adapted to the vehicle.
The measurement results are generally
evaluated by the diagnostic tester.
Workshop diagnostic modules
All the workshop diagnostic modules can
be used only when a diagnostic tester is
connected and generally only when the
vehicle is stationary. The operating con-
ditions are monitored in the ECU. These
diagnostic modules integrated in the ECU,
after being started by the diagnostic tester,
run completely autarkically in the ECU and
on completion signal the result back to the
diagnostic tester. ECU-based workshop
diagnostic modules differ from simple
actuator tests with acoustic feedback in
that they can place the vehicle to be di-
agnosed in the workshop into as a rule
no-load operating points, excite actuators
depending on the boundary conditions
set, and independently evaluate the re-
sult via sensor values with an evaluator
logic circuit. Examples of such modules
are the high-pressure test as system test
for the diesel injection system (Figure 1)
and the run-up test as component test for
the diesel injectors (Figure 2).
Tester-based diagnostic modules
The functional sequence and evaluation
are executed in the case of tester-based
diagnostic modules in the diagnostic
­tester, where the measurement data used
for evaluation are determined with the aid
of the ECU by sensors in the vehicle or by
additional test sensors.
The performance of the tester-based
diagnostic modules is dependent on the
released interfaces in the engine ECU and
the data transfer between engine ECU and
tester. On the other hand, high flexibility

Figure 1: High-pressure test for the
diesel injection system
Detection of leaks in the high-pressure system
and efficiency of high-pressure generation.
Steps:
Start test − Increase setpoint pressure −
Measure pressure build-up time − Reduce
setpoint pressure − Measure ­pressure
reduction time − Variation of engine speed
and pressure − Measure pressure reduction
time with engine stopped at end of test −
Diagnostic results.
Actual
Pressure
pressure
Setpoint
SWT0118E
pressure
Time
is also possible after series introduction
since new diagnostic modules can also
be used thanks to a simple update of the
tester software. Selective diagnostics is
therefore possible when field problems
occur.
Further contents of fault-finding
­instructions
The fault-finding instructions also include
function descriptions, electrical terminal
diagrams, installation positions for com-
ponents, read-outs of actual values, and
actuator diagnostics.
Diagnostics 1107
Figure 2: Run-up test for the diesel
injectors
Detection of deviations of injected fuel
­quantity of individual injectors.
Steps:
Start test − Cutout of individual cylinder −
Quantity jump − Measure maximum speed −
Repeat with further cylinders − Diagnostic
result.
Cyl. Cyl. Cyl. Cyl.
1 2 3 4
Engine speed
SWT0119-1E
Time
________________________________
References
[1] ISO 15031: Road vehicles – Commu-
nication between vehicle and external
equipment for emissions-related diag-
nostics (2011).
[2] SAE J 1979: E/E Diagnostic Test
Modes (2012).
[3] SAE J 1939: Serial Control and Com-
munications Heavy Duty Vehicle Network
– Top Level Document (2012).
[4] ISO 15765: Road vehicles – Diagnos-
tics over Controller Area Network (2011).
[5] ISO 27145: Road vehicles – Imple-
mentation of World-Wide Harmonized
On-Board Diagnostics (WWH-OBD)
communication requirements (2012).
[6] OBD II regulation, section 1968.2 of
title 13, California Code of Regulations,
different approved OAL versions.
[7] UN/ECE Regulation No. 83, Revi-
sion 5: Uniform provisions concerning
the approval of vehicles with regard to
the emission of pollutants according to
engine fuel requirements.
[8] (WLTP) Regulations (EU) 2017/1151
and 2017/1347.
1108 Chassis systems

Chassis systems
Overview
Definition
Aside from the drive (engine, transmis-
sion) and the vehicle body (body, interior),
the chassis constitutes one of the classic,
property-determining main assemblies of
a motor vehicle. As the link between the
vehicle body and the road, the chassis is
crucial to generating and transmitting the
horizontal and vertical forces between the
tires and the road which make it possible
to propel, brake, and steer a vehicle. With
the exception of the aerodynamic influ-
ences all the external forces and moments
are introduced to the vehicle via the tire
contact area (tire contact patch, footprint).
During driving it is imperative that contact
between the tire and the roadway is not
lost. The higher the driving speed, the more
exacting the demands on the transmission
of force to the tire contact patches. The
chassis and its properties therefore have
a significant impact on a vehicle’s driving
dynamics (handling), ride comfort, and
driving safety.
Because of the many and sometimes
contrary requirements imposed on a ve-
hicle between the conflicting priorities of
driving dynamics, ride comfort, and driving
safety, the design and tuning of a chassis
are subject to high levels of complexity.

Bild 1: Fahrwerkskomponenten eines Elektrofahrzeugs (Bild: BMW iX)

1 Double-wishbone front axle, 2 Two-axle pneumatic suspension with electronically controlled
vibration damper, 3 Actuator-contiguous wheel-slip limitation for two driving engines,
4 Front-axle support stiffening plate, 5 Integrated braking system, 6 Polygonal steering wheel,
7 Rolling-resistance- and acoustics-optimized 22" tires with foam insert,
8 Two-axle pneumatic suspension with electronically controlled vibration damper,
9 Bearing, rear-axle support, 10 Functional five-link rear axle with double acoustic isolation
of drive unit, 11 Actuator-contiguous wheel-slip limitation for two driving engines,
12 Integral active steering, 13 Anti-roll bar with highly pretensioned anti-roll bar mounts,
14 Steering with variable rack geometry and acoustic isolation, 15 17" sport brake,
16 Air Performance wheels, 17 Electric steering-column adjustment,
18 Compression strut connecting rear chassis section with rear-axle support,
19 Anti-roll bar with highly pretensioned anti-roll bar mounts,
20 17" sport brake. 10 12
6 7 8 9 11

1 2 3 4 5
UFG0059-1Y

13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

Chassis design
A chassis in the classic sense is divided
into the following subsystems:
– suspension (body suspension and anti-­
roll bars),
– shock absorbers,
– wheel suspension and suspension link-
age (wheel control),
– wheels with tires,
– steering, and
– brake system.
Figure 1 shows a typical chassis and its
components. The fundamentals and par-
ticulars of the individual subsystems of a
chassis will be addressed in greater detail
in the following.
Functions of the chassis
The fundamental function of the chassis is
to move the car by transmitting the drive
torque to the roadway. The driver influences
the horizontal movement by steering; in the
process, the vehicle should hold its course
and allow the driver to guide the vehicle
safely and comfortably.
The vertical movement of the vehicle is
determined by the course of the road and
road-surface irregularities, which excite
vibrations. The chassis decisively deter-
mines these vibration effects occurring
during driving in the longitudinal, lateral,
and vertical vehicle directions. The function
of the chassis is to reduce these vibrations
in as controlled a manner as possible. It is
essential to avoid as far as possible the
transmission of these vibrations to the ve-
hicle body so as to reduce rolling, yawing,
and pitching and to prevent the bonanza
effect (rocking).
Further functions of the chassis are
to support the vehicle mass and to bear,
guide, steer, and brake the wheels.
A dynamically well tuned chassis en-
ables the driver to drive comfortably and
safely because it implements the driver's
inputs precisely. The driver can safely
keep on top of or avoid entirely critical
situations.
Chassis systems 1109
Lightweight construction
The chassis has a substantial influence on
the weight. But the lightweight construction
of the chassis components also plays a
significant role in that the entire unsprung
mass of the vehicle (wheels, tires, wheel
carriers and wheel bearings, wheel sus-
pension, springs, and shock absorbers) is
located in the chassis. The lower unsprung
mass of the chassis influences vehicle
­handling in a positive way; the lower it is,
the less the wheel vibrations affect the
body. This reduces disturbance variables
and as a result increases driving safety
and ride comfort.
Influence of driver-assistance
­systems
The driver-assistance systems assigned
to active safety (e.g., driving-dynamics
control, lane-keeping support) affect the
stabilization and course holding of the
­vehicle via chassis components. This also
illustrates the significance of the chassis.
Further chassis developments
Where the chassis in the past was char-
acterized above all by mechanical compo-
nents, so today active components (e.g.,
adjustable shock absorbers, rear-axle
steering) and networked chassis systems
are – above all in the passenger-car sec-
tor – state of the art. The interaction of
­active components, sensors for monitor-
ing and calculating the driving condition,
and intelligent control approaches open
up a multitude of new possibilities for
influencing relevant chassis properties
in response to specific situations. These
possibilities for the individual subsystems
will also be addressed in greater detail in
the following.
1110 Chassis systems
Basic principles
Dynamic behavior of a vehicle
Vertical movement
The roads normally used by motor ve-
hicles feature irregularities that cover a
frequency range of up to around 30 Hz
and are the most intensive source of
excitation in the vehicle. The resulting
excitation leads to vertical movements
(vertical accelerations) of the vehicle and
its occupants. The interface between the
road surface and the vehicle is the chassis
system, the main task of which is power
transmission between the environment
and the vehicle body. This means that both
the dynamic characteristics of the vehicle
and driving safety (due to wheel-load fluc-
tuations), as well as ride comfort (due to
body acceleration), are heavily influenced
by the choice of chassis system (Figure 2).
Driving safety increases with decreasing
effective wheel-load fluctuations, comfort
increases with decreasing effective body
accelerations.
Influencing the vehicle dynamics
The dynamics of the vehicle response,
however, are not exclusively determined
by the chassis system components, but
rather are much more a consequence of
the combination of different overall vehi-
cle parameters. As a rule, influencing the
vehicle dynamics with measures on the
chassis system involves high complexity,
in particular because the effects of para­
meter variations have to prevail among the
conflicting priorities of driving safety and
ride comfort.
Driving safety
Driving safety depends decisively on the
contact relationships between the tires
and the road surface, and thus on the
longitudinal and lateral forces that can be
transferred. A fundamental aim in chassis
configuration with regard to driving safety
is therefore always to minimize the dynamic
wheel load fluctuations that cause a re-
duction in the level of force that can be
transferred.
Ride comfort
The ride comfort, on the other hand, de-
pends on the movements and accelera-
tions that affect the occupants (above all
in the vertical direction). Depending on
the area of application, comfort is of great
relevance and should in no way be re-
garded merely as a concomitant of system
development. In the case of professional
drivers in particular, adequately high ride
comfort is to be ensured in order to prevent
long-term damage to health. The effective
value of the body acceleration has proven
to be a good evaluation parameter in this
context.
Figure 2: Conflict diagram – area of
conflict of driving safety and ride comfort
a) Suspension/shock-absorber system,
b) Conflict diagram.
1 Limit of conventional chassis.
kA Spring constant,
cA Dampening rate,
S Sports car, conventionally configured,
passive,
L Sedan, conventionally configured, passive,
AF Active chassis, controlled.
a
Body
cA kA
Wheel
b 1
Comfort increases
Effective body
acceleration
S cA
kA
L
AF
Driving safety increases
UFF0237-1E
Relative effective
wheel-load fluctuations
 Chassis systems 1111

Fundamental requirements for characteristics (drivetrain, wheel, and tire)

a chassis
These core parameters, however, initially
only describe the potentials of a chassis
system to meet the corresponding re-
quirements. The actual dynamics of the
vehicle, the driving safety, and the comfort
also depend decisively on the choice of
road-surface parameters (environment)
and vehicle-internal manipulated variables
(e.g., steering angle and accelerator-pedal
position) set by the driver. The fundamen-
tal requirements for a chassis are shown
in Figure 3 [1]. The chassis as a system
(without electronics) is traditionally divided
into the following subsystems:
– suspension,
– shock absorbers,
– wheel suspension and suspension link-
age (wheel control),
– wheel-and-tire combination,
– steering, and
– brake system.
Alongside the adaptation of the oscillatory
system to the external road excitations,
vehicles also require the influence of inter-
nal sources of excitation on the vibration
to be minimized [2].
Knowledge and a description in the form
of objective variables of the road excitation
that causes vibrations are required in o
­ rder
to examine the vibration characteristics
and to configure the suspension/shock
absorber system of a chassis. (See Dy-
namics of vertical motion.) Whereas minor
irregularities can already be compensated
for by the suspension characteristics of the
tire, an element between the wheels and
body that changes its length is required
to reduce greater body movements. Steel
springs are used most frequently here,
delivering a return force that depends on
the change in length. The result is – taking
account of the wheel and body masses –
a system that can vibrate and requires
other elements for damping.
Measures for vibration minimization
Road excitations lead to axle and body
vibrations in vehicles. These are to be
avoided in the course of minimizing dy-
namic wheel-load fluctuations (driving
safety increases) and body accelerations
(comfort increases). They are reduced

Figure 3: Requirements for a passenger-car chassis

Carry Cushion/damp Steer Brake Drive

Kinematic self-steering Lateral dynamics Elastic

Yawing self-steering
Rolling
characteristics character-
istics

Vertical dynamics Pitching characteristics Longitudinal

dynamics

Body Wheel suspension Wheels

Chassis (conceived acc. to economic efficiency, service life, etc.) Tires
frame

Handling Acoustic characteristics, vibrations Crash properties

Stability Steering Convenience Safety
precision

Driving safety Conditional safety

UFF0215-1E

Active safety Passive safety

1112 Chassis systems

by means of the corresponding compo-
nents for suspension and damping within
the wheel suspension, whereby different
systems for suspension, damping, and
suspension linkage have proven effective
depending on the area of application. The
influence of different suspension/​shock
absorber parameters and their effects
on different frequency ranges is shown
in Table 1.
Body springs and body dampers are
traditionally used for these tasks. Coupled
with kinematics and elastokinematics in
the wheel suspension that are config-
ured in line with requirements, these
are intended to ensure optimal power
transmission between the tires and road
surfaces and, simultaneously, high levels
of comfort. Sportier or comfortable tuning
of the chassis can be achieved with pas-
sive elements, as the conflict diagram in
­Figure 2 shows. This conflict of aims can
be resolved to a large extent by the use of
active or adjustable-characteristic springs
and dampers.
However, with the increasing use of ac-
tuators in the chassis area (e.g., super-
imposed steering, torque vectoring), the
application overhead for optimization of
the subsystems is becoming increasingly
important, this being met among others
by the integration of functions in a Central
Chassis Control unit [3]. One of the most
important reasons for this is the increase
in the product added value due to low-
cost function integration on the software
side (i.e., the complete implementation of
various functions of different subsystems
in the software environment – without be-
ing forced to increase the technological
overhead). In addition, the technical and
economic synergy potentials in overall
vehicle networking can be increased sig-
nificantly and the differentiation potential
of various derivatives can be enhanced
using the same electronic and software
modules. This means that electronics and
software are becoming increasingly im-
portant in the area of chassis systems as
complexity increases.

Table 1: Effects of changes to the suspension/shock-absorber system on the vertical vehicle

vibration characteristics
Design para­ Effects in the low-fre- Effects in the middle Effects in the higher-frequency
meters quency range (body frequency range range (axle natural frequency)
natural frequency)

Spring con- Body natural frequency Body acceleration Body acceleration remains
stant and body acceleration drops slightly on ­virtually constant on reduction
drop radically when ­reduction of the of the spring rigidity
Body data

the spring rigidity is spring rigidity

reduced

Dampening Body acceleration rises Body acceleration Dynamic wheel load fluctuation
rate radically on reduction drops radically on rises radically on reduction of
of the dampening rate reduction of the the dampening rate
dampening rate

Spring con- Natural frequency and amplitude remain Natural frequency and ampli-
stant ­approximately constant tude of the body acceleration
and wheel load fluctuations
drop approximately proportion-
ally to the reduction in vertical
Tire data

wheel spring rigidity

Dampening Natural frequency and amplitude remain Amplitude of the body acceler-
rate ­approximately constant ation and wheel load fluctuation
drops slightly with increasing
damping at consistent wheel
natural frequency
 Chassis systems 1113

Characteristics
Characteristics of the complete Table 2: Quantities and units
­vehicle Quantity Unit
The handling of the complete vehicle α Slip angle degree
comprises essentially the behavior of the β Float angle degree
body – i.e., bodywork, passenger cell, en- δH Steering-wheel angle degree
gine, and transmission – and the suspen- δR Toe angle of right wheel degree
sion linkage (wheel control) – i.e., axle, δL Toe angle of left wheel degree
steering, wheels, and tires. The motion of δA Axle steering angle (steering degree
the body can generally be described as a angle)
rigid body. Even in the bodies of convert- εV Longitudinal inclination at degree
ibles, deviations from rigid-body motion wheel center
only occur above the frequency range of εB Anti-dive angle degree
10 to 15 Hz. εA Anti-lift angle degree
Characteristics of the complete vehi- ψ Yaw angle degree
cle, the wheel suspension, the steering φ Roll angle degree
θ Pitch angle degree
kinematics, and the tire are defined for γ Camber angle degree
the purpose of describing the handling. σ Kingpin angle degree
The basic terms explained in the follow- τ Caster angle degree
ing (for quantities and units, see Table 2) λ Slip –
describe vehicle handling in the important λB Braking‑force distribution –
frequency range up to approx. 8 Hz. Many ωR Angular velocity, wheel s−1
of these characteristics are described in the ax Longitudinal acceleration m/s2
standards ISO 8855 [4] and DIN 70000 [5] ay Lateral acceleration m/s2
(withdrawn standard). az Vertical acceleration m/s2
Figure 4 shows the system of coordi- at Tangential acceleration m/s2
nates to which the layout of the compo- ac Centripetal acceleration m/s2
nents and quantities refer. FS Lateral force N
FU Longitudinal force N
FZ Axle load N
Wheel contact point
h Height of center of gravity m
The wheel center plane and the road hv, hh Longitudinal-pole height, m
plane have an intersection line on which front/rear
the wheel contact point is situated at the hW Height of roll pole m
point where the connection of the wheel is Steering ratio –
l Wheelbase m
MH Steering-wheel torque Nm
Figure 4: System of coordinates MR Tire aligning torque Nm
ψ Yaw angle, φ Roll angle, m Vehicle mass kg
θ Pitch angle, S Center of gravity. nτ Caster offset m
nv Caster offset in wheel center m
nR Tire caster offset m
z rσ Kingpin offset at wheel m
Lift
ψ center
Yaw rst Deflection-force lever arm m
Center plane rl Scrub radius m
of vehicle rdyn Dynamic rolling radius m
s Track width m
S υx Longitudinal velocity m/s
υy Lateral velocity m/s
Roll υz Vertical velocity m/s
φ θ υRAP Speed at wheel contact point m/s
Pitch υRMP Speed at wheel center m/s
x y XA Starting-torque compen- –
UAF0138E

Linear motion Lateral motion sation

XB Braking-torque compensation –
1114 Chassis systems
center to this intersection line intersects
the intersection line vertically.
Wheelbase
The wheelbase l according to ISO 612 [6]
is the distance between the wheel contact
points of the front and rear wheels.
A long wheelbase delivers a lower pitch
behavior and thereby facilitates better ride
comfort. At the same time a long wheelbase
reduces the yaw velocity which is gener-
ated by predefined wheel steering angle. A
short wheelbase on the other hand delivers
better maneuverability (e.g., when parking).
The ratio of wheelbase to vehicle length is
in the range of 0.6 to 0.7. A ratio of approxi-
mately 0.7 is established for small vehicles.
Track width
The track width s is the distance between
the wheel contact points of the wheels on
one axle.
A wide track width generally results in
better handling and greater ride comfort.
The drawbacks of a wider vehicle are the
greater weight and the higher aerodynamic
drag. Typical values for the ratio of track
width to vehicle width are in the range of
0.80 to 0.86.
Center of gravity
The concentrated total mass of the vehicle
is assumed at the center of gravity.
A low center of gravity results in good
handling (typical of sports cars), low rolling
and pitching.
Wheel load
The wheel load is the force acting on the
wheel contact point between the roadway
and the wheel vertically to the roadway.
When the vehicle is stationary on a level
surface the sum total of the wheel loads
is equal to the force due to weight of the
complete vehicle.
Axle-load distribution
The axle-load distribution specifies the ra-
tio of the axle loads on the front and rear
axles with regard to the total vehicle mass.
For traction reasons on vehicles with front-
wheel drive the axle load is 55 % on the
front axle and accordingly 45 % on the rear
axle. For rear-wheel drives the ratio can be
established at 50:50.
Characteristics of the wheel
­suspension
The front wheels have two degrees of free-
dom, i.e., the degree of freedom for com-
pression and rebound and that for steering.
The rear wheels generally only have the
one degree of freedom for compression
and rebound. In the case of vehicles with
four-wheel steering, the rear wheels also
have the degree of freedom for steering.
These degrees of freedom are defined by
the kinematics and elastokinematics of the
axle. Kinematics of the axle is the pure
rigid-body motion of the individual sus-
pension arms, while elastokinematics de-
scribes the behavior of the axle in response
to the effect of forces and moments. The
characteristics of the wheel suspension
are described in the following.
Toe angle
Moving the steering wheel causes the two
front wheels to turn in the same direction.
This alters the toe angle of the right and
left wheels (δR and δL) respectively. The
toe angle is the angle between the vehicle
center plane and the wheel center plane
when projected onto the x-y plane (road-
way, Figure 5). In the case of a positive
turn, i.e., in the counterclockwise direction
about the wheel’s z-axis, the toe angle is
also positive.
The difference between the toe angles
can amount to several degrees with the
steering-wheel angle at maximum. When
viewed geometrically, the toe angle of the
Figure 5: Toe angle and axle steering
angle
1 Vehicle center plane,
2 Wheel center plane.
δL Toe angle of left wheel,
δR Toe angle of right wheel,
δA Axle steering angle (steering angle),
mean toe angle.
δL δA δR
2
1
UAF0123-1Y

inside wheel is greater than the toe angle
of the outside wheel.
On vehicles with four-wheel steering the
rear wheels also move.
Axle steering angle (steering
(steering angle)
The mean toe angle is called the axle
steering angle δA or simply the steering
angle (Figure 5).
Toe-in and toe-out
When the steering wheel is in the straight-
ahead position, the toe angles of the front
wheels are in the dynamically advan-
tageous range of 0.1 to 0.3°. When the
distance of the rim flanges ahead of the
wheel centers is smaller than that of the
rim flanges after the wheel centers, this is
referred to as wheel toe-in (Figure 6). When
the situation is reversed, this is referred to
as wheel toe-out. Both toe-in and toe-out
are given in degrees (°).
The terms toe-in and toe-out are also
used to refer to a single wheel. In this case,
toe-in means that the wheel has a toe angle
in the direction of the vehicle center plane
and toe-out that it has a toe angle against
the direction of the vehicle center plane.
Camber angle
The camber angle γ is the angle between
the vehicle center plane and the wheel
center plane when projected onto the
z-y plane. The camber angle is positive
Figure 6: Toe-in
1 Wheel center.
dv  Distance between rim flanges, front,
dh  Distance between rim flanges, rear,
δL  Toe angle of left wheel,
δR Toe angle of right wheel,
• Direction of travel.
δL δR
dv
1 1
UAF0124-1E
dh
Chassis systems 1115
when the wheels are further away from the
­vehicle center plane at the top than at the
bottom (Figure 7a). On account of the axle
kinematics the camber angle relative to the
body is dependent on the spring travel. The
spring travel is the travel obtained when the
wheel rebounds and compresses relative
to the body referred to the z-direction.
Further to this definition, the camber
­angle relative to the road is likewise import-
ant to vehicle handling. The camber angle
relative to the road is the angle between
the wheel center plane and the normal
line to the road surface (Figure 7b). The
preceding sign is determined according
to the rectangular right-handed system. If
the vehicle center plane is perpendicular
to the road surface, both definitions of the
camber angle are equal in terms of amount.
Otherwise, it is important to observe the
precise definition.
Transverse pole
When the axle is subjected to compression
and rebound the position of the wheels is
determined primarily by the kinematics and
elastokinematics. The wheel moves trans-
versally to the direction of travel about the
transverse pole (Figure 8). The speeds for
Figure 7: Camber
a) Relative to the body,
b) Relative to the road.
1 Vehicle center plane,
2 Wheel center plane,
3 Normal line to the road surface.
γ Camber angle.
a γ
1 2
b γ
3
1 2
UAF0125Y
1116 Chassis systems
example at the wheel contact point (υRAP)
and at the wheel center (υRMP) are during
compression and rebound perpendicular
on the connecting line to the transverse
pole. The position of the transverse pole
changes during compression and rebound.
Roll pole
The vehicle body moves in the case of low
lateral accelerations about the roll pole of
the respective axle (Figure 8). The roll pole
is on the connecting line for wheel contact
point and transverse pole in the vehicle
center plane, i.e., at half the track width
(s/2). The height hW of the roll pole can
thus be easily calculated:
υ Longitudinal pole
hw = ​ ____
RAP,y __ s
υRAP,z ​ ​  2 ​ .
The height of the roll pole is typically below
120 mm. In order in the case of high lateral
accelerations to avoid the support effect –
i.e., the jacking effect – the height of the roll
pole decreases with compression.
The roll pole is also known as the roll
center or instantaneous center.
Roll axis
The connection between the roll pole of the
front axle and the roll pole of the rear axle is
called the roll axis (Figure 9). The center of
gravity of the body is usually above the roll
Figure 8: Transverse pole and roll pole
1 Wheel center, 2 Tire center plane,
3 Vehicle center plane.
Q Transverse pole, W Roll pole.
s Track width, hw Height of roll pole.
υRAP Speed at wheel contact point,
υRMP Speed at wheel center.
2 3
υRMP Q S
1 W
υRAP,y
υRAP υRAP,z hW
UAF0128-3Y
s s
2
axis. Center-of-gravity heights for sedans
range between 550 and 650 mm. This roll
axis applies for lower lateral accelerations.
In the case of higher lateral accelerations,
both the suspension adjustment and the
axle behavior must be taken into consid-
eration. The roll axis is then not inevitably
in the vehicle center plane.
Longitudinal inclination at wheel center
The angle between the direction of motion
of the wheel center during compression
and rebound and the z-axis is called the
longitudinal inclination at wheel center εV
(Figure 10).
When the spring movement of the axle is
projected onto the vehicle center plane, the
wheel moves about the longitudinal pole L
(Figure 10), i.e., the wheel center moves
during compression not along the z-axis but
along the direction which was rotated about
the longitudinal inclination at wheel center
relative to the z-axis. The speeds at the
wheel contact point (υRAP) and the wheel
center (υRMP) are during compression and
rebound perpendicular on the connecting
line to the longitudinal pole. The position
of the longitudinal pole can change during
compression and rebound. The angle be-
tween the connection of the wheel contact
Figure 9: Roll axis
1 Roll axis.
S Center of gravity, WV Roll pole, front axle,
WH Roll pole, rear axle,
s Track width, l Wheelbase,
hWV Roll-pole height, front axle,
hWH Roll-pole height, rear axle.
• Direction of travel.
WH
hWH
1
WV
hWV l
UAF0129-1E
 Chassis systems 1117

point to the longitudinal pole and the road
is called the anti-dive angle εB. The angle
between the connection of the wheel center
to the longitudinal pole and the parallel line
to the road is called the anti-lift angle εA.
The longitudinal pole of the front axle is
behind the front wheels and the longitudinal
pole of the rear axle is in front of the rear
wheels (Figure 11).
Figure 10: Longitudinal pole, anti-lift angle
and anti-dive angle
L Longitudinal pole,
hV Longitudinal-pole height, front,
εV Longitudinal inclination at wheel center,
εBV Anti-dive angle, front,
εAV Anti-lift angle, front,
υRAP Speed at wheel contact point,
υRMP Speed at wheel center.
• Direction of travel.
εV
υRMP εAV
When the vehicle is braked, the front axle
load is increased by ΔFz and the rear axle
load decreased by ΔFz. At the vehicle cen-
ter of gravity the force F = m  a is applied.
With braking-force distribution λB the brak-
ing forces FxV = λB Fx and FxH = (1 − λB ) Fx
are applied to the front and rear axles
respectively. In the optimum case where
the resulting force from FxV and ΔFz on
the front axle passes exactly through the
longitudinal pole and similarly on the rear
axle, no spring movement occurs in the
vehicle's body springs. For the optimum
anti-dive and anti-rise angles:
h​ ,
​ 1 ​  ​ __
tan(εBV,opt) = __
λB l
tan(εBH,opt) = _____ ​  h ​ ,
​  1 ​  __
(1−λB) l
with wheelbase l and height of center of
gravity h.
Similarly, for the case of traction, an op-
timum anti-lift angle can be calculated in
each case on the front and rear axles. In
this case λA specifies the proportion of trac-
tive force on the front axle. For the optimum
L anti-lift angle on the front and rear axles:
UAF0130-2E

υRAP,x tan(εAV,opt) = __ h​ ,
​ 1 ​  ​ __
hv λA l
υRAP υRAP,z
εBV
tan(εAH,opt) = _____ ​  h ​
​  1 ​  __ .
(1−λA) l

Figure 11: Longitudinal pole and pitch pole

S Center of gravity, N Pitch pole, L V Longitudinal pole, front axle, L H Longitudinal pole, rear axle,
m Vehicle mass, a Acceleration, FxV Braking force on front axle, FxH Braking force on rear axle,
ΔFz Axle-load change, l Wheelbase, h Height of center of gravity, hV Longitudinal-pole height, front,
hH Longitudinal-pole height, rear, εBV Anti-dive angle, front, εBH Anti-dive angle, rear.
• Direction of travel.

S
F= ma
N

LV
LH

εBV,opt hV h hH ε
BH,opt
εBV εBH
UAF0131-4Y

ΔFz ΔFz
l
FxV FxH
1118 Chassis systems

Pitch pole the front axle, the toe angle obtained at

The two connecting lines between the the wheels is significantly smaller than
wheel contact points and the longitu- the steering-wheel angle. In such a case
dinal pole intersect at the pitch pole N where there are no acting forces or torques
(­Figure 11). The pitch pole N is always and where the vehicle is barely loaded, the
below the height of the center of gravity steering ratio is is governed by the following
so that an expected vehicle pitching motion equation:
towards the front can always be effected
2δ
when braking. is = ​ _______
H
​.
(δL + δR)
Pitch axis Steering axis (kingpin
(kingpin axis)
The pitch axis passes through the pitch During steering the wheels move not about
pole and is perpendicular to the vehicle their z-axis, but rather about the steering
center plane. axis, also known as the kingpin axis. The
position of the kingpin axis is essentially
Braking-torque compensation determined by the kinematics of the axle
and ­starting-torque compensation (Figures 12 and 13).
Braking-torque compensation XBV and XBH
is a measure of how effectively optimum Steering-axis spread (kingpin
(kingpin angle)
braking compensation has been imple- When the wheel and the kingpin axis are
mented. The following applies: projected onto the vehicle transverse plane
tan(ε )
(y-z plane), the kingpin axis is inclined by
XBV = __________
​ 
tan(ε
BV
)
​100 % , the kingpin angle σ (Figure 13). The king-
BV,opt
tan(ε )
pin angle (also known as the kingpin incli-
XBH = ___________
​ 
tan(ε
BH
)
​100 % . nation) is positive when the kingpin axis
BH,opt
is inclined to the vehicle center. Kingpin
The same applies to acceleration. It is nec- angles are generally positive.
essary to take into account firstly the type of
drive, i.e., four-, front- or rear-wheel drive, Kingpin offset at wheel center
and secondly the fact that the tractive force The distance between the wheel center and
is applied at the wheel center. In the gen- the kingpin axis parallel to the road is called
eral case of four-wheel drive the following the kingpin offset at wheel center rσ. The
applies to starting-torque compensation kingpin offset at wheel center is positive
XAV (front) and XAH (rear): when the wheel center is further from the
tan(ε )
vehicle center plane than the kingpin axis
XAV = __________
​ 
tan(ε
AV
)
​100 % , (Figure 13).
AV,opt
tan(ε )
XAH = ___________
​ 
tan(ε
AH
)
​100 % .
AH,opt

Figure 12: Position of kingpin axis when

Characteristics of steering kinematics projected onto the vehicle center plane
Steering-wheel angle and steering-wheel 1 Wheel center, 2 Kingpin axis.
torque τ Caster angle,
nv Caster offset in wheel center,
The steering-wheel angle δH is the turning nτ Caster offset.
angle of the steering wheel measured from •  Direction of travel.
the straight-ahead position. The angle is τ
positive for a left-hand curve.
The driver must apply a torque when 2
adjusting the steering-wheel angle. This
torque is called the steering-wheel torque nv
1
MH and is also positive for a left-hand curve.
UAF0126-1E

Steering ratio
Essentially, on account of the steering gear
nτ
but also on account of the kinematics of

Deflection-force lever arm
The shortest connection between the
wheel center and the kingpin axis is called
the deflection-force lever arm rst. The de-
flection-force lever arm is positive when
the wheel center is further from the vehicle
center plane than the kingpin axis.
The axes are arranged in such a way
that the kingpin offset at wheel center and
the deflection-force lever arm are as small
as possible. This arrangement prevents
deflection forces from being generated in
the steering.
Scrub radius
The distance between the wheel contact
point and the point where the kingpin axis
intersects the road surface is called the
scrub radius rl (Figure 13). The scrub ra-
dius is positive when the wheel contact
point is further from the center plane than
the kingpin axis. When the scrub radius
is positive, the wheel moves towards toe-
out under braking forces. This behavior
is particularly advantageous during the
“braking in a curve” maneuver. When the
scrub radius is negative, the wheel moves
towards toe-in under braking forces. During
the “µ-split braking” maneuver with differ-
ent coefficients of friction on the left and
right sides of the vehicle this axle behavior
creates the precondition for more stable
vehicle handling. On account of these dif-
Figure 13: Position of kingpin axis when
projected onto the vehicle transverse plane
1 Wheel center, 2 Kingpin axis,
3 Vehicle center plane, 4 Wheel contact point.
σ Kingpin angle,
rσ Kingpin offset at wheel center,
rl Scrub radius, rst Deflection-force lever arm.
σ
3 ac
rσ 1
r st
2
UAF0127-2Y
rl
Chassis systems 1119
ferent effects the scrub radius is configured
to be as small as possible.
Caster angle, caster offset in wheel
­center and caster offset
When the wheel and the kingpin axis are
projected onto the vehicle center plane,
the kingpin axis is inclined by the caster
angle τ. It is positive when the top end
of the kingpin axis is inclined towards
the rear (Figure 12). In this projection
the kingpin axis generally does not pass
through the wheel center; instead, it is
offset by the caster offset in wheel center
nv to the rear.
The distance between the wheel contact
point and the point where the kingpin axis
intersects the road surface is called the
caster offset nτ. If this point of intersec-
tion is located in front of the wheel center
(Figure 12), the caster offset is positive.
Caster offsets are typically in the range
of 15 to 30 mm.
Rack travel
The most widely used type of steering
­today is rack-and-pinion steering. Here
the steering-wheel angle is converted via
a pinion into a translational motion of the
rack (in the direction of the y-axis). The
rack is connected at both ends to the front-
axle tie rods and thereby enables the toe
angle to be adjusted on both wheels. The
Figure 14: Float angle, centripetal and
­tangential acceleration
1 Trajectory.
β Float angle,
at Tangential acceleration,
ac Centripetal acceleration,
υx Longitudinal velocity,
υy Lateral velocity.
1 at
υy
υx β
UAF0122-1E
1120 Chassis systems
distance covered by the rack when steering
is called the rack travel.
Float angle
In the dynamics of lateral motion the cen-
ter of gravity of the body does not always
move along the x-axis. The angle that
forms between the vehicle center plane
and the trajectory is called the float angle β
(­Figure 14). It is counted from the vehicle
center plane to the trajectory. The float an-
gle is calculated from the linear velocity υx
and the lateral velocity υy:
υy
β = arctan ​ __
υx ​.
Because linear velocity during forward
driving is by definition positive, the sign
preceding the lateral velocity in this case
also determines the sign preceding the
float angle.
Ackermann angle
The Ackermann angle corresponds to the
axle steering angle (Figure 5). In the event
of very low lateral acceleration ay, i.e., if
virtually no lateral force is built up, the ve-
hicle moves along the Ackermann angle.
Turning circle
The turning circle is described when cor-
nering at full steering lock by the farthest
protruding vehicle parts. The radius of the
circle formed is the turning circle.
The turning circle is dependent on the
wheelbase and the maximum steering
Figure 15: Lateral force and longitudinal
force. (View from above).
1 Wheel contact point.
FU Longitudinal force,
FS Lateral force,
MR Tire aligning torque.
FU
1 FS
MR
UAF0132-1Y
lock, i.e., on the maximum toe angle on
the front axle.
Basic terms for tires
The most important external forces and
moments which act on a vehicle occur
during the transmission of force between
tire and road surface. Added to this are
the wind forces which act on the vehicle
special situations.
Footprint
Force is transmitted between tire and road
surface by friction in the contact area, also
known as the footprint. The two most im-
portant types of friction are adhesive fric-
tion (intermolecular adhesive force) and
hysteretic friction (gearing force).
Lateral force and longitudinal force.
Forces can be generated in the road plane
by friction. Lateral force FS is the force
perpendicular to the wheel center plane;
longitudinal force FU runs in the direction
of the wheel center plane (Figure 15). The
forces are generally not applied exactly
at the wheel contact point such that mo-
ments are likewise generated in relation
to the wheel contact point (tire aligning
torque MR).
Slip angle
When lateral and longitudinal forces occur
simultaneously, the forces may be mutually
influenced. The situation where lateral and
longitudinal forces occur but not combined
is considered in the following. The gener-
Figure 16: Slip angle
(View from above).
FS Lateral force,
MR Tire aligning torque,
α Slip angle.
R Wheel contact point.
α
Direction of motion
R FS
MR
UAF0133-1E
 Chassis systems 1121

ated lateral force FS is dependent on the
wheel load and the slip angle α. A depen-
dence of lateral force FS on speed can
generally be ignored. The wheel load is
the force with which the wheel center is
pressed towards the road-surface plane.
The slip angle α is the angle between the di-
rection of motion of the wheel contact point
and the wheel center plane (Figure 16).
When the wheel load is kept constant
and the slip angle α is increased, the lateral
force initially increases linearly. The lateral
force reaches its maximum level at a slip
angle of approx. 5° and then decreases
slightly (Figure 17).
to make the turned wheels return to the
straight-ahead position when the steering
wheel is released.
Slip and rolling radius
Similarly to the slip angle α for lateral force
FS, slip λ is the variable which at constant
wheel load determines longitudinal force
FU. Slip occurs when the speed υxR at
which the wheel center moves in the lon-
gitudinal direction differs from the speed
υU at which the circumference rolls. The
circumferential speed is calculated from
the angular speed ωR of the wheel and
the dynamic rolling radius rdyn:

Tire aligning torque and tire caster offset υU = ωR rdyn .

With small slip angles the lateral force is
applied after the wheel contact point. When A distinction is made between static and
the slip angle is increased, the lateral force dynamic rolling radius. The static rolling
moves increasingly towards the wheel con- radius is the shortest distance between
tact point and can also be located ahead wheel center and footprint. The dynamic
of the wheel contact point. The distance rolling radius rdyn is calculated by means
between the lateral application point and of the circumference U:
the wheel contact point is called the tire
caster offset nR. The lateral force there- U​.
rdyn = ​ ___
2π
fore generates a moment about the tire’s
vertical axis, the tire aligning torque MR: Slip λA for tractive forces is defined as:
ωR rdyn − υxR
MR = FS nR . λA = ​ _________
ωR rdyn ​ .

This produces, at constant wheel load, a Similarly, slip λB for braking forces is de-
curve as shown in Figure 18 for the tire fined as:
aligning torque. ωR rdyn − υxR
If the tire aligning torque is positive, λB = ​ _________
υxR ​.
it helps to make the slip angle smaller
in terms of amount. This behavior helps

Figure 17: Lateral force at constant wheel Figure 18: Tire aligning torque at constant
load as a function of slip angle wheel load as a function of slip angle
Side force FS

Tire aligning
torque MR
UFB0134E

UFB0135E

0° 5° 10° 15° 0° 5° 10° 15°

Slip angle α Slip angle α
1122 Chassis systems
According to this definition, drive slip is
always positive and brake slip always neg-
ative. These two slip definitions ensure that
when a wheel is locked (ωR = 0, λB = −1)
a slip of −100 % is obtained and when a
wheel is spinning (υxR = 0, λA = 1) a slip of
100 % is obtained.
If the drive slip is increased at constant
wheel load, the tractive force (longitudinal
force) increases linearly. At approx. 10 %
drive slip the longitudinal force reaches
its maximum level and then falls again
(­Figure 19). The same applies to brake
slip. Here the maximum braking force is
created at approx. −10 %.
Measured variables
In the interests of vehicle development it
is sensible to use a special measurement
to enable vehicle handling to be measured
with greater accuracy. In the dynamics of
lateral motion the translational acceler-
ations and the attitude angles are often
measured by gyro-stabilized platforms. The
absolute positions are recorded with GPS
measuring systems. In the dynamics of
vertical motion the translational acceler-
ations are measured in each of the three
directions in space at different points of
the body. From these the most important
body accelerations can be determined, i.e.,
those for lift, pitch and roll.
The linear and lateral velocities are each
measured with proximity-type velocity sen-
sors for the float angle.
Figure 19: Longitudinal force at constant
wheel load as a function of drive slip
Longitudinal force FU
0 10
Drive slip λA
The slip angle α is measured, along similar
lines to the float angle, with two proxi­mity-
type speed sensors. The wheel speed and
the longitudinal velocity are measured for
slip λ. The dynamic rolling radius rdyn is
determined on test benches.
The tire aligning force MR, the lateral
force FS, and the longitudinal force FU
can be recorded in mobile operation by
multi-component measuring wheels. Be-
cause this is very costly, tire forces and
tire moments are measured on stationary
test benches or determined using special
vehicles directly on the road. Up to now,
precise measurement of tire forces and
tire moments has been accompanied by
many systematic failures.
Steering-wheel angle and steering-­
wheel torque are measured using special
measuring steering wheels. If the mea-
suring accuracy is sufficient, the steering-­
wheel-angle sensor fitted as standard in
many vehicles can also be used.
Special measuring devices can be used
in both mobile and stationary applications
to measure toe and camber angles. These
angles are typically measured on special
test benches.
Special test benches are also used to
measure the axle steering angle and the
steering ratio.
The variables for the position of the
kingpin axis are generally not measured
directly. The axle pivot points are often
recorded by means of geometric mea-
surements and the following variables
are calculated from them: caster angle,
caster offset in wheel center, caster off-
set, kingpin angle, kingpin offset at wheel
center, deflection-force lever arm, and
scrub radius.
The roll pole can be determined by mea-
suring the track change during the recipro-
cal compression and rebound of an axle.
The roll axis is obtained from the roll poles
of the front and rear axles.
The pitch pole and starting- and brak-
ing-torque compensation are usually not
measured directly, but rather determined
from the measured kinematic points of the
axle. The same applies to the longitudinal
inclination at wheel center, and the anti-lift/
UFB0136-1E
20 30 % anti-squat and anti-dive/anti-rise angles.

_________________________________
References
[1] M. Ersoy, S. Gies (Editors): Fahrwerk­
handbuch. 5th Ed., Verlag Springer Vieweg,
2017.
[2] M. Mitschke, H. Wallentowitz: Dynamik
der Kraftfahrzeuge. 5th Edition, Verlag
Springer Vieweg, 2015.
[3] J. Jablonowski, et al.: The Chassis of
the all-new Audi A8. Chassis.tech 2017,
Munich (2017).
Chassis systems 1123
[4] ISO 8855: Road vehicles – Vehicle dy-
namics and road-holding ability – Vocab­
ulary.
[5] DIN 70000 (earlier standard) Road ve-
hicles; vehicle dynamics and road-holding
ability; vocabulary.
[6] ISO 612: Road vehicles; Dimensions of
motor vehicles and towed vehicles; Terms
and definitions.
1124 Chassis systems
Suspension
Basic principles
The suspension system of a vehicle has
a decisive influence on the vibration char-
acteristics and therefore on both comfort
and driving safety. Depending on the
vehicle category and use case, different
solutions have prevailed in the meantime.
An overview of the different suspension
design elements is shown in Figure 1, using
a quarter vehicle as an example.
As a general principle, suspension
design elements include all parts of the
wheel suspension of a motor vehicle that
deliver return forces in the case of elastic
deformation. The media that perform the
suspension work on the different sus-
pension systems are either steel (spring
steel), polymer materials (rubber), or a
gas (air).
Tires
As the connecting element between the
road surface and vehicle, the tire is the first
suspension design element in the trans-
fer chain from excitation to the occupants
that has a decisive influence on both the
comfort (acoustics, rolling characteristics)
and driving safety (longitudinal and lateral
force potential). It has both suspension and
Figure 1: Suspension design elements
within the wheel suspension (McPherson
split axle as an example)
1 Dome mount (rubber mount),
2 Body spring, 3 Tire,
4 Rubber mounts, 5 Stabilizer.
1 system that provide most of the vertical
2
3
UFF0222-1Y
4
5
damping properties, whereby these are not
sufficient to eliminate the need for other
vibration-absorbing elements in modern
vehicles. An exception here is mobile ma-
chinery, where changed vertical-dynamics
requirements mean that in almost all cases
the suspension and damping are achieved
by means of the tires.
Elastomer mounts
Elastomer mounts are rubber elements
with different functions and properties that
interconnect individual components of a
chassis system or secure them to the body.
The rubber mounts are used to provide
insulation against vibrations and thus
­enhance comfort, particularly in the case
of higher-frequency excitation (acoustics).
At the same time the driving dynamics can
be decisively influenced by the elasto­
kinematics.
In contrast to series-production vehi-
cles, uniball joints (more rigid connections
between wheel suspension and body) are
deployed in motor racing; this improves
driving dynamics to the detriment of
comfort.
In order to reconcile the conflicting ob-
jectives of soft mounts for high comfort and
rigid mounts for sporty driving dynamics,
in the meantime increasing use is made of
adaptive or active suspension mounts that
are able to adapt their properties to each
driving situation.
Body springs
Body springs are parts of the chassis
return forces between the wheel and body.
Depending on the use case, various types
of spring with very varied properties are
used. A summary of the characteristics of
suspension design elements used in ve-
hicle construction can be found in Table 1.

Table 1: Suspension design elements in vehicle construction
Suspension Load influence on body
design ele- natural frequency
ment
Steel springs
Leaf spring ● Natural frequency drops
with increasing load
● Characteristic curves
are generally linear or
progressive
Coil spring
Torsion-bar
spring
Stabilizer ● No influence with sus-
pension on the same
side
● Half of stabilizer rigidity
effective with one-sided
suspension
● Entire stabilizer rigidity
effective with alternating
suspension
Suspension 1125
Properties (●), advantages (+) and disadvantages (−)
● Assumption of the suspension-linkage function is
possible
● Single-layer or multilayer version
● Depending on type, subject to friction (in the passen-
ger car an intermediate plastic layer reduces friction
→ positive influence on acoustics)
+ Good transfer of forces to the chassis (on trucks)
+ Low cost
− Maintenance requirement
− Friction damping usually inadequate
− Acoustic influences
● Arrangement of the shock absorbers within the spring
is possible
● Progressive characteristic curve due to corresponding
geometry of the spring can be implemented (variable
pitch or conical wire)
+ Great leeway for configuration
+ Low cost
+ No intrinsic damping
+ Low space requirement
+ Low weight
+ Maintenance-free
− Separate elements required for suspension linkage
− Spring characteristic curve is non-variable
● Made of round steel (for lower weight) or flat steel
(with increased stress)
+ Wear- and maintenance-free
+ Depending on design, ride-height adjustment also
possible
− Long springs
− Wheel-related spring stiffness depends on suspen-
sion-arm arrangement
● Influence on self-steering effect (oversteer or under-
steer)
● U-shaped, bent fully round or tube material is usual
● Stub often flat-rolled due to bending stress
● Stabilizer attachment points located far out on the
axle to achieve small diameters
● Axes of rotation of suspension arms configured so
that stabilizer load is only torsion (not flexion)
+ Simple possibility to influence driving dynamics of
a vehicle
+ Reduction of the roll angle
+ With deployment of active systems improved comfort
and enhanced driving dynamics
− Additional weight
− Costs
1126 Chassis systems

Table 1: Suspension design elements in vehicle construction (continued)

Suspension Load influence on body Properties (●), advantages (+) and disadvantages (−)
design ele- natural frequency
ment
Air springs and hydropneumatic springs
U-type ● Natural frequency ● Implementation of soft, vertical spring stiffness
bellows gas remains constant with ●A  s spring strut or individual spring, can be found
springs and increasing load above all in commercial vehicles and buses
air springs ● Characteristic curves ● Increasingly used in passenger cars for ride-height
with bel- ­depend on gas proper- control of the rear axle
lows (air ties, form of rolling + Ride-height control easy to integrate (similar to hydro-
springs) piston shape, and cord pneumatic spring)
angle in the bellows + Comfort characteristics independent of payload
− Separate elements required for suspension linkage
− Low pressure (< 10 bar) requires high volumes
Hydro- ● Natural frequency rises ●G
 as volume in the spring accumulator determines the
pneumatic with increasing load suspension properties
spring due to nonlinear spring ●P  ower flux by means of gas and oil
stiffness ● Integration of the damper valves in the shock absorber
and in the connection between the suspension strut
and the accumulator
+ Hydraulic damping and ride-height control easy to
integrate
− Maintenance requirement for rubber membrane due
to diffusion tendency
Rubber springs
Rubber ● Natural frequency is ● Vulcanized rubber shear spring between metal parts
spring influenced by increased ● Used and assembly mountings (engine and transmis-
load due to nonlinear sion), suspension-arm mountings, additional springs,
spring stiffness etc.
● Increasingly with integrated hydraulic damping
+ Design is very freely definable
+ Low cost
− Limited temperature range
− Aging

Figure 2: Example of a leaf spring with suspension-linkage function

1 Stabilizer, 2 Damper, 3 Leaf springs, 4 Panhard rod, 5 Rigid axle.

2 3

4
2 3

1 5
UFF0223-1E

Direction of travel

Types of spring
Leaf springs
The oldest types of spring used in vehi-
cle construction are leaf springs, which
were even used on horse-drawn coaches
(Figure 2). Alongside the suspension func-
tionality, a major advantage of this type
of spring is its possible use as a suspen-
sion-linkage engineering-design element
to connect the body and axle, because,
with the appropriate design, it can absorb
lateral or longitudinal forces. Multilayer leaf
springs also have damping characteristics
which, however, can lead to poor response
and acoustic influences. The damping
forces that can be achieved are not suffi-
cient to completely eliminate the need for
conventional shock absorbers.
The influences on comfort and their
weight mean that leaf springs in the mean-
time no longer meet market requirements
for personal transportation and they are
therefore only used now in a few passenger
cars (light utility vans, off-road vehicles). It
is still usual to use this type of spring in the
commercial-vehicle sector on account of
the low costs and high reliability.
Helical springs
The great leeway for configuration with
simultaneously low costs means that
­ torsion-bar springs are usually arranged in
­helical springs are the most frequently
­deployed type of body springs in the field
of passenger cars. On this type of spring,
the return forces are generated by the
elastic torsion of individual coils during
the change in length.
Figure 3: Design examples of different types of helical springs
a) Changeable coil diameter,
b) Changeable wire diameter,
c) Changeable coil spacing,
d) Mini-block spring (combination of a, b, and c).
a b
Suspension 1127
As helical springs are mainly able to ab-
sorb forces in the direction of the longi-
tudinal axis of the spring, when they are
used as body springs the other force
components must be braced by the sus-
pension linkage.
A geometric configuration of the springs
that is in line with requirements (wire thick-
ness, coil diameter and spacing, Figure 3)
means that not only different design enve-
lopes but also different spring character-
istics can be achieved. This can be used
in turn to influence the load-dependent
body natural frequency and thus the ride
comfort.
Torsion-bar springs
This type of spring is encountered mainly in
passenger cars and light utility vans. They
are bars made of spring steel that are sub-
jected to torsion. The fixed clamping of one
end of the bar and the rotatable mounting
of the other end means that the shaft is
elastically torsioned when subjected to a
load in the form of torque applied in the
direction of its axis. In the motor vehicle,
the elastic twisting of the torsion bar is
achieved with the help of a crank secured
to the rotatable end of the rod (Figure 4).
As a rule, the crank arms are suspension
arms of the axle or wheel suspension. The
the bearing center of the suspension arms
on the body side on the opposite end of
which the vertical wheel force FR takes
effect as the external load.
c d
UFF0224-1Y
1128 Chassis systems

Figure 4: Design of a torsion-bar spring Figure 5: Structure of a gas spring

1 Connection with the body, 1 Structure, 2 Gas spring, 3 Wheel.
2 Wheel connection. hth Theoretical spring length,
l Length of torsion bar, mA Body mass,
r Length of crank arm, mR Wheel mass,
FR Wheel force, pi Pressure in the gas spring
zR Compression path, (internal pressure),
ψ Torsion angle. 1 pa Ambient
­pressure,
V Working mA 1
l ­volume of
the gas
1 spring, hth pi,V, A 2
A  Area to
which gas
pressure
is applied.
zR pa
ψ

UFF0226-2Y
UFF0225-1Y

mR 3
2
FR
r

Gas springs
The body springs presented so far are The equation for the spring force F:
fixed, springing media, whereby the work
is performed by the change in shape of F = ( pi − pa) A (Eq. 2)
the steel springs. In contrast to this, the
spring work in the case of gas springs is where
generated by a change in volume of the pa Ambient pressure, and
gas. The body of the vehicle is decoupled pi Internal pressure,
by an effective gas volume (possibly also
by an additional fluid, see hydropneumatic generally leads to the following for the
springs) from the excitation and it vibrates spring stiffness of a gas spring with con-
on the gas cushion within the gas spring stant effective piston surface area A [1]:
(Figure 5). This results in a favorable
possibility to integrate a ride-height con- 1 ​
c(z) = A n p(z) ​ __ (Eq. 3).
h
trol function that can be implemented by th

pumping the intermediate medium (gas or The polytropic exponent for slow and thus
fluid) in or out. isothermic spring movements is n = 1 –
A characteristic parameter of the gas for fast and thus approximately adiabatic
spring is the “theoretical spring length” hth, spring movements it is n = 1.4. The natural
which results as a quotient from the com- angular frequencies for single-mass oscil-
pression-dependent working volume V(z) lators are calculated from
_______
(including any additional volume) and the __
effective piston surface area A to which
gas pressure is applied:
ωGas = ​√ __
​  m √p ​ 
c(z) g
c ​ ​ = ​ _______
( − pa) A
​ ​
________
V (z )
hth = ___
​  ​
A
(Eq. 1) √ pg n pp zh
( −
( )
= ​  ​ ________​ ​
a) th
(Eq. 4).

where
z Compression path.
 Suspension 1129

When the requirement for a relatively small has due to the stiffness change a virtu-
spring diameter is met pi >> pa. This sim- ally constant body natural frequency in
plifies the equation for the natural angular the ­entire load range.
frequency to:
___ To conclude, Figure 6 shows the influence
gn
ωGas = ​ ___
​  ​  ​ √h th
(Eq. 5). of different suspension systems on the
natural frequency, and thus also indirectly
However, the above-mentioned theoretical on the comfort with rising loads. The rea-
piston cylinder gas spring is only used in son for the influence of the body natural
vehicles in a modified form, whereby in frequency on comfort lies in the different
principle a distinction is made between resonance ranges of different organs in the
two types of gas spring, the air spring with human body and the consequence that an
bellows and the hydropneumatic spring. excitation of human body parts with their
The fundamental difference with regard to natural frequency impairs well-being. This
the vertical dynamics lies in the influence is why a body natural frequency, below the
of the load on driving smoothness and resonant frequencies of the human body,
in the different effects on the spring stiff- that is as independent as possible of the
ness in the level balancing of both systems. load is to be ensured.
Whereas in the case of the hydropneu- However, Figure 6 also clearly indicates
matic type level balancing is achieved by that an approximately constant natural fre-
pumping in fluid or oil (with constant mass quency with rising load is only present in
of the gas in the spring), level balancing the case of air springs. With steel springs,
on air springs with bellows takes place the natural frequency drops due to the
by pumping a gas (air) into the spring, constant spring stiffness.
thus restoring the original suspension
volume. The change in spring stiffness of
the ­hydropneumatic spring type that this
causes leads to an increase in the body Figure 7: Gas springs with bellows
natural frequency with increasing load. In a) Bellows,
contrast to this, the air spring with bellows b) U-type bellows.
F Force,
dw Effective diameter of air spring.

Figure 6: Comparison of different

a F
­suspension systems depending
on payload
1 Steel spring,
2 Air spring,
3 Hydropneumatic spring.

dW

1.8 1.6
240 1.4
N/cm
Natural 3 b F
180 frequency
Body spring rigidity cA

[Hz] 1.2
1
120
1.0
dW
60 0.8
2
0
UFF0227-1E

UFF0228-2Y

1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0

Related load mladen /munladen
1130 Chassis systems
Springs with bellows
Gas springs with bellows with pneu-
matic ride-height control are suspension
systems with constant gas volume (see
above), whereby these are in turn divided
into two categories. These are firstly gas
springs with bellows and, secondly, U-type
bellows gas springs (Figure 7) which, in a
similar way to pneumatic tires, consist of
rubber material reinforced by woven tex-
tiles. On these systems, the ride-height
control is implemented by pumping gas
into or releasing gas from the spring with
the suspension volume remaining con-
stant as a general principle. The effective
surface area of the air springs (and thus
the gradient of the return force) that is af-
fected by the overpressure is not usually
constant, rather it changes throughout the
stroke. This enables specific influence on
the load-bearing capacity by designing the
contours of the rolling piston of the U-type
bellows gas springs (and thus a change in
the effective surface area A in Equation 3
Figure 8: Hydropneumatic spring
1 Suspension ball, 2 Membrane,
3 Connection to ride-height controller,
4 Piston, 5 Screw cap,
6 Suspension cylinder, 7 Cup seal,
8 Shock-absorber valve, 9 Rebound stage,
10 Bypass, 11 Compression stage.
5
1
N2
10
2 9
11
4 8
6
7
UFF0229Y
via the range of the spring) accordingly. The
effective surface area A of the air spring can
be determined via the effective diameter.
With integration of an additional volume
(increase of hth, see Figure 5), a less pro-
gressive and flatter-tending characteristic
curve can be achieved.
Hydropneumatic springs
In accordance with the considerations
above, hydropneumatic springs (Figure 8)
with integrated ride-height control are gas
springs with constant gas weight (see
above), whereby the power flux is routed
not only through a gas but additionally
through a fluid or oil. Here, the fluid and gas
are separated by an impermeable rubber
membrane. It is only when the fluid or oil
is placed in between that a wear-resistant
and low-friction seal is achieved between
the piston and cylinder.
Another advantage of this system lies in
the possibility to integrate hydraulic damp-
ing in the suspension design element. A
disadvantage, on the other hand, is the
dependency of the natural frequency on the
load (influence on comfort). The reason for
this is the pumping in and out of the fluid or
oil at a constant gas mass that is required
for ride-height control. The load-sensitive
volume change of the gas leads to a shift in
the spring stiffness in such a way that with
rising load there is a fundamental increase
in natural frequency (see Figure 6).
Figure 9: Functioning principle
of ­stabilizer spring
UFF0230Y

Stabilizers
The suspension systems described above
are deployed primarily for the vertical sus-
pension of a vehicle. For the roll suspen-
sion, on the other hand, additional passive
or active stabilizer springs (under certain
circumstances with additional roll damping)
are used alongside classical body springs.
A diagram of the principle is provided in
Figure 9. In the event of a rolling movement
of the body, i.e., spring compression of the
wheels of one axle in opposite directions,
the stabilizer is torsioned and delivers an
aligning torque around the roll axis. In the
case of in-phase vertical motions of one
axle, on the other hand, this has no effect.
If the proportions of the rolling moment
braced by the stabilizers on the front and
rear axles have a different ratio to the pro-
portions braced by the body springs, not
only is the roll angle reduced but the break-
down of the differences in wheel load of an
axle on cornering and thus the self-steering
effect are also influenced.
On a vehicle with a corresponding
stabilizer configuration, this can shift the
driving characteristics towards understeer
(increase in the roll rigidity on the front axle
or reduction in the roll rigidity on the rear
axle) or oversteer with all other parameters
unchanged. In the case of active stabiliz-
ers, the stabilizer force can also be actively
influenced and adapted to suit the driving
status. This enables a reduction in for ex-
Figure 10: Functioning principle
of ­compensating spring
UFF0231Y
Suspension 1131
ample copy effects on one axle (due to
decoupling between the right-hand and
left-hand sides) when the vehicle is driven
straight ahead but it also increases the driv-
ing dynamics on cornering by minimizing
the inclination of the body. Here, the stabi-
lizers do not influence the vertical vibration
characteristics of the vehicle.
Compensating springs
Compensating springs have the opposite
effect to that of the stabilizer (Figure 10).
As a pure stroke element, they have no
effect during rolling motions of the body.
The compensating spring was used
in the past on axle designs where the
wheel suspension kinematics required
wheel load differences that were as low
as possible to suppress the “resting effect”
(stronger rebound of the wheel on the in-
side of the curve compared to the spring
compression of the wheel on the outside
of the curve when cornering). The stiffness
of the body springs and this braced pro-
portion of the rolling moment on the axle
under examination could then be reduced
accordingly. Compensating springs are no
longer in modern passenger car wheel
suspensions.
1132 Chassis systems

Suspension systems
Increasing customer requirements (com-
fort and driving dynamics) with regard to
passenger cars and the strongly fluctuating
load states of commercial vehicles mean
that exclusive deployment of conventional
steel springs is often insufficient. In such
cases, either partially loaded or fully loaded
suspension systems are used.
The integration of the additional func-
tions of partially loaded or fully loaded sys-
tems enables increases in both comfort and
driving dynamics (for example transverse
locking of the springs of one axle to en-
hance stability on cornering).
Partially loaded systems
These systems are characterized by the
fact that the forces to be braced by the
suspension system are divided between
steel and air springs according to a spec-
ified ratio.
In the case of soft body springs (to en-
hance ride comfort), wide spring ranges
occur for example when a vehicle is loaded.
In order to prevent the vehicle body from
being lowered too much, ride-height control
systems with air springs or hydropneumatic
springs are used. Here, sensors determine
the ride height and provide this information
to the control system. By pumping in or
releasing air (air springs with bellows) or oil
(hydropneumatic springs), the ride height
can be then adapted in line with require-
ments. Depending on the vehicle segment
(passenger cars or commercial vehicles),
ride-height control systems offer different
additional functions.
In the passenger car, for example, a
speed-dependent ride-height control of
the body in order to save fuel is possi-
ble. The adjustable ride height can also
be used on poor-quality road surfaces to
enhance the vehicle’s capability to handle
rough terrain.
In the case of commercial vehicles, on
the other hand, ride-height control enables
variable adaptation of the loading area to
different loading ramps. Other functions
can also be implemented by networking
with other systems. These include, for ex-
ample, an automatic ride-height increase
if the lifting axle is raised, lowering on ex-
ceeding the maximum axle load, or brief
raising of the lifting axle to increase the
wheel load on the driven axle.

Figure 11: System architectures of ride-height control, fully loaded systems

a) Open system, b) Closed system.
1 Filter, 2 Compressor, 3 Drier, 4 2/2-directional-control valve, 5 Bellows, 6 Non-return valve,
7 Pressure container, 8 Pressure switch, 9 3/2-directional-control valve.

a 1 b 1

2 6 8

9 7
9
2
3

4 4 4 4 4 4

5 5 5 5 5 5
UFF0232Y

Fully loaded suspension systems
In the case of fully loaded systems, as
opposed to partially loaded solutions, the
task of suspension is assumed solely by
the gas springs and the helical springs are
completely eliminated. Depending on the
available hardware and control strategy,
the ride-height control can be on selected
axles or on all axles. Embedding the control
system architecture in the global vehicle
control architecture ensures that a negative
mutual influence of the axles is excluded,
thus preventing, for example, the vehicle
body from slanting.
As a general principle, the ride-height
control for fully loaded systems can be
designed in the form of an open or closed
system. In the case of the open system,
a compressor draws air from the atmo-
sphere and provides it in compressed form
to the air springs if required. The increase
in pressure raises the vehicle body. To
lower the ride height, air is expelled into
the environment, thus lowering the pres-
sure in the springs again. Although this
system involves relatively low overhead in
construction and has a simple control sys-
tem, it has the decisive disadvantage that
high compressor output has to be provided
for the short periods of control operation,
which is accompanied by corresponding
increased consumption. Moreover, an air
drier is required and an acoustic load can
be expected when air is drawn in and ex-
pelled.
The closed system draws air from a
pressure accumulator of the suspension
system and feeds this directly to the air
springs. When the ride height is lowered,
the compressed air is returned to the
pressure tank. Although the compressor
output requirements for this system are
lower and the air drier can be eliminated be-
cause the working medium is already dry,
other components (accumulator, pressure
switch, non-return valve, return line etc.)
are required, fundamentally increasing the
overhead in construction compared to an
open system.
The system architectures of the open
and closed ride-height control systems
are compared in Figure 11. This clearly
illustrates the greater complexity of the
closed system.
Suspension 1133
Active spring systems
Compared to passive systems, active ve-
hicle chassis systems enable optimal ad-
aptation of spring and damper forces to all
driving states and road irregularities. With
the aid of external sources of energy, forces
are generated that stabilize both the axles
and the vehicle body. In the meantime, a
number of different system architectures
have been developed. These differ above
all with regard to the overhead involved
(design envelope and costs), the energy
requirement, and the quality of control
operations. A few of these systems are
presented briefly below.
Systems with hydraulic cylinders
With this version, the body motion and
body position are regulated with quickly
adjustable hydraulic cylinders (Figure 12),
whereby different items of sensor informa-
tion (wheel load, range of spring, acceler-
ation etc.) are used as input variables for
the control operation.
The control system achieves virtually
constant wheel loads while maintaining a
constant mean ride height. The static wheel
load in this case is carried by steel springs
or hydropneumatic springs.
Figure 12: Active chassis system with
hydraulic cylinder
1 Vehicle body, 2 Wheel-load sensor,
3 Travel sensor, 4 Accumulator,
5 Pump circuit, 6 Servo valve,
7 Positioning cylinder, 8 Acceleration sensor.
1
4
2 5
6 6
3 7
8
UFF0233Y
1134 Chassis systems

Systems with hydropneumatic against the vehicle body or in relation to

­suspension system
To stabilize the vehicle, a hydropneumatic
suspension system uses specific oil regu-
lation. This is done by pumping hydraulic
oil into the suspension struts or draining it
off the suspension struts (Figure 13). To
limit the energy absorption, the control
strategy of this system consists of control
operations to eliminate longwave irregu-
larities (low-frequency excitations). In the
case of higher-frequency proportions, a
gas volume takes effect in the proximity
of the suspension strut. Here, the shock
absorber is essentially geared to the wheel
movements.
Version with spring-mounted point
­adjustment
In this system, the vehicle body is held hor-
izontally in the low-frequency range in that
a conventional helical spring is designed
as variable at its mounting point (either
the axle, Figure 14). The base is raised for
spring compression and lowered for spring
rebound. Control operations are continuous
by means of a fluid pump and proportioning
valves. The helical spring, however, must
be longer compared to its original design.
In this type of system, the shock absorb-
ers can be fitted with constant adjustment
parameters and, above all, they can be
matched to the wheel dampers.
Electromagnetic system
In the case of an electromagnetic active
chassis system, linear or rotary electro-
magnetic motors are fitted on each wheel.
These are able to actively compensate for
the road irregularities. The linear motors
are supplied with electrical energy by
power amplifiers, whereby as a general
principle force control or path control
can be implemented. Cross-axle system
networking also enables compensation

Figure 13: Hydropneumatic system Figure 14: Spring-mounted point

1 Vehicle body, 2 Travel sensor, ­adjustment
3 Accumulator, 4 Pump circuit, 1 Vehicle body, 2 Travel sensor,
5 Acceleration sensor, 6 Throttle, 3 Accumulator, 4 Pump circuit (oil),
7 Proportioning valve, 5 Acceleration sensor, 6 Throttle,
8 Shock-absorber piston fitted with valves. 7 Proportioning valve,
8 Body spring (coil spring),
9 Spring-mounted point adjuster.
1 3 1 3
8 5
7 4 7 4
6 6

8 9
2 2

5 8
5
UFF0234-1Y

UFF0235-1Y
 Suspension 1135

of rolling and pitching vibrations. In the _________________________________

solution that is currently implemented, References
the static wheel loads are absorbed via [1] B. Heissing, M. Ersoy (Editors): Fahr­
torsion springs at the wheels to limit the werk­handbuch. 1st Edition, Vieweg Verlag,
electrical energy requirement. A passive 2007.
shock absorber is also used.
The advantages of the electromagnetic
solution lie above all in the high adjustment
speed. Despite the low outer dimensions,
the electric motors have sufficient power
output to ensure driving safety in all driv-
ing situations. In comparison with conven-
tional systems, the disadvantages lie in the
greater weight and in the increased costs,
as an additional, non-electronic damping
system is required for safety reasons. As
a general principle, however, the electro-
magnetic motor can also be operated as a
generator, which means that damping can
also be performed electrically and thereby
energy can be recuperated. This enables
a lowering of the power requirement of
the overall system, which is specified for
standard road surfaces as less than 1 kW.
1136 Chassis systems

Shock absorbers and vibration absorbers

Shock absorbers
The masses of the vehicle body and
wheels connected by the body springs
form a system that can vibrate and is ex-
cited by irregularities on the roadway and
the dynamic movements of the vehicle.
Shock absorbers are required to dampen
the vibrating system. Nowadays, it is al-
most exclusively hydraulic telescopic
shock absorbers that are used in motor
vehicles as body shock absorbers; these
convert the kinetic energy of the body and
wheel vibrations into heat. The shock ab-
sorbers are configured taking account of
the partially conflicting requirements for
comfort (minimization of body accelera-
tions) and driving safety (minimization of
wheel load fluctuations).
Basic principles of hydraulic tele-
scopic shock absorbers
The damper effect of hydraulic telescopic
shock absorbers (Figure 1) is based on
the movement subject to flow resistance
of a shock-absorber piston equipped with
throttle elements (damper valves) within
an oil-filled working cylinder. In the pro-
cess, mechanical work is converted into
heat that is released into the environment
via the shock-absorber surface. The pres-
sure difference Δ p between the two work-
ing chambers and the effective surfaces
caused by the throttle elements on both
sides of the shock-absorber piston gener-
ates the resulting damping force FD when
the shock absorber moves in or out. The
area on which the pressure prevailing in
each working chamber is applied cor-
responds to an annular surface AKR for
the working chamber through which the
piston rod of the shock absorber runs
(see working chamber 1 in Figure 1). The
outer diameter of the annular surface
corresponds to the diameter D of the
shock-absorber piston; the inner diame-
ter corresponds to the diameter d of the
piston rod. The following applies:
​  π4 ​  (D 2 − d 2) .
AKR = __
In the other working chamber (see work-
ing chamber 2 in Figure 1), the effective
area corresponds to the piston surface AK
which results from the diameter D of the
shock-absorber piston.
π 2
AK = ​ __
4
​  D .

Figure 1: Structure of single-tube and twin-tube shock absorbers

a) Single-tube shock absorber, b) Twin-tube shock absorber.
1 Piston rod, 2 Working cylinder, 3 Shock-absorber piston, 4 Piston seal,
5 Working chamber 1, 6 Working chamber 2, 7 Piston valve (rebound stage valve),
8 Piston valve (compression stage valve), 9 Dividing piston, 10 Gas volume,
11 Part of compensating
chamber, filled with gas, a b
12 Part of compensating
chamber, filled with d d
shock-absorber oil, 1 1
13 Outer tube,
D 2 13 D 2
14 Floor valve (compres­
sion-stage valve), 5 5 11
15 Floor valve (rebound- 8 8 3
stage valve). 4 4
D Inner diameter of work- 7 3 6 7
ing cylinder and dia­ 6 15
meter of shock-absorber 4
piston, 14
9 10
d  Diameter of piston rod. 12
SFF0212-3Y
 Shock absorbers and vibration absorbers
When there is a movement of the shock-­
absorber piston (i.e, an inward or out-
ward movement of the shock absorber),
the changes to the volumes in the two
working chambers lead to a flowing
movement of the incompressible damp-
ing fluid between the working chambers
of the shock absorber (in the case of
twin-tube shock absorbers, additionally
between a working chamber and the
compensating chamber). The oil volume
flows in each case must pass the corre-
sponding valves.
The oil-volume flows through the rele-
vant valves result from the geometry of
the shock absorber and the speed of in-
ward or outward movement z∙. The
∙ follow-
ing applies to the volume flow Q1 between
the two working chambers:
∙ the volume flow Q2; in the rebound phase
​ π
Q1 = __4
​  (D 2 − d 2)  z∙ .
The inward or outward movement of the
piston rod on hydraulic telescopic shock
absorbers leads to a variable total volume
of the working chambers that depends on
the retracting or extending state. The in-
compressibility of the shock-absorber oil
means that a possibility to compensate
for the oil volume displaced or released
by the piston rod is required.∙ The following
applies to the volume flow Q2 of this com-
pensating volume:
∙ tendency for cavitation to occur is low
​  π
Q2 = __ 4
​    d 2  z∙ .
∙ sorber. The heat that is generated can be
The volume flow Q through a valve is
linked via the throughflow characteristics
of each valve to the prevailing pressure
difference Δ p. The throughflow character-
istics of a valve result from the joint effect
of the throttle geometry (for example bore
diameter of the flow-through channel) and
any spring load (i.e., pressure-depen-
dent variation of the discharge opening,
­Figure 1). The throughflow characteris-
tics can be adapted to the needs of each
situation by configuring and coordinating
these parameters. The characteristics of
the valves are to be designed in such a
way that no cavitation whatsoever occurs
(formation and implosion of gas bubbles
in the working medium due to static pres-
sure fluctuations in the range of the vapor
pressure of the working medium) inside
1137
the shock absorber. Cavitation leads to
acoustic problems and also to damage –
ultimately to failure of a shock absorber.
The cavitation tendency can also be ef-
fectively counteracted by pressurizing the
shock-absorber oil.
Types of hydraulic telescopic
shock absorbers
Single-tube shock absorbers
To balance out the retracting or extend-
ing piston-rod volume, single-tube shock
absorbers have an enclosed gas volume
which is separated from the working
chambers filled with shock-absorber oil
with the help of a moving dividing piston
(Figure 1a). In the compression phase
(moving in) of the shock absorber, the
gas volume is compressed
∙ according to
(moving out), ∙it is relaxed according to the
volume flow Q2. As a rule, the pressure of
the gas volume is between 25 and 35 bar,
which means that the maximum occur-
ring retraction forces (compression-stage
force) can be absorbed without creating a
vacuum at the piston-road
∙ seal. The work-
ing volume flow Q1 flows through each of
the piston valves. On moving in, it flows
though the compression-stage valve and
on moving out through the rebound-stage
valve.
The high gas pressure means that the
in the case of the single-tube shock ab-
released into the environment directly via
the outer surface of the working cylinder.
The advantages of lean design, the low
weight and discretionary installation posi-
tion of the single-tube shock absorber are
offset by the great length, increased fric-
tion due to the high internal pressure , and
high requirements with regard to sealing
the piston rod and gas volume. Further-
more, the single-tube shock absorber is,
on account of its more filigree design, not
suitable for absorbing considerable lateral
forces and bending moments.
Twin-tube shock absorbers
Twin-tube shock absorbers have a com-
pensating chamber resulting from the
arrangement of an outer tube around the
working cylinder (Figure 1b). The com-
1138 Chassis systems
pensating chamber balances out the re-
tracting or extending piston-rod volume.
To achieve this, it is connected via bottom
valves to the lower working chamber of the
shock absorber. The compensating cham-
ber is partly filled with shock-absorber oil
and partly with a gas (as a rule, dried air or
even nitrogen). The gas volume is at atmo-
spheric pressure or slight overpressure
(6 to 8 bar). An overpressure here only
serves the purpose of reducing the cavi-
tation tendency; compression-stage-force
absorption is not necessary. The piston
and bottom valves must be coordinated
is such a way that no cavitation occurs.
In the compression stage, i.e., when the
shock absorber is moving in, the damping
work is therefore done at the correspond-
ing bottom valve (compression-stage ∙ with correspondingly lower requirements.
valve) through which the volume flow Q2
flows.∙ On the other hand, the oil volume
flow Q1 from the lower working chamber
into the upper working chamber can only
flow through the compression-stage valve
in the shock-absorber piston with low flow
resistance. This prevents a radical drop
in pressure in the upper working cham-
ber. In contrast, in the rebound stage,
i.e., when the shock absorber is moving
out, the damping work∙is essentially done
by the volume flow Q1 from the upper
working chamber into the lower working
chamber at the corresponding piston
Figure 2: Adjustable shock-absorber
­characteristic curves
1 Upper limit of adjustment range (maximum
damping hardness, e.g., sport mode),
2 Lower limit of adjustment range (minimum
damping hardness, e.g., comfort mode),
3 Adjustment range of shock absorber,
4 Characteristic curve of a passive shock
absorber.
Rebound movement
1 adjustment of the damping characteristics
Damping force FD →
3 4
2 shock absorbers (for example soft damp-
2 Shock-absorber
.
speed z →
SFF0200-2E
1
Compression
movement
valve (rebound-stage valve). The bottom
valve only balances out the extending
piston-rod volume in that shock-absorber
oil flows virtually without resistance from
the compensating chamber into ∙the lower
working chamber (volume flow Q2 ).
The compensating chamber means that
twin-tube shock absorbers have poorer
heat dissipation in comparison with sin-
gle-tube shock absorbers. Furthermore,
the installation position of twin-tube shock
absorbers is restricted, as it must be en-
sured at all times that there is compen-
sating fluid at the bottom valves. Advan-
tages compared to the single-tube shock
absorber are the lower shock-absorber
length and the softer responsiveness due
to the seals being subject to less load
Furthermore, thanks to its twin-walled
structure, the twin-tube shock absorber,
with a suitably more solid piston-rod and
outer-tube design, can absorb lateral
forces and bending moments, meaning
that it can be used as a wheel-control
element (spring-strut or shock­-absorber-
strut independent wheel suspension).
In the area of passenger cars, the twin-
tube shock absorber has prevailed as the
standard shock absorber – also due to its
lower costs.
Adjustable shock absorbers
The conflict of objectives with regard to
the coordination of body shock absorb-
ers between ride comfort and driving
safety can be mitigated using adaptive
or semi-active shock absorbers. In com-
parison with passive shock absorbers
with fixed shock-absorber characteristics
(i.e., defined force-speed characteristics,
cf. section “Damping characteristics”),
adaptive shock absorbers provide the
possibility of discrete to infinitely variable
(Figure 2).
Alongside manual adjustment of the
ing in the comfort mode or hard damping
in the sport mode), adjustable shock ab-
sorbers can also be activated automat-
ically depending on the driving state in
each case (see section “Damping con-
trol”). The shock absorbers are as a rule
adjusted by the driver by way of controls
 Shock absorbers and vibration absorbers
in the instrument panel. Adjustability di-
rectly at the shock absorber itself is en-
countered primarily in motor sport and in
sporty retrofit shock absorbers.
Adaptive hydraulic absorbers
In the case of adaptive or semi-active
shock absorbers of conventional design,
the adjustability of the damping character-
istics is implemented by means of adjust-
able valves, bypass boreholes that can
be activated (located on the outside or
inside), or with the help of double pistons
[1]. As a rule, activation is electronic. Major
system features are the adjustment times
that can be achieved, the spread of the
adjustment range, as well as the number
of definable shock-absorber characteris-
tics. It must be mentioned here that the
adjustment times should not be shortened
arbitrarily in the interests of functionality
because changing the flow conditions in
the shock absorber too quickly can give
rise to noise emissions and possibly wear.
Whereas systems of the first generation
only permitted adjustment between a few
characteristic curves, today’s adaptive
shock absorbers can usually be set to a
large number of characteristics [2]. Newer
systems usually even have infinitely vari-
able adjustment between a minimum and
Figure 3: Amplitude-selective shock absorber
a) Suspension/shock-absorber
system,
b) Damping, normal driving a b
style,
c) Control piston at end
stop blocks the bypass
channel, resulting in
stronger damping effect
with a dynamic driving
style and in curves
(bends).
1 Piston rod,
2 Restriction bore,
3 Working chamber,
4 Control piston,
5 Piston,
6 (Main) oil volume flow
through piston valve,
7 Bypass channel.
1139
a maximum damping-force characteristic
(Figure 2).
Rheological shock-absorber systems
The adjustability of the damping char-
acteristics in the case of rheological
shock-absorber systems is based on the
change in the flow properties of the work-
ing medium that is used. Magneto-rheo-
logical fluids that change their viscosity
under the influence of a magnetic field
are used here instead of the usual mineral
oils. Electro-rheological fluids have similar
properties under the effect of an electric
field, but the effect is utilizable to a much
lesser extent, which is why primarily mag-
neto-rheological methods have prevailed.
The viscosity of the working medium has
a direct influence on the flow resistance
through the valves. If, for example, cre-
ating a magnetic field increases the vis-
cosity of a magneto-rheological working
medium, the flow resistance through the
valves increases.
Rheological shock-absorber systems
not only provide the possibility for infinitely
variable adjustment of the damping char-
acteristics but also the implementation of
very short adjustment times [2].
c
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
UFF0238Y
1140 Chassis systems
Passively adaptive systems
Aside from the mentioned shock-ab-
sorber designs with different options for
characteristic-curve adaptation by the
driver (electronically at the touch of a
button or mechanically by hand) or by
control electronics, there are also types
which are fashioned in such a way that
the shock-­ absorber characteristic is
adapted within limits to different driving-­
dynamic influences. Amplitude-selective,
stroke-dependent, and frequency-selec-
tive damping are mentioned here by way
of example. In the case of amplitude-­
selective damping a bypass channel with
an implemented control piston is usually
provided in the shock-absorber piston
(Figure 3). In a limited amplitude range the
oil flows in part through this bypass and
displaces the control piston, increasing
the flow cross-section and thus reducing
the damping forces. When the control pis-
ton reaches its structurally predetermined
end stop, the oil now flows only through
the piston valve and the damping forces
increase. The freely moving section of the
control piston determines the amplitude
up to which the damping forces are re-
duced, usually a few millimeters. The re-
sult of this is that (depending on the load)
smaller road irregularities are damped
Figure 4: Stroke-dependent shock
­absorber
a) Two-stage damping: damping dependent
on load/stroke,
b) Two-stage damping: damping dependent
on dynamic load (with ride-height control),
c) Hydraulic end-position damping for
rebound/compression stage.
a b c linked via the damping constant kD and
Part-load range
UFF0239E
much less than for example than pitching
or rolling of the vehicle, which provides for
good comfort and at the same time good
driving dynamics.
Stroke-dependent shock absorbers
In stroke-dependent shock absorbers the
operating principle of the partially enlarged
flow cross-section is effected by bypass
grooves over a predetermined length in
the shock-absorber tube (Figure 4). The
total flow cross-section is enlarged in the
stroke ranges in which the piston passes
over these bypass grooves, with the re-
sult that the damping forces are lower in
this range. The damping force increases
in the case of larger strokes outside the
bypass-groove range (e.g., towards the
end stop). Because of the fixed position of
the grooves this system is dependent on
the stroke range and the piston position
in the shock absorber and less so on the
oscillation amplitude.
Frequency-selective shock absorbers
In the case of frequency-selective shock
absorbers the cross-section is altered by
spring-loaded, oscillatory valves which
according to the tunning at predetermined
frequencies (e.g. body natural frequency)
reduce the flow cross-section and con-
sequently increase the damping forces.
Less damping occurs outside the defined
frequency range.
Damping characteristics
Damping force is a function of the speed
of the inward or outward movement of the
shock absorber, whereby the direction of
force is opposed to the direction of speed
at all times. It is generally applicable that
the damping force FD and the speed z∙ are
the damping exponent n. The following
applies:
FD = − sign(z∙ ) · kD · |z∙ |n .
The damping constant and damping
exponent are essentially dependent on
the design of the shock absorber (valve
characteristics, geometry). With the cor-
responding configuration of the individual
parameters, progressive to degressive
damping characteristic curves can be
 Shock absorbers and vibration absorbers 1141

created. Varying the bore diameter in the
shock-absorber piston influences primar-
ily the progression (tube flow), changing
the spring load influences first and fore-
most the degressivity of the characteris-
tic curve (increase in cross-section with
increasing pressure difference). Modern
body shock absorbers have mainly de-
gressive characteristics. This achieves
a high damping effect at low excitation
speeds as well as a limitation of the max-
imum damping forces.
Damping characteristic curves are
usually determined with the help of me-
chanical or servo-hydraulic testing units.
A sinusoidal path excitation of constant
amplitude and variable frequency or con-
stant frequency and variable amplitude
results in various maximum speeds of
the inward or outward movement. The
recorded path and force signals can be
applied in a force-path diagram (work
diagram) (Figure 5a). The force-speed
characteristic curve of the shock absorber
(damping characteristic curve) can be
­derived from the work diagram by trans-
ferring the maximum force and speed
­values (Figure 5b).
It is mainly for reasons related to com-
fort that the configurations of the rebound
and compression stages differ. The
damping forces generated in the rebound
stages are for the most part more than
twice as high as the correspondingly gen-
erated forces during compression (i.e., in
the compression stage; ratio for passen-
ger cars is 1:2 to approximately 1:3, for
trucks up to 1:9) of the shock absorber
(Figure 5). This limits the impact forces on
the vehicle body during the compression
phase (comfort) and simultaneously en-
sures the system is strongly dampened
(system relaxation) in the rebound phase.
In the event of an asymmetrical distribu-
tion of the required total shock-absorber
work in favor of a high rebound stage
there is the danger of the shock absorber
contracting with soft springs.
Damping control
In conjunction with electronically adjust-
able shock absorbers, damping control
systems are being used to an increasing
degree nowadays. The major component
parts of such damping-control systems
are the adaptive shock absorbers and
sensors (e.g., acceleration sensors on
the wheel and body mass) and intelligent
algorithms and control strategies. With
the help of the sensors and algorithms,
the current driving state is continuously
determined and evaluated. In accordance
with the stored control strategies, this
enables the control system to adapt the
shock-­absorber characteristics to each
driving state by activating the shock ab-

Figure 5: Damping characteristics

a) Work diagram (force-path diagram), b) Damping characteristic curve (force/speed diagram).
f Variable excitation frequency, f1 Excitation frequency 1, f2 Excitation frequency 2,
z∙ (f1) Maximum shock-absorber speed at f1, z∙ (f2) Maximum shock-absorber speed at f2,
A Constant excitation amplitude.

a b

f Rebound
f2 movement
Damping force FD →

Damping force FD →

f1

f1 < f2 . .
−z( f2) −z( f1)
Shock- z → . .
z( f1) z( f2)
absorber path
Shock-absorber
speed z. →
SFF0201-2E

A Compression
movement
1142 Chassis systems
sorbers, thus, for example, influencing
and optimizing ride comfort or driving
safety. Such systems are often also called
semi-active because no active spring
adjustment actually occurs, the wheel
movement however can be well defined
via the adjustable shock absorber within
limits.
Control strategies
Threshold-value strategy
Threshold-value controllers compare one
or a number of relevant driving-state vari-
ables (e.g., body acceleration, steering
angle) with the corresponding limit values
and initiate defined measures if these
values are exceeded or not reached. The
damping forces are usually influenced
axle by axle simultaneously in the re-
bound and compression directions. The
main focus of threshold-value controllers
Figure 6: Theoretical principles
of the ­skyhook approach
kS Damping constant of skyhook
shock ­absorber,
mA Body mass,
zA Vertical body motion,
cA Spring stiffness of body spring,
kA Damping constant of body shock
­absorber,
mR Wheel mass (unsprung mass),
zR Vertical wheel movement,
cR Vertical tire spring stiffness,
kR Damping constant of tire,
h Vertical road excitation.
kS
mA
zA
cA kA
mR
cR kR zR
SFF0202-1Y
h sorber is only able to extract energy from
is on increasing comfort while simultane-
ously maintaining driving safety.
Alongside purely influencing the ver-
tical vibration characteristics, induced
vehicle-body movements can also be
optimized. For example, steering angle
monitoring can lead to a reduction in the
dynamic rolling or hardening the damping
depending on the brake pressure can re-
duce pitching motion caused by braking.
Skyhook
The skyhook control strategy aims to keep
the vehicle body calm independently of
current driving state and road conditions.
This is intended above all to increase ride
comfort. In contrast to the threshold-value
strategy, the skyhook control strategy
regulates the damping characteristics at
each individual wheel. The basic princi-
ple is to decouple the movement of the
vehicle body from the road excitation. To
achieve this, it is imagined that the ve-
hicle body is connected by means of a
shock absorber to the sky (Figure 6). The
damping force FDS of the skyhook shock
absorber results from the link of the body
speed z∙A and the damping constant kS of
the imaginary sky shock absorber:
FDS  = kS  z∙A .
For the conventional vibration system,
on the other hand, the damping force FD
would result from the link of the damping
constant kA of the body shock absorber
and the difference between the vertical
body speed z∙A and the vertical wheel
speed z∙R:
FD = kA (z∙A − z∙ R) ,
In order to brace the vehicle body against
the sky, in the real implementation the
additional portion of force FDS of the sky
shock absorber must be applied by the
body shock absorber. The proportional
damping factor kAS this requires is calcu-
lated to:
k   z∙
kAS = ____
​ ∙ S ∙A ​ .
zA − zR
As an adaptive (semi-active) shock ab-
the system in the form of heat, but is un-
 Shock absorbers and vibration absorbers 1143

able to supply heat to the system, a case Figure 8: Theoretical principles

distinction is required [1], [2]. The follow- of the groundhook approach
ing applies: mA Body mass,
zA Vertical body motion,
z∙
(
FDtot  = ​ kS   ​ _____
A
A
z∙ − z∙ R
)
​  + kA   ​· ​( z∙A − z∙ R )​ cA Spring stiffness of body spring,
kA Damping constant of body shock
­absorber,
where z∙A (z∙A − z∙ R) ≥ 0, and mR Wheel mass (unsprung mass),
zR Vertical wheel movement,
FDtot  = kA  (z∙A – z∙ R) cR Vertical tire spring stiffness,
kR Damping constant of tire,
h Vertical road excitation,
where z∙A (z∙A – z∙ R) < 0. kG Damping constant of groundhook
shock absorber.
Depending on the amount and direction of
the vehicle-body speed and the shock-ab-
sorber movement (rebound or compres-
sion movement), the control strategy for mA
zA
the skyhook approach shown in Figure 7
is pursued for comfortable damping of the
vehicle body. However, specific damping
of rolling, pitching, and wheel vibrations is
not taken into account by this approach. cA kA
These movements are also highly rele-
vant with regard to ride comfort and driv-
ing safety, which means that the skyhook mR
controller is generally overridden by other
controllers. zR
cR kR
Groundhook
A groundhook controller aims to improve h
driving safety by reducing the wheel load
fluctuations. In much the same way as the kG

SFF0203-1Y
considerations for the skyhook strategy, it
is imagined that the wheel is connected

Figure 7: Control strategy of skyhook control (case distinction)

.
Vehicle body speed zA
(upwards)

Low damping Strong damping

Shock-absorber
movement
Low damping Low damping . .
(zA−zR)

Compression Rebound
movement Low damping Low damping movement
. . . .
(zA−zR) < 0 (zA−zR) > 0

Strong damping Low damping

SFF0213-1E

(downwards)
1144 Chassis systems

by a shock absorber to the roadway Vibration absorbers

(­Figure 8) and a proportional damping
factor kAG is derived. The following applies To specifically influence the vibration
in the same way as the derivations for the properties of the vibration system con-
skyhook controller: sisting of the wheel and vehicle-body
∙ mass, vibration absorbers (see Vibrations
z∙ − h
kAG  = kG  ​ ____
R
z∙ – z∙
​ absorption) are deployed in some cases
R A
in the area of the chassis.
where: Depending on the configuration and
z∙ A Vertical body speed, arrangement of the vibration absorber,
z∙∙R Vertical wheel speed, the comfort, acoustics, or driving safety
h Vertical excitation speed, can be influenced. A distinction is made
kG Damping constant of the groundhook between passive and active vibration ab-
shock absorber. sorbers. A passive vibration absorber is a
mass attached to the chassis by sprung
Also for the groundhook controller, a case and damped mountings (Figure 10). The
distinction is made depending on the di- absorbing effect is created by the corre-
rections of movement of the wheel and sponding mass forces and in the case of
vehicle body. This case distinction takes passive absorbers is restricted to a cer-
place on the basis of the term: tain frequency range. The effective range
∙ can be enlarged using an active absorber
(z∙ R – h)  (z∙ R – z∙A) . with an actuator that can be activated.

Huang's algorithm
The aim of Huang's algorithm is shock-­ Figure 9: Vibration amplitude of a wheel
absorber control in favor of as low an movement as a function of the excitation
effective body acceleration as possible angular frequency with and without
­vibration absorbers
as a comfort criterion [3]. With high body
acceleration and rectified damping force, 1 Progression without vibration absorber,
2 Progression with vibration absorber.
damping is set as high as possible. If
damping force and body acceleration are
opposed, damping is set as low as pos-
sible.
Vibration amplitude zR

z∙∙A (z∙∙A – z∙∙R) > 0 → hard characteristic,

z∙∙A (z∙∙A – z∙∙R) ≤ 0 → soft characteristic.

2
SFF0214-1E

Excitation angular
frequency ωR
 Shock absorbers and vibration absorbers 1145

On excitation of the vibration system, the

vibrations and oscillations of the main sys- References
tem are taken over by the appropriately [1] B. Heissing, M. Ersoy (Editors): Fahr-
coordinated vibration absorber, i.e., the werkhandbuch. 4th Ed., Verlag Springer
main system only vibrates very slightly Vieweg, 2013.
whereas the absorber absorbs a large [2] L. Eckstein: Aktive Fahrzeugsicherheit.
portion of the energy. Figure 9 shows ika/fka 2010.
an example of the progression of the vi- [3] P. Zeller (Editor): Handbuch Fahrzeug­
bration amplitude of a wheel movement akustik – Grundlagen, Auslegung, Berech-
with and without vibration absorbers. nung, Versuch. 3rd Edition, Verlag Springer
With the deployment of a vibration ab- Vieweg, 2018.
sorber geared to the frequency range of
the natural wheel frequency, a significant
drop in the vibration amplitude can be
observed in the corresponding frequency
range. However, vibration absorbers have
the disadvantage of a (depending on the
frequency range to be extinguished) high
additional mass.

Figure 10: Vibration absorber

a) Vibration absorber in chassis (schematic representation), b) Substitute system.
kA Damping constant of body shock absorber, cA Spring stiffness of body spring,
kT Damping constant of vibration absorber, cT Spring stiffness of absorber spring,
mT Absorber
 mass, mA Body mass, zA Vertical body motion, mR Wheel mass,
zR Vertical wheel movement, cR Vertical tire spring stiffness,
kR Damping constant of tire, h Vertical road excitation.
a b

zA
mA

kA cA

kA cA zR kT cT
mR
mT
kT cT
cR kR
SFF0204-2Y

mT
h
1146 Chassis systems
Wheel suspensions
Basic principles
Vehicle wheels and the vehicle body are
connected via wheel suspensions. On
the one hand, a wheel suspension has
the function of guiding the relevant wheel
in relation to the vehicle body in such a
way that a movement that is essentially
directed vertically relative to the vehicle
body remains possible and, on the other
hand, that the tire forces exerted in the
wheel contact point in the horizontal
plane and the torques generated by these
forces can be transferred to the body. On
the front axle and also on the rear axle of
vehicles with rear-axle steering, additional
steerability of the wheels is to be ensured.
Alongside the tires, the suspension and
shock absorber system, the vehicle body
mass, and the individual wheel masses,
the wheel suspensions have a major in-
fluence on the driving characteristics of a
vehicle, as they influence the parameters
of the vehicle axle concerned that are rel-
evant to driving dynamics. These are, for
example:
– the track width,
– the toe-in or toe-out angle,
– the camber angle,
– the caster angle,
– the caster offset in wheel center,
– the spread angle,
– the spread offset,
– the kingpin offset,
– the disturbing force lever arm,
– the position of the rolling pole of the
axle and thus the orientation of the roll
axis,
– the location of the pitching pole,
– the braking and anti-squat control,
– the longitudinal and transversal springs.
For the definitions of the individual
wheel-suspension and vehicle param-
eters, refer to the chapter “Chassis sys-
tems”, section “Characteristics”:
Kinematics and
elastokinematics
During operation of the vehicle, the geom-
etry and kinematics of a wheel suspension
lead to changes in the characteristic pa-
rameters of the wheel suspension (for ex-
ample, caster angle, location of the rolling
pole) and wheel-position parameters (for
example, camber angle and toe angle) of
the corresponding wheel. This is the case,
for example, as a result of a movement of
the wheel within the framework of the ver-
tical degree of freedom permitted by the
wheel suspension (i.e., compression or
rebound movement of the wheel) or with
steerable wheel suspensions as a result
of a steering movement. Figure 1 shows
examples of the camber- and toe-angle
changes of a wheel suspension due to
kinematics during compression by the
compression path Δz in comparison with
the design position. As a rule, the kine-
matic wheel-position changes are shown
with the help of diagrams of the compres-
sion and rebound path of the wheel. The
so-called “wheel paths” for the camber-
and toe-angle changes of the wheel sus-
pension shown in Figures 1a and 1b are
shown in Figure 1c.
Due to the fact that the kinematic
changes to the wheel-suspension pa-
rameters and wheel-position parameters
have a great influence on the driving
characteristics of a vehicle, correct con-
figuration and coordination of the steer-
ing and wheel lift kinematics are of great
significance.
Alongside the changes to the wheel-posi-
tion parameters due to kinematics during
compression or rebound movements, the
forces and torques affecting the wheel
suspension (for example drive and brak-
ing forces, lateral and vertical forces in the
wheel contact point) in conjunction with
the elasticity of the suspension lead to
further wheel-position changes. The elas-
ticity of a wheel suspension results from
the deformability of the individual wheel
suspension components (for example
 Wheel suspensions 1147

links) and the bearings used when forces
and torques are applied. For reasons
related to driving comfort and acoustics,
the mounts used in modern wheel sus-
pensions are usually elastic mounts (for
example rubber mounts). Figure 2 shows
Figure 1: Kinematic wheel-position
changes in the case of compression
movement
a) Kinematic camber change (view from rear),
b) Kinematic toe-angle change (view from
above),
c) Wheel path.
Δz Compression path from the design
position,
Δγkin Kinematic camber-angle change,
Δδkin Kinematic toe-angle change.
a ∆γkin
z actions (for example by increasing the
y x
∆z
an example of a wheel suspension with
two rubber mounts fitted on the vehicle
body side; their elasticity when longitudi-
nal force occurs at the wheel contact point
leads to an elastokinematic change in the
toe angle of the wheel.
Alongside the kinematic wheel-position
changes, the elastokinematic effects also
influence the driving characteristics of a
vehicle. When coordinating the kinematics
and elastokinematics of a wheel suspen-
sion, this is why it is usually the aim that
the kinematic and elastokinematic effects
supplement one another when influenced
by forces and springs.
For example, elastokinematic steering
is used on a number of modern rear-axle
suspensions to reduce load change re-
toe-in when braking force affects the rear
wheel on the outside of the bend) [1]. It is
possible to influence the elastokinematic
properties of a wheel suspension by,
for example, coordinating the individual
mount elasticities or adjusting individual
mounting points.

b Figure 2: Elastokinematic toe-angle

x
change due to effect of longitudinal force
∆δkin y z Fx Longitudinal force (braking force),
Δδekin Elastokinematic toe-angle change,
1 Elastic shift of pivot point 1 (rubber
mounts),
2 Elastic shift of pivot point 2 (rubber
mounts). x

∆δekin y z
SFF0205-3E

1
c
Compression

Fx
Toe angle
Pos.
Neg. camber
path

camber angle 0 angle

Toe-out Toe-in
Rebound
path

2
SFF0206-2Y

Camber angle
1148 Chassis systems

Basic categories of wheel Figure 3: Design examples for rigid axles

suspensions
There are a large number of different
wheel suspensions. They are classified
primarily according to the type of suspen-
sion concept. An initial distinction is made
between rigid axles (dependent wheel
control), semi-rigid axles, and indepen-
dent wheel suspensions (independent
wheel control).
a) Longitudinal leaf-spring suspension,
b) Trailing and coupling-shaft links,
c) A-bracket with Watt linkage,
d) Trailing link with Panhard rod.
1 Rigid axle, 2 Leaf spring,
3 Trailing link, 4 Coupling-shaft link,
5 Coupling shaft, 6 Watt linkage,
7 Panhard rod.
a

Rigid axles
In the case of a rigid axle, the wheels of 2
an axle are firmly interconnected by a rigid 1
axle body, which leads to mutual influ-
ences on the wheels. Rigid axles are used
as both driven and non-driven rear axles 2
on heavy vehicles (for example off-road
vehicles, light utility vans, trucks). Occa-
sionally, however, their sturdy construc- b
tion and high ground clearance mean that
steerable variants are also used as front
axles (for example on off-road vehicles or 4
off-road trucks).
Guidance of a rigid axle in relation to 1
the vehicle body can be implemented 3
in different ways. On vehicles with leaf
springs, guidance is usually via the spring
leaves (Figure 3a). There are also a large
number of rigid axle concepts guided by c 3
links or coupling shafts (Figures 3b, 3c,
and 3d). Where links and coupling shafts
are used, statically undefined mounts are
selected to make linking at the vehicle 6
body easier and to reduce the required
space [3]. Refer to [2] for detailed explana- 1
tions of the individual axle variants. 5
The major advantages of rigid axles are
the simple and sturdy design, low costs, a 5
high roll center, high maximum wheel lift,
and high ground clearance. d
However, rigid axles also have a num-
ber of disadvantages that are inherent in
the design: the mutual wheel influence, 7
high unsprung mass, high installation
space requirement, as well as limited 3
3
possibilities to coordinate the kinematic 1
and elastokinematic factors.
3
Semi-rigid axles
Semi-rigid axles also involve a mechani- 3
SFF0207-3Y

cal coupling of the wheels. In contrast to

rigid axles, however, this coupling is not
rigid. The elasticity of the coupling profile
 Wheel suspensions 1149

that is used enables relative movements pling profile greatly simplifies the mount-
between the wheels. The coupling pro- ing of the trailing links compared to a trail-
file forms a cross-connection between ing-link independent wheel suspension.
two trailing links to which it is firmly con-
nected. Longitudinal forces are absorbed Semi-independent axles
via the trailing links. The bracing of lateral In comparison with twist beam axles, the
forces is supported by the stiffening effect coupling profile on a semi-independent
of the coupling profile. In order to guar-
antee a relative movement between the
two wheels of the axle, the coupling profile Figure 4: Design examples for semi-rigid
has to be designed as weak. Depending axles
on the arrangement of the coupling pro- a) Torsional-link axle with Panhard rod,
file, distinctions are made between tor- b) Twist-beam axle,
c) Semi-independent axle.
sional-link axles, twist-beam axles and 1 Trailing link,
semi-independent axles (Figure 4). 2 Coupling profile,
Due to their simple and low-cost design, 3 Panhard rod.
semi-rigid axles are widely used as rear
axles on vehicles with front-wheel drive. a
The advantages of this axle concept
include the low installation space require-
ment, the low unsprung masses, easy as-
sembly and removal, the stabilizing effect
of the coupling profile, the low track width 2
and toe-angle changes, as well as the
good anti-dive properties. 3
These advantages are offset by a num-
ber of disadvantages that are inherent in
the principle: the mutual wheel influence, 1
the low suitability for driven axles, the high
tension peaks at the transition points be- b
tween the trailing link and coupling profile,
the increase in the tendency to oversteer
in the event of influencing lateral forces
(lateral force oversteer) due to link defor-
mations, as well as limited kinematic and
elastokinematic optimization potential. 1

Torsional-link axles
In the case of torsional-link axles (Fig- 2
ure 4a), the two wheel carriers are con- 1
nected by means of a coupling profile c
arranged close to the wheel center. As
a rule, the lateral guidance of the axle is
supported by an additional guide element
(for example a Panhard rod) [2]. There are
great similarities to a rigid axle with regard
to both the structure and properties.
1
2
Twist-beam axles
In contrast, twist-beam axles (Figure 4b)
have kinematic properties similar to those 1
of trailing-link wheel suspensions. The
SFF0208-2Y

coupling profile is arranged at the height

of the pivot points of the trailing link. The
deployment and arrangement of the cou-
1150 Chassis systems
axle (Figure 4c) is not at the height of the
link pivot points rather is offset towards
the rear. This improves above all lateral
force bracing in comparison with the twist-
beam axle.
Independent wheel suspensions
Alongside semi-rigid axles – as rear axles
on vehicles with front-wheel drive – most
modern vehicles nowadays have inde-
pendent wheel suspensions where each
wheel is individually connected to the
vehicle body according to the desired de-
grees of freedom of movement. A wheel is
connected here with the help of a wheel
carrier and a corresponding number of
links.
The design (for example two-point links
or A-arm links) and arrangement of the
links (trailing links, transverse links or di-
agonal links) and the connecting mounts
determine the kinematic and elastokine-
matic properties of the wheel suspension.
The design of the individual links deter-
mines the number required to reduce the
freedom of movement of a wheel to the
desired number of degrees of freedom.
The number of links is frequently
used as the classification of suspension
types (for example, five-link independent
wheel suspension). The resulting type
of spatial movement (kinematics) of the
wheel during compression and rebound
movement is also frequently used for
the classification of independent wheel
suspensions [1], [3]. Depending on the
type of movement of the wheel carrier,
distinctions are made here between level,
spherical, and spatial independent wheel
suspensions [1], [3].
The proportion of independent wheel
suspensions in modern vehicles is rising
steadily. Compared to rigid and semi-rigid
axles, independent wheel suspensions
offer a number of advantages. For exam-
ple, there is no mutual wheel influence,
the kinematic and elastokinematic opti-
mization potential is high, and the space
requirement and unsprung mass are low
in some cases.
However, independent wheel suspen-
sions also have some disadvantages. In
some cases, they lead to a complex de-
sign, the costs are high, the maximum
wheel lift is low, and the configuration and
coordination process is more complex in
some cases.
There are large numbers of different de-
signs of independent wheel suspensions.
The basic principles of selected designs
are to be explained briefly in the follow-
ing section and their structures shown in
diagrams. For detailed explanations of
the individual designs and of other inde-
pendent wheel suspensions and specific
design examples, refer to [2].
Trailing-link independent
wheel suspension
On a trailing-link independent wheel
suspension, a wheel is connected to the
vehicle body by means of a single link
arranged in longitudinal direction (Figure
5a). The trailing link transfers both the lon-
gitudinal and lateral forces, which means
that high mount forces occur and the
mounts have to be designed accordingly.
The axis of rotation of the links runs
parallel to the vehicle transverse axis. The
advantages of this suspension form are
usually low installation space requirement
as well as low costs. The disadvantages
are the limited kinematic optimization pos-
sibilities, the instantaneous center located
at road height that causes high roll torque
on cornering, as well as the high stresses
placed on the links and their mounts.
Diagonal-link independent
wheel suspension
In the same way as on the trailing-link
wheel suspension, on the diagonal-link
wheel suspension the wheel is also con-
nected to the vehicle body by means of
a single link. However, to achieve better
bracing of the longitudinal and above all
lateral forces, the link is arranged diago-
nally (Figure 5b) and there is more space
between the mounting points. To achieve
more favorable kinematic properties, on
modern suspensions the axis of rotation
of the link is arranged diagonally both in
the projection to the vehicle lateral plane
(roof angle) and in the projection to the
road (V-shaped angle) [1].
Double-wishbone independent
wheel suspension
A double-wishbone independent suspen-
sion is when a wheel is connected to the
 Wheel suspensions 1151

vehicle body via two A-arm links. One link
is arranged below the wheel center and
the other is arranged above it (Figure 6a),
which enables the suspension to brace
all of the forces and torques that occur
at the wheel. As a rule, the high articula-
tion forces mean that the transverse links
are not directly connected to the vehicle
body structure but rather are secured to
a “chassis subframe” that interconnects
both wheel suspensions and thus relieves
the load of inner forces on the vehicle
body.
With adaptation of the mounts and
design of the links, double-wishbone
independent suspensions provide very
high kinematic optimization potential [2].
Depending on the location of the axes
of rotation of the links, level, spherical or
spatial wheel suspension kinematics are
achieved [3]. The disadvantages of dou-
ble-wishbone independent suspensions
are the higher costs as well as the greater
installation space requirement.
Figure 6: Double-wishbone and spring-
strut independent wheel suspension
a) Double-wishbone independent wheel
suspension,
b) Spring-strut independent wheel suspension,
c) Damper-strut independent wheel suspension.
1 Wheel carrier,
2 Upper A-arm link,
3 Lower A-arm link,
4 Spring damper strut,
5 Tie rod (steering).
a

2
Figure 5: Trailing- and diagonal-link
independent wheel suspension 1
a) Trailing-link independent wheel suspension, 5 2
b) D iagonal-link independent wheel suspension.
1 Trailing link, 3
2 Diagonal link. 5 1

a 3
b

1 5
1 4

1 3 5
4

1
b 3
c

4 5
2 1
6
2 3 4
5
6
SFF0209-2Y

UFF0210-4Y

1
3
1152 Chassis systems
Spring-strut independent
wheel suspension
The kinematics of a spring strut wheel
suspension correspond to those of a dou-
ble-wishbone independent suspension
in which the upper transverse link is re-
placed by a sliding guide (Figure 6b). This
sliding guide corresponds to the spring
strut on other suspensions (in the case of
a combined spring-shock absorber unit)
or the shock absorber strut (in the case
of separate spring and shock absorber
arrangement) where the housing is rigidly
connected to the wheel carrier. With this
design, the shock absorber rod also as-
sumes wheel guidance tasks.
The lower link plane of a spring-strut
suspension is usually formed by two two-
point links (radius links) or an A-arm link.
In the case of a suspension using the
McPherson principle, originally the lower
A-arm link was formed from a transverse
link and a stabilizer. Nowadays, however,
other spring-strut suspensions are also
referred to as McPherson axles.
Advantages of the spring-strut wheel
suspension are above all the low con-
struction overhead and low amount of
space required at the height of the wheel
axes which can be used in particular in the
case of passenger cars with front-wheel
drive with laterally installed engine-trans-
mission units. Other advantages are the
cost-saving and weight-saving design,
simple installation and assembly, as
well as the high degree of integration.
On specifying the kinematics, however,
spring-strut suspensions offer slightly less
leeway for configuration, among others of
scrub radius and deflection-force lever
arm, in comparison with double-wishbone
independent suspensions.
Damper-strut independent
wheel suspension
Kinematically similar to the McPherson
axle, here too the supension-linkage func-
tion is assumed (Figure 6c) and requires a
twin-tube shock damper to support the lat-
eral forces. There are advantages in relation
to the larger package requirement thanks
to the omission of the spring-induced lat-
eral forces on the damper (for improved
response), reduced tendency to wear, and
easier repair when changing the springs.
Multilink independent wheel suspension
Wheel suspensions with four or five single
links are generally referred to as multilink
axles. Multilink axles result, for example,
from breaking down an A-arm link into two
individual two-point links in the case of a
double wishbone axle (Figure 7a). Break-
ing down three-point links and the use of
independent two-point links usually result
in greater leeway for configuration of the
kinematic and elastokinematic properties
of the axle. On the one hand, this increases
the optimization of the axle with regard to
comfort and driving safety requirements.
On the other hand, the somewhat complex
design increases the overhead involved
in the configuration and coordination pro-
cesses for the wheel suspension.
Trapezoidal-link independent
wheel suspension
Trapezoidal-link wheel suspensions (Fig-
ure 7b) are a special form of the multi-
link independent wheel suspension that
is mainly used as rear axles. The lower
plane is formed by a trapezoidal link that
has two connection points on the wheel
side and an axis of rotation on the vehicle
body side. This means the lower link sets
a total of three degrees of freedom of the
wheel. Another two degrees of freedom
are eliminated by two two-point links ar-
ranged accordingly so that only the de-
sired compression degree of freedom of
the wheel remains.
Control-blade independent
wheel suspension
Another design of multilink independent
wheel suspensions is the control blade
axle on which the wheel is guided by one
trailing link and three transverse links
(Figure 7c). The trailing link (control-blade
link) is connected to the vehicle body in
such a way that it can be rotated and is
firmly connected to the wheel carrier. As
a rule, it has elastic properties in order
to enable kinematic track and camber
changes. The lateral forces are braced via
three two-point transverse links which are
usually arranged in two planes (one above
and one below the center of the wheel).
The arrangement and orientation of the
transverse links determines the kinematic
properties of the wheel suspension.
 Wheel suspensions 1153

Figure 7: Design examples for multilink Five-link independent wheel suspension

independent wheel suspensions A wheel suspension with completely de-
a) Multilink independent wheel suspension, tached links requires five individual two-
b) Trapezoidal-link independent wheel sus- point links to reduce the movement of a
pension, wheel to the desired vertical degree of
c) Control-blade independent wheel suspension, freedom (Figure 7d). Five-link rear axles
d) Five-link independent wheel suspension.
1 Wheel carrier, 2 Two-point link, are generally referred to as multilink sus-
3 A-arm link, 4 Tie rod (steering), pensions, whereby on the front axle this is
5 Trapezoidal link, 6 Control blade. referred to as a four-link axle plus tie rod [2].
a
________________________________
3 References
[1] L. Eckstein: Vertikal- und Querdynamik
4 von Kraftfahrzeugen. ika/fka 2010.
1
2 [2] B. Heissing, M. Ersoy (Editors): Fahr-
3 werkhandbuch. Vieweg+Teubner Verlag,
2 4 2008.
1 [3] M. Matschinsky: Radführungen
2 der Straßenfahrzeuge. Springer-Verlag,
2 2007.
b
2

2
1 2

5
2 1

5
c

2
1 2
2 2
6 1

2 2

d
6
2

2
1 2
2 2

2 2
2
2
1
2
SFF0211-4Y
1154 Chassis systems
Wheels
Function and requirements
All of the vehicle-specific or axle-specific
tasks are performed via the wheel, e. g.
transfer of dynamic forces between the
vehicle and road surface. These include
taking up the vehicle load and the impact
forces of the road surface, transferring the
rotary motion of the axles to the tires, and
taking up and transferring braking and ac-
celeration forces as well as lateral forces
when cornering. Wheel size is mainly
determined by the space required by the
braking system, the axle components,
and the size of the tires used.
Wheels have primarily a technical func-
tion. But the increasingly booming light-
alloy wheel market calls for visually attrac-
tive designs.
Figure 1: Structure of a disk wheel
1 Rim inner flange,
2 Rim base,
3 Rim outer flange,
4 Ventilation hole,
5 Wheel disk,
6 Pitch-circle diameter,
7 Center hole,
8 Dish.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
SFR0040Y
Structure
The wheel is a load-bearing, rotating part
between the tire and the axle. It usually
consists of two main components – the
rim and the wheel disk. These two com-
ponents can be made from a single part,
and can also be permanently or non-per-
manently attached to each other. A per-
manent connection of a rim with a wheel
disk is called a disk wheel.
Figure 1 shows the basic structure of a
steel wheel. Here the rim mounts the tire
and the wheel disk connects the wheel
to the axle.
In daily usage the terms rim and wheel
are often interchanged. The term rim is
often used when actually the complete
wheel is meant. The “wheel” in general
usage often also refers to the tire. How-
ever, as a technical term in automotive
engineering “wheel” generally means the
wheel without the tire.
Wheel disk
The wheel disk (wheel nave) is the part
that connects the rim to the axle hub. In
the case of a steel wheel, the wheel disk
consists of a formed steel-sheet blank.
This has holes for ventilating the brake
system and is usually curved (dish, see
Figure 1). The center of the wheel disk
contains the center hole and the wheel-
bolt or stud holes. The wheel is secured to
the axle through these holes. The center
hole is provided with a locating bore by
means of which the wheel is radially cen-
tered on the axle. This bore determines
together with the rim bead seat (for the
bead ledge) the wheel’s true-running
quality (via the radial run-out). The attach-
ment face is, together with the rim flanges,
responsible for lateral wheel run-out.
In the case of an aluminum wheel, the
wheel disk can, due to its design, have
different shapes such that the term wheel
disk is no longer applicable.
 Wheels 1155

Rim heavy, comfortable vehicles of the upper

The term rim strictly speaking describes
only the radially outermost part of the
wheel which holds the tire. The rim is
therefore the fundamental connecting ele-
ment between the wheel disk and the tire.
In a tubeless tire it provides the air seal
and is geometrically matched to the tire.
The most commonly used shape of rim is
divided into four zones (Figure 2):
– rim flange (inner and outer),
– hump (inner and outer),
– rim bead seat (inner and outer),
– rim base and drop center.
There are also different shapes for pas-
senger cars (Figure 3).
Rim flange
The rim is limited on the inner and outer
sides by a rim flange (rim inner flange and
rim outer flange). It acts as the side stop
for the tire bead (see Tires) and absorbs
the forces resulting from the tire pressure
and the axial tire load. The rim flange is
specified in the guidelines of the ETRTO
price segment.
Rim bead seat
The rim bead seat describes the contact
zone of the tire with the rim. It centers the
tire radially. In this zone the tire is given the
correct position for radial and lateral true
running. All the dynamic driving forces
are transferred here. In the tubeless tires
mainly used today in passenger cars the
wheel/tire system is sealed at the rim
bead seat.
Figure 3: Rim systems
for passenger cars
a) Passenger-car drop-center rim
(standard rim),
b) EH2+ rim (extended hump),
c) PAX rim
(Pneu Accrochage, X stands for
Michelin radial-tire technology),
d) CTS rim (Conti Tire System),
steel-wheel version.
1 Rim flange, 2 Tapered bead seat,
3 Hump, 4 Drop center.
M Flange-to-flange width,
D Nominal rim diameter,

UFR0038-1Y
(European Tyre and Rim Technical Or- DH Hump diameter.
ganisation) by, for example, J, K, JK or B.
In this way, the geometry of the rim flange
a M
and the ratio to the drop center are dimen-
sionally described. This is based on how 2 3
the wheel is used.
1 4
The most common rim-flange shape for
passenger cars is the J flange shape. The
5º
D

lower B flange can be found on smaller

vehicles and in inflatable spare tire sys- b M
tems. K and JK flanges are rarely used 1
any more; they used to be the domain of 1 3 3
2 2
Figure 2: Rim zones
DH

4
D

1 Rim flange,
2 Rim bead seat,
3 Hump, c M
4 Rim base, 1
5 Drop center. 2
1
4
2
1 2 3 5 4 3 2 1
15º + 1º
D

d M
5 + 1º

2 2
SFR0042-1Y

1 1
D
1156 Chassis systems
Rim base
The rim base connects the inner and
outer rim bead seats. The drop-center
rim is primarily used in passenger cars.
Drop-center rims have a clearly defined
shape with a drop-center rim base (drop
center). When the tire is mounted on the
wheel, the tire is initially positioned with
one side of the tire bead in the drop center
so that it can be pulled over the rim flange
on the opposite side. The drop center is
the required shaping of the rim base to
mount the tire base (tire bead, tire inner
ring) when fitting and removing the tire.
Hump
The hump is the all-round raised bead in
the area of the rim bead seat (Figure 4). It
is prescribed in many countries for tube-
less tires. In the event of low tire pressure
the hump is intended to prevent the tire
from coming off the rim bead seat. The
following hump shapes are customary:
– H: round hump on one side on the outer
bead seat,
– H2: round hump on both sides,
– FH: flat hump on the outer bead seat,
– CH: combination hump,
flat hump on the outer bead seat,
round hump on the inner bead seat,
– EH2: extended hump on both sides.
Primarily H2 rims are used in passenger
cars. H rims (formerly also called H1) are
also used in commercial vehicles and
older vehicles as well. The major differ-
ences are between the standard hump
shape (H) and the flat hump (FH). Newly
included in the standard is the extended
hump (EH2) with slightly larger hump
diameter, which is used in some cases,
particularly with “run flat” tire systems.
Rim and wheel dimensions
Terms
The most important terms for the function
and design of a wheel are (Figure 5):
– rim diameter (nominal diameter, dimen-
sion from rim bead seat to rim bead
seat),
– rim circumference (measured value,
determined with bead tape around the
rim bead seat),
– flange-to-flange width (rim width, inside
dimension between the rim flanges),
– center-hole diameter (centering diam-
eter, as size of fit),
– rim offset ET (dimension in mm from
the rim center to the attachment face of
the disk wheel),
– pitch-circle diameter (diameter of the
circle on which the center points of the
bolt holes are situated),
– flange height (measured from the rim
nominal diameter to the saddle point of
the flange radius).
The rim offset determines the position
of the wheel in the vehicle. The wheel is
generally secured to the brake-disk cham-
ber or to the brake drum. With a rim offset
ET = 0 wheel attachment is exactly in the
middle of the rim width. Changing the rim
offset changes the position of the wheel
and with it the track width of the vehicle.
A smaller rim offset equates to a wider
Figure 4: Hump shapes
a) Hump,
b) Flat hump.
D Nominal rim diameter,
DH Hump diameter.
a
5 + 1º
DH
D
5 + 1º
b
UFR0039-1Y
DH
D
 Wheels 1157

track width, a larger rim offset equates to gle part or from multiple parts. According
a narrower track width. to EU standardization single-part rims
must be identified with a “×” (e. g. 6J ×
Rim size 15H2) and multiple-part rims with a “-”.
The basic dimensions of a rim size using
a commercial-vehicle disk wheel with 15° Drop-center rims for passenger cars
tapered bead seat rim by way of example and light utility vehicles
is 22.5 × 8.25 inches. The first value gives The rim base is recessed for tire mount-
the rim diameter in inches, the second ing. The drop-center rim can be made
value the flange-to-flange width in inches.
Figure 6: Rim design types
Rim designs a) Drop-center rim,
Depending on the intended purpose and b) 15° tapered bead seat rim,
the tire design, there are a range of differ- c) Wide 15° tapered bead seat rim,
d) 5° tapered bead seat rim,
ent cross-sectional rim shapes available e) Two-part passenger-car rim.
(Figure 6): Rims can be made from a sin- 1 Hump,
2 Rim base,
Figure 5: Rim and wheel dimensions 3 Flange-to-flange width,
(Picture source: MAN Nutzfahrzeuge Group), 4 Rim flange,
1 Bolt holes, 5 15° tapered bead seat,
2 Rim center, 6 5° tapered bead seat,
D Rim diameter, 7 Sealant,
ET Rim offset, 8 Wheel disk,
L Pitch-circle diameter, 9 Bolt.
M Flange-to-flange width, a
N Center-hole diameter, 1 2
S Tire width.

M b 3

c 4 5

15°

d 6
D

N
L

2
ET

5°

4
e 7

S
SFR0045-1Y

SFR0043-3Y

9
8
1158 Chassis systems
from one part (Figure 6a) or two parts
(Figure 6e). The two-part rim is divided
into a front half and a rear half which are
bolted to each other in the drop center
through an all-round pitch circle and to
the wheel disk. A sealing ring or a sealing
compound is used to provide the seal. The
two-part variant traces its origins back to
motor sport and offered the advantage of
being able to replace one rim half in the
event of damage. The tire is mounted in
exactly the same way as on the single-
part rim.
15° tapered bead seat rim
for commercial vehicles
The 15° tapered bead seat rim (Figures 6b
and 6c) is made from a single part. The
rim base is for tire-mounting purposes
provided with a drop center to which the
15° tapered bead seats are connected.
The 15° tapered bead seat rim with drop
center is necessary to enable the benefits
of the tubeless tire to be e­ xploited on
heavy commercial vehicles too.
5° tapered bead seat rim
The 5° tapered bead seat rim (Figure 6d),
also called flat-base rim, is made from
multiple parts. This is needed to mount
the tires. The outer 5° tapered bead seat,
which is non-permanently connected to
the outer rim flange, can be removed. The
outer 5° tapered bead seat is held on the
rim base by an all-round sealing ring.
The tire is pushed onto the rim base
when the 5° tapered bead seat is removed.
The fact that the rim is made from multiple
parts means that a tube is required. The
two bead seats have a 5° taper.
These rim systems have advantages
when it comes to changing tires. How-
ever, they are heavier than 15° tapered
bead seat rims and do not exhibit the good
­radial and lateral true-running properties
of single-part rims.
Special trims
for special wheel/tire systems
PAX (Pneu Accrochage, X stands for
Michelin radial tire technology) and CTS
(Conti Tire System) are distinct rim ge-
ometries which can only be used with
specially developed tires. This design is
used primarily on armored vehicles. The
complete system is designed to permit
continued driving with a punctured tire
without the tire coming off the rim. The two
systems also prevent the tire from being
destroyed by thermal load during driving
when punctured. With a conventional rim
base the sidewall folds up when the tire is
punctured and friction occurs.
In the PAX system (Figures 3c and 7b)
from Michelin an additional support ring is
mounted on the rim base; the punctured
tire rests on this support ring.
The CTS system from Continental
does not have an additional support ring.
The tire reaches round the rim base and
can rest when punctured on the rim base
(Figures 3d and 7c). Both run-flat systems
are required by law to have a tire-pressure
control system.
Figure 7: Special shapes
for special wheel/tire systems
a) PAX system with reinforced run-flat tire,
b) PAX system with support ring,
c) CT system (cast-wheel variant),
d) Conventional wheel-tire system.
1 Rim,
2 Run-flat
tire with a
reinforced
sidewall, 2
3 Tire,
5 1
4 Support ring,
5 Valve with
tire-pressure b
control.
4
5
c 3
1
d 3
SFR0067-1Y
1
 Wheels 1159

Design criteria Designation

for passenger-car wheels
Passenger-car wheels
Design criteria for passenger-car wheels A typical wheel designation for passen-
include: ger-car wheels is, for example:
– High durability, 6 ½ J x 16 H2 ET30.
– Good support for brake cooling,
– Reliable wheel mounting, 6 ½ Dimension of rim width in inches,
– Low radial and lateral run-out, J Rim-flange geometry,
– Small space requirement, × Single-part rim base,
– Good corrosion protection, 16 Dimension of rim diameter in
– Low weight, inches,
– Low costs, H2 Rim hump at the inner and outer
– Problem-free tire fitting, rim bead seats,
– Good tire seating, ET Rim offset,
– Good balance-weight seating 30 Dimension of rim offset in mm.
(see Wheel with tire),
– Appealing design (for aluminum The designation and the associated
wheels), dimensions with permitted tolerances
­
– In part requirements to improve have been prescribed as binding and
­vehicle aerodynamics (cd value). standardized by worldwide recognized
standards organizations such as ETRTO
Special requirements (European Tyre and Rim Technical Orga-
for commercial-vehicle wheels nization) or ISO (International Standards
Wheels for commercial vehicles are tech- Organization) to harmonize rim and tire
nologically highly sophisticated. Whereas dimensions.
racing-car wheels are geared towards
maximum speed, commercial-vehicle
wheels carry high tonnages at simulta-
neously – compared with excavators for
example – high speed. In Europe, for ex-
ample, long-distance commercial ­vehicles
travel with a total weight of 40 tons at a
speed of 80 km/h. It is essential when
establishing the minimum tire size for a
commercial-vehicle axle always to start
out from the permissible axle load and the
top speed dictated by the vehicle design.
The larger the load to be transported
and the rougher the terrain to be nego-
tiated, the more important it is to take
into account the – sometimes compet-
ing – rim-design requirements. High load
capacity is to be achieved by designing
an appropriate wheel shape and using
optimum materials. High fatigue strength
is essential to increasing road safety. Low
wheel weight optimizes payload and is
required because the wheel, as an un-
sprung, rotating mass, influences the
overall vehicle oscillatory system.
1160 Chassis systems
Materials for wheels
There are basically steel and light-alloy
wheels. The material must always be
specified in connection with the manufac-
turing technology. The following overview
is intended to simplify systematization.
Classification of wheels
Steel wheel
A steel wheel consists of two parts, the
rim and the wheel disk. Steel wheels are
made from hot-rolled sheet steel in a
forming process under rolling and bend-
ing conditions and joined by welding.
Light-alloy wheel
Light-alloy wheels are usually made of
aluminum or magnesium alloys. They are
produced using a variety of technologies.
The aluminum wheel is produced as a
cast wheel, forged wheel, sheet-metal
wheel, or hybrid wheel. The magnesium
wheel is only produced as a cast wheel.
The advantages of lightweight wheels
are improved vibrational behavior, re-
sponsive suspension, reduced fuel con-
sumption, and higher payloads. Light-alloy
wheels are used in commercial-vehicle
applications in particular in weight-sen-
sitive transportation jobs. These jobs
include the transportation of tanks and
silos, where not exceeding the maximum
transportation weight is of ­primary impor-
tance. In these situations the higher-cost
light-alloy wheels usually pay for them-
selves within the first year of use.
Plastic wheel
Plastic wheels are made in an injection-
molding process from mineral-fiber-rein-
forced polyamide and with metal inserts.
Materials
Sheet steel
In all the cheapest variant of passen-
ger-car wheels is manufactured from
hot-rolled and pickled sheet steel strip
unrolled from the coil. The very good
­mechanical properties of this material
provide for thin-walled wheel designed
which are manufactured in highly auto-
mated, high-precision forming processes
under bending conditions to finishing
­dimensions with close tolerances.
The continuous trend towards light-
weight construction particularly since
the CO2 discussion has accelerated
the use of high-strength, fine-grained
structural steel. Its high tensile strength
(600…750 N/mm2) and very good form-
ability and weldability enable lightweight,
and cost-effective wheels to be manufac-
tured efficiently.
Further potential for weight savings
can be opened up by the use of “tai-
lored blanks” for rim production. Here the
sheet thickness of the starting material
is adapted to the stresses in the wheel,
in the course of which material strips of
sheets of different thicknesses are joined
by laser welding to create a blank.
Aluminum sheet
Aluminum sheet as an alternative to sheet
steel can be more easily formed and is
also – albeit thanks to more expensive
methods (MIG welding) – more readily
weldable. The manufacturing overhead is
greater relative to steel wheels and the
material costs are comparatively high,
which prevents a wider range of appli-
cations. The use of high-strength sheet
steels has greatly reduced the original
weight advantage of aluminum sheet
with the result that a cost/benefit analysis
comes out in favor of steel wheels.
Light-metal alloys
Light-metal alloys are based in the main
on aluminum alloys and in rare cases (e. g.
in motor sport) on magnesium alloys. In
the case of aluminum wheels, a distinc-
tion is made between cast and forge al-
loys depending on the manufacturing
method used.

Cast alloys
Aluminum cast wheels are manufactured
in low-pressure diecasting from aluminum
alloys. The cast blank is formed in a steel
mold, which is filled with liquid molten
mass and cooled under controlled con-
ditions to solidify. Aluminum alloys with a
silicon content of between 7 and 11 % are
used, depending on whether good cast-
ability or high strength is to be achieved.
Two alloys have proven successful.
GK-AlSi11 is used for small wheels (up
to 16 inches) with low wheel loads. The
outstanding castability thanks to the high
silicon content provides for highly effi-
cient production with low reject rates due
to casting defects. This alloy cannot be
hardened by heat treatment. The wheels
are therefore designed with greater wall
thicknesses, which is reflected in slightly
higher weights.
GK-AlSi7Mg is used for large wheels
with a higher wheel load and for weight-
optimized wheels. Adding 0.2…0.5 %
magnesium to the aluminum alloy in-
creases the strength of the cast wheel as
a result of subsequent heat treatment (so-
lution heat treatment and aging at warm
temperature). This advantage is exploited
to meet high load requirements during ve-
hicle operation with a minimum of material
usage.
To ensure that the high requirements
with regard to strength, tightness and
ductility placed on these safety-related
vehicle components are met, only pure
primary aluminum is used as the start-
ing material. Contamination of the alloy
with iron would cause acicular structures
to form, which in turn would weaken the
mechanical properties (elongation at frac-
ture and tensile strength). Contamination
with copper would reduce the chemical
stability.
Wheels 1161
Forge alloy
Aluminum forged wheels are used in pas-
senger cars when light, weight-optimized
wheels are required and the target weight
cannot be achieved with cast wheels.
The increased hardness of the aluminum
wrought alloy caused by the forging pro-
cess (increase in mechanical strength
due to plastic deformation) enables the
wheel to be designed with a thinner wall,
which means that less material needs to
be used and thus the wheel is lighter.
The starting material takes the form of
round continuously cast bars of AlSi1Mg
which are sawn into precisely “portioned”
disks. These are subjected to a three- to
four-stage forging process to create the
visible side (design side, disk, spider)
and a flow-forming process to create the
rim. As well as being hardened by plastic
deformation the material is modified by a
heat-treatment process.
Magnesium alloys
Whereas magnesium alloys have been
unable to establish themselves in volume
production – due to higher production
costs in view of special safety precautions
(risk of fire during cutting) – they are used
in individual cases for special-purpose
­vehicles and racing cars.
Plastics
The use of plastic as a material for wheels
is still in the developmental stage due in
particular to insufficient high-temperature
strength and difficult wheel mounting and
manufacture. In particular the insufficient
impact strength and thermal load capabil-
ity as well as the incalculable long-term
properties mean that plastic currently
­appears to make little sense as a material
for a safety component such as the disk
wheel in automobile construction.
1162 Chassis systems
Manufacturing processes
Steel wheels
When the text refers to passenger-car
and commercial-vehicle steel wheels, ex-
clusively sheet-steel wheels are what are
meant. Other manufacturing processes
such as casting and forging are not used
for this material to manufacture wheels.
Passenger-car steel wheels consists
of two parts: the wheel disk and the rim.
They are welded to each other at the end
of the production process. Both the wheel
disk and the rim are manufactured in
volume production on fully linked, highly
automated production lines by means of
forming processes under bending condi-
tions. Smaller quantities can be produced
more economically on individual presses.
Manufacturing the wheel disk
To manufacture the wheel disk the mate-
rial required is unrolled directly from the
coil, straightened flat and fed to a large
transfer press with a force of pressure of
approx. 40,000 kN. The press is equipped
with a nine- to eleven-stage follow-on
composite tool, in which the sheet blank
is automatically routed with each press
stroke from station to station.
A square blank with rounded corners is
punched in the first machining step. Then
in three to four stages the wheel disk and
the center-hole area are formed by deep-
drawing and stamping operations. In the
next two or three stations the ventilation
holes are punched with wedge driving
tools and then stamped on the tool outlet
side. The stamping replaces deburring of
the pointed cutting edges and reduces
the wheel’s susceptibility to cracking un-
der load.
Finally, the wheel designations are
stamped on the reverse side and the
calotte- or cone-shaped wheel-stud at-
tachment faces are formed. In the last
stage the wheel disk is calibrated to the
finishing dimension for joining with the rim.
Manufacturing the rim
The rim material is likewise unrolled from
the sheet coil, straightened and cut to
length. The strips are stacked and for-
warded to the automated rim production
line. Here the sheet strip is shaped in a
bending machine between three cylinder
rolls into a ring and joined at the junction
point in a butt-seam welding machine. The
upsetting flash created in the process is
then planed away on the inside and out-
side and the weld seam is smoothed by
rollers. The unavoidable upsetting flash
also on the side edges is then deburred
and rounded.
The final rim contour is created on
roller-burnishing machines by three con-
secutive forming steps, each with three
profile rollers. The contour of the tool roll-
ers is transferred to the rim here.
Where necessary, flow-forming is used
to adapt the wall thickness and material
distribution in the rim profile to the loads
involved, thus saving more weight.
In the next operation the valve bore is
produced on a rotary table. In the first sta-
tion a flat attachment face is struck, from
which the bore is punched in the second
cycle. The cutting edges are then rounded
on both sides by stamping.
Finally, the rim is drawn in a press onto
a gage with the exact finishing dimension
in order to create the tight concentricity
and lateral-running tolerances (calibra-
tion).
Joining the wheel disk and rim
The process of joining the wheel disk to
the rim creates the steel wheel. The two
wheel parts – wheel disk and rim – are
routed to a fully automated welding instal-
lation. On a small press they are aligned to
each other and then joined to each other
in a precisely specified position.
In the next station the assembly is con-
nected by shielded arc welding with four
to eight weld seams. These are deslagged
and cleaned by rotating brushes adapted
to the wheel. Then the wheel is calibrated
to the finishing dimensions and made
available for surface treatment.

The manufacturing process for steel
wheels is so precise that the blank wheel is
able to move on to the painting plant with-
out any mechanical reworking. There, as a
general principle, it runs through ­cathodic
dip coating and, if stipulated, is given an
additional visually appealing ­finishing coat.
Sheet-steel wheels are characterized
in particular by their robustness and,
thanks to their low manufacturing costs,
are o­ ffered in the entry-level equipment
specs of vehicle models.
Aluminum wheels
Aluminum-sheet wheels
For the most part, the basic manufacturing
process is identical to that of the sheet-
steel wheel. In view of the lower strength,
the wall thickness must be greater com-
pared with the sheet-steel wheel. Despite
engineers having full mastery of the tech-
nology, aluminum-sheet wheels have not
gained acceptance because steel wheels
as a whole are the more economical
wheel variant and the design options are
very limited.
Aluminum forged wheels
As the name suggests, a forged wheel is
created by the hot forming of an aluminum
round blank between two forming tools.
The forming process takes place in two
stages – the forging of the wheel front and
rear sides between two defined tools and
the flow-forming of the rim contour.
The starting material for aluminum
forged wheels takes the form of 6 m long
continuously cast bars of AlSi1Mg with a
diameter of 200…300 mm, depending on
the planned wheel size. After an ultrasonic
test the cavity-free bar sections are sawn
off to a predefined length. The saw sup-
port – a cylinder approx. 250 mm in diam-
eter and 150 mm high – is fed to the auto-
mated forging line. This consists of a
heating furnace and up to four consecu-
tive forging presses with forces of pres-
sure of 8,000…40,000 kN. Parts are
handled between the presses by robots.
The result of this first forming process is
blank with the finished design of the wheel
disk, a punched-out center hole and a
ring-shaped material reservoir positioned
around the circumference with the mate-
rial scheduled for the rim.
Wheels 1163
In flow-forming operation involving three
rollers the ring-shaped disk is split open
(hence the term “split wheel”) and rolled
out on a bell-shaped tool to make the rim.
Before being machined, the forged
blank is subjected to heat treatment to
improve the mechanical properties. The
complete wheel contour is turned on
two consecutive lathes (i. e. machined to
­finishing dimension). Then the bolt holes
and the valve hole are drilled and milled
on a machining center. The concluding
polishing process gives the wheel its
­reflecting luster.
This high-precision machining ensures
that every wheel runs absolutely true.
There is no radial or lateral run-out.
If small batch sizes do not justify the
manufacture of a forging tool, a special
form of forged-wheel production is used.
This involves the manufacture of a forged
blank in the shape of a thick-walled cylin-
der whose base is a disk representing the
rotation contour of the design and of the
inner side of the wheel. With high machin-
ing overhead, the wheel design is usually
100 % milled and the rim base first flow-
formed and then turned.
Aluminum cast wheels
The most common method used is low-
pressure mold casting. In the casting
machine the aluminum molten mass
tempered under controlled conditions is
located in a crucible underneath the mold.
The mold and crucible are connected by
means of a feed tube. Once the mold is
closed, the pressure in the crucible is
increased to approx. 1 bar, causing the
molten mass in the feed tube to rise and
fill the mold.
Fusion heat is drawn off during the
solidification process through precisely
defined cooling channels in the mold. The
specific cooling and heat removal during
the solidification process and the casting
parameters in their entirety (pressure,
temperature and time) are decisive fac-
tors for the casting quality.
1164 Chassis systems
The production process is completely au-
tomated from the casting stage. The cast
blanks removed by robot arms pass via
linked conveyors through the following
machining stages until they are automati-
cally stacked and packed as wheels in the
dispatch area:
– casting,
– removal of riser bore,
– X-ray test,
– heat treatment,
– machining,
– brushing and deburring,
– leak test,
– painting,
– dispatch.
In the X-ray test all the blanks are tested
for casting defects according to specifica-
tions stipulated by the customer. The
­defective parts with casting defects that
are not visible from the outside, e. g. po-
rosity or shrink holes (cavities, material
breaks) and inclusions or contaminants,
are separated out and returned to the
melting furnace.
The automated run is interrupted only
before the painting stage so as to form
production batches which are painted the
same color.
Flow-forming process
Where necessary, it is possible to use a
modified, slightly more sophisticated pro-
cess to manufacture weight-optimized cast
wheels, so-called “flow-forming wheels”.
This produces a weight saving of around
0.9 kg for a 19" wheel. For the flow-form-
ing process, the cast blank is made in a
similar way to that used in forging. A ring
is provided around the design surface in-
stead of the formed rim contour as a
­material deposit for the rim. This ring is
processed in a specially designed ma-
chining cell as follows:
– preturning for rolling,
– heating,
– rolling out of the rim (flow-forming).
The blank formed in this way is returned to
the “normal” manufacturing process prior
to heat treatment.
Another way of manufacturing weight-
optimized wheels is to insert lost cores in
zones of the wheel subject to less stress.
Thus, aluminum is replaced by cavities,
for example in the spoke, but also much
more rarely in the hump. Accordingly
there are hollow-spoke wheels and hol-
low-hump wheels.
Squeeze-cast process
The squeeze cast process attempts to
exploit the advantages of diecasting for
aluminum wheels. An exactly portioned
amount of molten aluminum is pressed
under high pressure into a diecasting
mold under exactly defined casting
­parameters. The great advantage lies in
the high solidification speed with positive
effects on the material structure. Other
advantages are the significantly lower
­machining overhead – and thus less ma-
terial usage – and the relatively high out-
put and longer mold service life. This cast-
ing process is used in individual cases,
but it ­requires special, relatively complex
casting machines and molds. This pro-
cess has yet to gain acceptance.

Wheel design variations
Single- or multiple-part
design variation
Sheet-steel and aluminum-sheet wheels
consist of two parts. In this design wheel
disk and rim are welded to each other. In
the case of forged light-alloy wheels and
cast wheels, the one-piece version domi-
nates.
Multiple-part versions, even those which
are made of different materials (e. g. mag-
nesium wheel disk and aluminum rim),
are available mainly for tuning applica-
tions and for sports vehicles. Multiple-part
wheels trace their origin back to motor
sport. Mechanics exploited the advantage
of being able to replace the damaged
parts. In tuning applications, for example,
the possibility of standardized rim rings
and disks is used to create a large number
of different wheel dimensions. For the
most part, however, multiple parts no lon-
ger have a technical background and are
now only used for visual reasons. Multiple-
part wheels are subdivided into two- and
three-part wheels.
Wheel spider
The wheel spider on cast wheels refers to
the area of the spokes, which is repre-
sented in a steel wheel as the wheel disk
and is for the most part provided with
openings. Ventilation holes, slits and
openings in the wheel disk or the wheel
spider serve on the one hand to reduce
weight, and on the other hand to ventilate
the brake system and to enhance the
­visual design of the wheel. Set against this
is the present-day requirement also to op-
timize the effects of the wheel with regard
to the entire aerodynamics of the vehicle.
Depending on the dynamic behavior of
the body, a positive effect can be achieved
here by keeping the area of the openings
small and fashioning the geometry of the
spokes as flat as possible. This measure
has a more negative impact on the weight
of the wheel such that it is now more com-
mon to find plastic parts on an aluminum
wheel which are intended to aerodynami-
cally optimize the wheel.
Wheels 1165
Rim variants
Rims used for passenger cars, vans and
light utility vehicles are almost always
drop-center rims with H2 double humps
(rarely with FH or FH2 flat humps), tapered
bead seats, and J section rim flange. Less
common on smaller vehicles is the lower
flange shape B, which today is used pri-
marily in compact spare wheels. The
higher flange shapes, JK and K, are rare
on modern vehicles, and then only on
heavy vehicles.
Lightweight-construction
­technologies
Hollow-spoke technology with sand cast-
ing cores or ceramic cores remaining
(lost) in the wheel also provides good pos-
sibilities to reduce weight, but it requires
a suitable design and special manufactur-
ing equipment. This process is also as-
sociated with higher costs.
More widely used today is the flow-form-
ing process for cast wheels, in which the
rim base is only partly precast and then
rolled out by machine to the correspond-
ing rim width. The compressed m ­ aterial
provides for thinner wall thicknesses with
reduced weight in the rim base.
“Structural wheels” are used, among other
things, as spare wheels or as road wheels
with plastic wheel covers. Unrestricted by
design conditions, the aim here is to use
the minimum quantity of material possible
to guarantee operating and functional
safety, as well as streamline production
costs for these wheels.
1166 Chassis systems
Wheel mounting
The design of the wheel and the mounting
elements must meet safety requirements
in all vehicle operating conditions. The wheel
forces resulting from motive force, brakes,
wheel load and wheel location must be
supported by the overall mounting system
(wheel bolt, wheel hub, brake-disk cham-
ber, wheel-bolt holes, possibly coatings of
parts) without impairing fatigue limits or
the function of the wheel and axle compo-
nents. Careful coordination of the friction
parameters and geometry at the wheel
bolts or the wheel nuts and contact zone
of the wheel (bolt head to wheel-bolt hole)
is essential when specifying the tightening
torques in engineering design and in
­practice.
The geometric configuration of the
wheel mounts in pitch diameter, number
and dimensioning of the mounting ele-
ments are subject to the needs and re-
quirements of each vehicle manufacturer.
The wheel on a passenger car is secured
to the axle hub by three to five wheel bolts
or wheel nuts inserted through the mount-
ing holes. Off-road vehicles and light util-
ity vehicles often have six wheel bolts or
wheel nuts. Commercial vehicles as a rule
have ten wheel nuts, but this number can
sometimes be even higher (e. g. tractors
and excavators). The design of the con-
tact surface of the nuts varies, depending
on the vehicle manufacturer (e. g. calotte,
cone, flat head). The longitudinal bolt
forces that are decisive for the durability
of the bolted connection must be reached
and adhered to, both when new and used,
in all dynamic operating states.
The high degree of true-running is achieved
by means of a central wheel mount at
the wheel hub with a precise alignment
shoulder.
At present, wheels mounted with a cen-
tral nut and interlocking driving pins are
used almost exclusively on racing cars.
Wheel trims
Wheel trims (wheel caps) are mainly used
for visual reasons on steel wheels and are
affixed to the wheels using elastic retain-
ing-spring elements which are easily de-
tachable. But today aluminum cast wheels
also feature wheel trims, which are often
intended to improve aerodynamics. The
design of aluminum wheels is for the most
part kept simple and the weight kept low.
Bolted solutions are also used in rare
cases. The material used most often for
wheel caps is heat-resistant plastic, e. g.
polyamide 6. However, in some cases,
aluminum and stainless pressed steel are
also used.
Special wheel/tire systems
TRX rim
More recent rim developments, which
have produced in limited series, are the
TR rim (in metric dimensions). They were
developed by MICHELIN for use with
matching TRX tires and provide more
room for the brakes.
Rims made by DUNLOP with a Denloc
groove also require special tires; at low
tire pressure and also in the case of pres-
sure loss, the system is supposed to
prevent the tire from coming off the rim,
enhancing safety and mobility.

The TD system (TRX-Den­loc) brings
­together both wheel/tire systems. As op-
posed to common practice, the two above
designs are have rim and tire matched to
each other and are unable to combine rim
and tire with other tire versions, or only to
a very limited extent.
CTS and PAX systems
The CTS/CWS and PAX systems were
able to dispense with the need for a spare
wheel. The original idea behind using
these two systems to save on the spare
wheel failed to catch on in the market
and today these are used primarily on
­armored vehicles (see Rim designs).
Compact spare wheels
For space-saving reasons a compact
spare wheel (mini spare) is often used as
the spare wheel. This can be stowed in
combination with a collapsible spare tire in
an even smaller space (e. g. in roadsters,
convertibles). All compact spare wheel
systems are equipped with a specially
designed tire where the driving properties
are only suitable for emergency operation
and limited top speed (approx. 80 km/h).
Its benefits are the subject of debate, but
it is becoming increasingly popular com-
pared with a full-size spare wheel.
In many countries it is no longer
­required by law to carry a spare wheel.
­Instead, vehicles are equipped with a
puncture kit (Tire-Fit) to repair any tire
damage. The puncture kit consists of an
electrically driven compressor and a seal-
ant, which is pumped into the tire through
the valve.
Wheels 1167
Stress and testing of wheels
The extremely varied and complex stress
conditions in the wheel as a component
in conjunction with a wide variety of
­operating conditions in the vehicle require
specific endurance tests in order to be
able to confirm the durability of a wheel
with acceptable overhead. In general, the
dynamic tests are run in test laboratories
on standardized testing units, whereby a
simulation of road operation that is close
to reality is simulated and a good corre­
lation of the test results to pure road
­operation is achieved. Country-specific
legal ­requirements make special tests
necessary, e. g. in the case of light-alloy
wheels the simulation of a side curb im-
pact (impact test).
Testing of sheet-steel wheels
The critical zones on a sheet-steel wheel
are in particular the zones around the
weld seams, mounting boreholes, dish
(curvature of the wheel disk, see Fig-
ure 1), and ventilation holes. The operat-
ing conditions in each case, for example
straight-ahead driving and cornering,
generate different damage patterns in the
area of the welding seam on the drop cen-
ter well and in the wheel disk. Tests of the
material quality and of the welded joints
as well as surface tests are backed up by
the endurance tests and indicate the need
to optimize wheel manufacturing.
1168 Chassis systems
Testing of light-alloy wheels
Light-alloy wheels run through a similar
testing process whereby, unlike sheet-
steel wheels, the more varied influencing
parameters of material, manufacturing,
and design mean that the test require-
ments are at a significantly higher level.
This ensures that fluctuations in material
and manufacturing are unable to lead to
premature failure. The maximum stresses
occur mainly on the back of the wheel in
the supporting structure of the ribs and
spokes, in rare cases on the visible side.
The material quality and processing
have a great influence on the durability
of aluminum cast wheels. Inadequate
physical values such as elasticity (dur-
ing expansion) and tensile strength can
be caused by poor heat application dur-
ing casting or during heat treatment. This
leads to porosity and shrink holes and
deficient structural formation. The burrs
that occur in high-stress zones during ma-
chine-cutting represent preliminary dam-
age similar to notches and are often the
starting point for incipient cracks. Careful
machine deburring of these zones or spe-
cific constructive countermeasures, e. g.
generously molded radii, are essential.
Testing of wheel with tire
Concentricity and lateral running
To assess the concentricity (true running)
quality of a wheel on a vehicle, it is nec-
essary to assess the wheel with the tire
fitted, i. e. as a wheel with tire. During the
manufacture of a wheel for concentricity
the hub centering is in proportion with the
two areas for the inner and outer tire seats.
Likewise the contact face on the wheel
hub and the inner areas of the rim flanges
are responsible for the lateral r­unning
of the wheel. As a result of production
these areas are endowed with tolerances
(0.3 mm is usually given for concentric-
ity and lateral running for passenger-car
wheels), with which the tolerances of the
tire now overlap. This can positively or
negatively influence the concentricity of
the wheel with tire. “Matching” is used to
facilitate optimum concentricity of a wheel
with tire. In this process the wheel and the
tire are positioned during fitting in relation
to each other in such a way that the “con-
centricity high point” of the wheel matches
up with the “low point” of the tire.
On the wheel the high point is deter-
mined from the concentricity measure-
ments of the two tire-seat areas. For each
area an individual high point is obtained
with different angular positions on the
­circumference of the wheel. These two
values produce through vector addition
a common value with a resulting angular
p osition. This position is marked on
­
the wheel with a colored dot or an adhe-
sive dot.
On the tire the low point corresponds
to the position where it reaches the low-
est force variation while rolling. It is also
marked with a colored dot. From a tech-
nical viewpoint the tire can also be com-
pared with a spring that exhibits a radial
stiffness. Based on production the tire can
never be manufactured to such precision
that it exhibits a uniform stiffness over its
entire circumference. Wheels with tires
with poor concentricity make themselves
felt on the vehicle not only through a radial
movement of the body (i. e. in the z direc-
tion). In the direction of travel a minimal
variable force from acceleration and brak-
ing is also experienced with each wheel
rotation.
Good wheel centering is extremely
important for commercial vehicles that
travel at higher speeds, but also when the
wheels in question are large and heavy.
On commercial vehicles that travel at
higher speeds in particular, the lowest
possible radial and lateral run-out on both
rim bead seats and flanges is essential to
ensuring smooth running. This increases
safety and fuel economy.
Imbalance
Just as important as concentricity and
lateral running to a smooth-rolling wheel
with tire is compensation of the differently
distributed masses on the wheel and tire.
To this end it is necessary to minimize the
influences of the masses on the ­rotating
 Wheels 1169

wheel with balance weights by balanc- Figure 8: Balance-weight positions

ing. Normally passenger-car wheels are
dynamically balanced due to the rim
width, i. e. measurements are taken on
two planes (inner and outer tire seats)
and the required compensation mass is
determined. This is then applied with bal-
ance weights at the point indicated by the
balancing machine. Adhesive, clip-on or
drive-on balance weights are used for this
purpose (Figure 8). The ideal position for
the balance weights on the wheel for dy-
namic balancing is the maximum distance
to the rim center at as large a diameter
as possible.
An imbalance, referred to as “residual
imbalance”, of 5 g per balance plane de-
pending on the vehicle type and suspen-
sion is not discernible in the majority of
vehicles. For each balance plane a bal-
ance weight should be attached at one
position only. If a relatively high balance
mass (over 80 g) is required in a balance
plane, it is recommended to turn the tire
on the wheel and repeat the balancing
process. The lower the balance-weight
mass on the wheel, the lower the residual-
imbalance potential also.
Narrow wheels for two-wheeled vehi-
cles are balanced on one plane only (with
a balance weight in the rim center). This
method is called static balancing.
Wheels for commercial vehicles and
compact spare wheels with a restricted
top speed are not balanced.
a) Clip-on or drive-on weight on the inside
and outside (visible),
b) Clip-on or drive-on weight inside in
­combination with an adhesive weight
under the drop center (concealed),
b) Clip-on or drive-on weight inside in
­combination with an adhesive weight
under the tire seat (concealed),
d) Two clip-on drive-on weights (concealed).
1 Balance weight with retaining spring
clipped onto the rim flange,
2 Balance weight glued to the inside
of the wheel drop center,
3 Balance weight glued to the inside
of the rim bead seat.
a Distance of balance weight to wheel
­center,
D Distance of balance weight to axis
of ­rotation.
a 1 1
a
d
b
1
2 a
d

c 3 3
a

d 3
2
a

d
SFR0068-1Y
1170 Chassis systems
Tires
Function and requirements
The tire is the only component of a vehicle
that comes into contact with the road. It
thus assumes a key driving-dynamics
­position. Downstream driving-dynamics
control systems such as the Antilock
Braking System, the Traction Control Sys-
tem and the Electronic S ­ tability Program
are only ever as ­effective as the tire allows
within the framework of its instantaneous
power-transmission potential. When it
comes to the tire, ultimately the crucial
factor is the active safety of the vehicle.
Tires perform a variety of functions in
everyday driving applications: They cush-
ion, damp, steer, brake, accelerate, and
simultaneously transmit forces in all three
dimensions – at high and low tempera-
tures, in the wet, on dry roads, on snow,
mud and ice, on asphalt, concrete and
pebble stones. They are meant to roll
straight, permit precise steering, absorb
road irregularities, bring the vehicle safely
to a stop, and be quiet and comfortable.
They are also meant to last, retain their
characteristics with increasing age and
decreasing tread depth, and produce as
little rolling resistance as possible. Further-
more, an inflated tire performs supporting,
vibration-damping and comfort-giving
Figure 1: Tire construction
1 Nylon binding,
2 Steel-belt assembly,
3 Radial textile cord plies
(casing),
4 Tire tread (tread rib),
5 Tread (tread groove),
6 Tire shoulder,
7 Sidewall,
8 Bead apex,
9 Bead with bead core
(steel core, numerous
thin steel cables twisted
to other).
functions, and is therefore an active and
fully integrated suspension element. The
requirements resulting from these func-
tions to be met by tires can be summa-
rized as follows:
– high-speed resistance,
– durability,
– abrasion resistance (mileage),
– low rolling resistance,
– good properties in the wet
­(aquaplaning, wet braking,
wet handling),
– good tire comfort, quiet rolling noise,
– good running characteristics in the
limit range,
– resistance to aging,
– precise steering properties (handling),
– short braking distances,
– simple installation and assembly,
– true running and uniformity,
– economy,
– resistance to damage,
– resistance to chemicals.
The fundamental and visible material of a
tire is rubber, an elastic to viscous mate-
rial to which a tire owes the majority of its
typical properties that are so important to
the vehicle.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
8
9
SFR0049Y

Tire construction
Design and components
Tires are a complex construction of dif-
ferent, mutually influencing raw materials,
components and chemicals. A standard
passenger-car tire consists of up to 25 dif-
ferent components and up to 12 different
rubber compounds.
Today, only the tubeless, radial-ply steel-
belted tire constructed in two stages satis-
fies the stringent demands imposed by
the automotive industry and consumers.
Ingredients
The ingredients of a radial tire are:
– natural and synthetic rubber
(approx. 40 %),
– fillers such as e. g. soot, silica, silane,
carbon, and chalk (approx. 30 %),
– strength members such as e. g. steel,
aramide, polyester, rayon, and nylon
(approx. 15 %),
– softeners, e. g. oils and resins
(approx. 6 %),
– vulcanization accelerators, e. g. sulfur,
zinc oxide, stearin (approx. 6 %),
– anti-aging agents, e. g. UV and ozone
blockers (approx. 2 %).
Since 2010 the toxicologically serious
softeners and paraffined oils have been
subject to particularly stringent limits
values in the EU. For this reason manu-
facturers are increasingly using uncritical
natural oils (e. g. sunflower oil).
Casing
The casing is stretched over a thin inner
liner of airtight butyl rubber (Figure 1).
Around 1,400 rubberized cords of rayon,
nylon or polyester are combined in one or
more casing plies to form the decisive
strength member, the elastic “shell” of the
tire. The cords run radially, i. e. at right
angles to the tire plane from bead to bead –
hence the designation radial tire. Cross-
ply tires, in which casing cords are placed
diagonally to the tire plane, in practical
terms no longer play a role in modern-day
applications.
Tires 1171
Bead
The bead performs the important function
of ensuring that the tire is securely and
tightly seated on the rim. Driving and brak-
ing torques are transmitted via this crucial
connecting point from the rim to the tire
tread and thus to the road surface. Seated
in the bead core is a cable of numerous
steel wires, each of which can bear a load
of up to 1,800 kg [1].
Sidewall
A thin and highly flexible rubber flank
forms the sidewall and thus the flexible
zone of the tire. The sidewall (tire flank)
is however also the area of the tire that is
most sensitive to damage.
Trouble-proof run-flat tires on the other
hand have much thicker sidewalls than
conventional designs (Figure 2). In the
event of a blow-out the rim does not slump
onto the tire casing and thus cannot dam-
age it. In addition, fully deflated run-flat
tires ensure a certain degree of steerabil-
ity and directional stability for a further
80 km at speeds of up to 80 km/h.
Figure 2: Comparison
of run-flat tire with standard tire
a) Standard tire,
b) Run-flat tire.
1 Tire with normal inflation pressure,
2 Tire without inflation pressure,
3 Reinforced sidewall.
a
1
2
b
1
3
SFR0051Y
2
1172 Chassis systems
Cambering to blank
The finished, cylindrical combination of
casing, inner liner, bead and sidewalls is
pushed over a drum, the outside diameter
of which corresponds to the inside diame-
ter of this preliminary tire stage and to that
of the subsequent tire. On this drum the
cylindrical combination is cambered into
the “real” tire shape (inflated and fixed)
and then built further.
Because the casing cords run radially,
i. e. transversely, to the rolling direction,
the casing on its own would not be able
sufficiently to transmit lateral forces when
cornering and peripheral forces when
accelerating and braking. It therefore
­ and heat (to 180 °C) for up to 30 minutes
needs support. This job is performed by
the steel-belt assembly placed on top. Two
or more plies of twisted and brass- and
rubber-coated steel wires (steel cord) run
not in the peripheral direction, but alter-
Figure 3: Design of rim with tire
1 Hump, 2 Rim bead seat,
3 Rim flange,
4 Casing (cord carcass),
5 Airtight rubber liner,
6 Steel belt,
7 Tread,
8 Sidewall,
9 Bead (with bead foot, bead core
and bead apex),
10 Bead apex,
SFR0050Y
11 Bead core with steel core,
12 Valve.
7
6 Tire with wheel
5 8
4 pressed air, at which point it is able to
9 absorb and transmit forces. Tire inflation
3 10
11
2 vehicle. It is not the tire itself but rather
1 12
nately at acute angles of between 16° and
30° to each other. High-speed-resistant
tires are additionally stabilized by a nylon
or aramide binding which suppresses a
peripheral increase caused by centrifugal
force. The tread surrounds the casing.
From blank to finished tire
The tires in this penultimate stage is
called a blank and is now placed in a
heating press. Inside this press is an
­exchangeable recess – an exactly shaped
negative mold of the later finished tire. In
this heating mold the tire blank is “baked”
under steam pressure (approx. 15 bar)
and acquires its final, typical appear-
ance. The tread rubber creeps on heating
­exactly and without cavities into the tire
negative mold of the heating press, thus
creating the tread pattern and the side-
wall markings. As a result of sulfur added
in a previous process the hitherto plastic
rubber vulcanizes into elastic rubber and
acquires its desired operating character-
istics.
The tread pattern ensures low rolling
resistance, water expulsion, good grip,
and high mileage.
A finished tire of the standard size
for the medium-size car class 205/55 R
16 91 H weighs around 8.5 kg. A com-
mercial-vehicle tire of the standard size
385/65 R22.5 weighs around 75 kg.
Together with the rim, the tire valve and
the balance weights the tire forms the
car’s operational wheel (Figure 3). The
rubber-elastic tire is inflated with com-
pressure is usually 2…3.5 bar for a pas-
senger car and 5…9 bar for a commercial
the inflation air that supports the weight
of the vehicle.

Differences between commercial-vehicle
and passenger-car tires
Commercial-vehicle tires and generally
similar in design to passenger-car tires,
but are bigger, wider and heavier. Tire
inflation pressure at 5…9 bar is much
higher than approx. 2…3.5 bar for pas-
senger-car tires.
The primary development objective
is, as with passenger-car tires, to have
all the parameters in proper proportion
and above all the mileage. Commercial-
vehicle tires therefore have comparatively
hard, low-wear treads which are also
­regroovable and retreadable. Retreading
of a bald tire identified as such is possible
if the tire casing is undamaged.
Although the rolling resistance of a
truck tire is lower than that of a passen-
ger-car tire, its influence on the truck fuel
consumption is greater due to the higher
vehicle weight and the number of axles. In
addition to high load capacity (up to 3…4 t
per tire), other important tire characteris-
tics include good straight-running stability,
good cornering stability and traction. The
trend in truck tires is towards increasingly
smaller tire dimensions. This increases
the useful load height and thus the trans-
port volume.
Tires 1173
Tire inflation pressure
Motor-vehicle manufacturers specify two
values for tire inflation pressure for every
vehicle – the part-load air pressure for a
partly laden vehicle and the full-load air
pressure for a fully laden vehicle or high
driving speeds. The values are based first
and foremost on the vehicle weight, on its
top speed, on the tire design, and on the
tire size. As a rule, the front and rear axles
are subject to different desired pressures.
The tire inflation pressure may only be
measured and adjusted on a tire that is
cold, i. e. that has not been heated up by
vehicle operation.
A correct tire inflation pressure is im-
portant for
– optimum tire contact patch and
­optimum ground contact,
– shortest possible braking distance,
– optimum wet grip,
– balanced cornering stability,
– low rolling noises,
– low rolling resistance,
– low flexing work and heat production.
An excessively low tire inflation pressure
will result in each case in the opposite end
of the above parameters and in
– reduced service life,
– increased and sometimes uneven
­abrasion,
– progressive structural damage,
– danger of sudden tire blow-out,
– increased risk of accident,
– increased fuel consumption.
An excessively high tire inflation pressure
(much less critical compared with low
pressure)
– results in impaired tire comfort,
– reduces the ground contact patch (tire
“stands”) and thus diminishes corner-
ing-stability and braking-force potential,
– causes increased central abrasion,
– but only reduces the rolling resistance
slightly.
1174 Chassis systems
Tire tread
A tire is provided over its entire circum-
ference with geometrically shaped tread
grooves, ribs and channels as well as ad-
ditional notches forming gripping edges
(sipes) (Figure 4).
The most important function of the in-
tegrated tread (not cut, but heated) is to
adequately absorb and disperse water on
the road surface (also snow and mud in the
case of winter tires), since wet and even
surface moisture alone have a negative
effect on grip characteristics. The braking
distance is therefore dependent not only
on the effects of interlocking and adhe-
sion produced by the two friction partners
tread rubber and road surface (see Tire
grip). The braking distance on wet roads
increases as tire wear increases.
Minimum tread depth
Summer tires
The minimum tread depth prescribed by
law (EU Directive 89/459 of 1989 [2]) is
established in most European countries
at 1.6 mm (for passenger cars).
Figure 4: Tire tread
a) Typical tread of a summer tire,
b) Typical tread of a winter tire.
1 Wear marker.
1
SFR0066Y
a
Winter tires
The minimum tread depth for winter tires
varies greatly from country to country. In
Austria, for example, winter tires for pas-
senger cars are required to have a mini-
mum tread depth of 4.0 mm.
Wear-detection aid
The main tread-groove base features sev-
eral rubber bumps exactly 1.6 mm high
spread across the entire tread for the
purpose of checking the minimum tread
depth prescribed by law of 1.6 mm. If such
a wear marker (TWI, tread wear indicator)
on the tire makes contact with the road
surface, the tire may no longer be used
in road traffic.
Truck tires bearing the wording “Regroov-
able” on their sidewalls may be regrooved
by the regrooving depth approved by
the tire manufacturer (depending on the
tire version 2…4 mm), ideally when the
remaining tread depth is still 2 to 4 mm.
Essentially, passenger-car tires are not
permitted to be regrooved.
Aquaplaning
At higher speeds or when there is an en-
closed layer of water on the road the tread
the tread is no longer able to absorb suf-
ficient water in itself and disperse it to the
sides and to the rear. A wedge of water
forces its way between the tires and the
road, the tires lose contact with the road,
and the vehicle loses its controllability –
aquaplaning occurs (Figure 5).
Figure 5: Aquaplaning
1 Driving direction,
2 Splash area.
SFR0052Y
2

The tire loses contact at precisely the
stage when the pressure of the wedge-
shaped splash water in front of the tire
exceeds the pressure of the tire on the
road. This pressure is squared as the driv-
ing speed increases. Because the critical
pressure at which the tire aquaplanes is
approximately equal to the internal tire
pressure, passenger-car tires with an
­inflation pressure of approx. 2.3 bar aqua-
plane at a much lower speed than truck
tires with 8 bar. Driving with a lower infla-
tion pressure than prescribed decreases
the already low speed from which aqua-
planing occurs, once again significantly in
passenger-car tires.
Tire contour, tread design and tread
depth can defer the speed from which
the risk of aquaplaning arises. Narrow
tires, due to the higher pressure on the
road (surface pressure, weight per con-
tact patch), essentially aquaplane at
higher speeds than wide tires, and they
also heave to channel a much smaller
volume of water. Drainage channels and
rounded contact surfaces on wide tires
reduce their risk of aquaplaning to an ac-
ceptable level. To compare: A tire with a
nominal width of 220 mm must at 80 km/h
and a rainwater height of 3 mm disperse
Figure 6: Braking distance
from 80 km/h to a step on a wet road
with new tires and with bald tires [3]
A Braking distance
with 8 mm tread depth: 42.3 m.
B Braking distance
with 3 mm tread depth: 51.8 m.
C Braking distance
with 1.6 mm tread depth: 60.9 m.
υR Residual speed.
A
SFR0053Y
+9.5 m
B
υR =34 km/h
+9.1 m
C
υR =44 km/h
Tires 1175
roughly 15 liters per second so as not to
aquaplane. This figure is 10 liters for a
140 mm “narrow” tire.
Wet braking
Figure 6 shows the further point at which
the tread depth is of crucial importance
to road safety: The braking distance on
a road wet with rain is roughly 50 % lon-
ger with an almost bald tire (tread depth
1.6 mm) than with a new tire of identical
size (tread depth 8 mm).
The residual speed υR denotes the
speed of the worse braking vehicle at the
moment when the vehicle with better tires
comes to a stop. It is calculated as
__________
s1
√
υR = ​    (
υ02 . ​1− ​ __ )
s2 ​  ​ ​ in m/s,
where
υ0 Driving speed at start of
braking in m/s,
s1 Braking distance with vehicle 1
(with better tires) in m,
s2 Braking distance with vehicle 2
(with bald tires) in m.
The residual speed is a measure of the
theoretical accident severity to be ex-
pected in the event of a collision.
These calculated differences however
can in practice only be effected by highly
experienced drivers with extremely fast
reactions. Many car drivers are not accus-
tomed to ABS full braking; the total brak-
ing distance is lengthened significantly.
Potentially shorter-braking tires only get a
look-in if the vehicle is fitted with a brake
assistant.
1176 Chassis systems

Force transmission nounced steering-wheel angle. The rever-

The four tire contact patches (footprint)
are the direct and sole interface between
the road surface and the vehicle.
Slip angle and slip
Only the tires rolling under an angle to the
wheel rolling plane (slip angle α, Figure 7)
and in the process deforming and con-
stantly more or less slipping (see slip)
transmit simultaneously and within physi-
cal limits the forces requested by the
driver through steering, braking and ac-
celerating. Conversely: A tire that does not
roll or slip at an angle does not transmit
any forces.
The tire transmits ever higher forces as
the slip angle and slip increase. This rela-
tionship however is not linear. The effect is
reversed after a relevant maximum value
is reached (Figure 8). For passenger-car
tires this reversal point for the slip angle
is roughly 4…7°, corresponding to a pro-
Figure 7: Slip angle
1 Wheel rolling plane, 2 3
2 Tangent to
driving direction,
3 Driving direction.
α Slip angle.
1
sal point for slip is 10…15 % (on snow up
to 30 %). Excessive slip is a consequence
of excessive acceleration or excessively
heavy braking. If the steering angle or
brake pressure is increased further, the
wheels lock if the vehicle is not fitted with
an antilock braking system. The slip is
then –100 %.
Longitudinal and lateral forces
If a force Fx in the peripheral direction and
a side force Fy occur simultaneously (e. g.
when braking while cornering), the result-
ing transmitted horizontal force
________
Fh = ​√Fx2 + Fy2 ​
cannot exceed the value �hFz. This situ-
ation can be explained by reference to
the Kamm (friction) circle (Figure 9). The
radius of the Kamm circle is equal to the
maximum horizontal force �h Fz that can
be transmitted via the tire. The maximum
side force Fy is therefore smaller is at the
same time a force Fx occurs in the periph-
eral direction. With the forces Fx and Fy
marked in Figure 9 the wheel is exactly at
the limit of the maximum horizontal force
that can be transmitted.

Figure 9: Kamm circle

SFR0046Y

Fx Peripheral force,
α Fy Side force,
Fz Normal force,
�h Coefficient of static friction.
Figure 8: Coefficient
of friction vs. slip
Fx
Fh
Coefficient

friction µ
of

−0.1
Fy
−1 0.1 +∞
Slip λ
SFR0047E

µh Fz
SFR0048E

Tire grip
Generation of grip
Tires must transmit all the dynamic forces
to only four roughly postcard-sized areas.
The grip required for this purpose between
the tire contact patches and the road sur-
face is generated by several simultane-
ously occurring phenomena. These are
essentially positive locking (also referred
to in this context as the interlocking effect)
and adhesion by molecular forces of at-
traction.
When a vehicle driving past at a con-
stant speed is considered from the out-
side, as the tire rolls the continuously
changing ground contact patch remains
apparently fixed in relation to the vehicle
(Figure 10) – while each individual rubber
block of the tire tread runs into this forcibly
flattening contact patch, deforms, and is
“ejected” again at the other end. Relative
movements and thus slip are generated in
this contact patch: Each individual rubber
Figure 10: Flattening in the contact patch
between tire and road surface
SFR0063-1E
Road Flattening
in the contact patch
Figure 11: Micro- and macro-roughness
of a dry road surface
Micro-roughness
Standard spacing
0.001…0.1 mm
SFR0054-1E
Macro-roughness
Standard spacing 0.1…10 mm
Tires 1177
block more or less slips during the dwell
time in the contact patch.
Viscoelasticity
Viscoelasticity describes the time-, tem-
perature- and frequency-dependent elas-
ticity and the viscosity of polymer and
elastomer substances (e. g. of plastics,
rubber). Internal damping, molecular in-
terlocking and creeping processes pre-
vent the two extreme states “fully elastic”
(e. g. like an elastic spring) and “highly vis-
cous” (like a solid body). Deformation and
the force that causes it as well as the me-
chanical strain pass off at different times.
Interlocking effect
The interlocking effect is created by the
direct and intensive contact of the tire
with the road, depending on the micro-
and macro-roughness of the road surface
(Figure 11). In the passage of the contact
patch the tread block under consideration
comes up against a bump in the asphalt,
is upset, and slips off again on the other
side of the bump at accelerated speed.
Only when it produces slip in the process
can it build up in the tangential direction
a counterforce contrary to the rolling di-
rection which counteracts the sliding and
thus permits the transmission of steering,
drive or braking forces.
Figure 12: Load application
and load removal
of a viscoelastic s ­ ubstance
1 Strain, force per unit of area,
2 Deformation, elongation or upsetting
relative to output variable.
δ Phase lag.
1
Strain, deformation
δ
SFR0055E
Time
1178 Chassis systems
On account of its viscoelastic properties a
rubber block does not revert immediately
to its original shape after deformation; the
strain follows on from the deformation that
causes it (Figure 12). This effect typical of
rubber of hysteresis results, on account of
the cyclic deformation of the viscoelastic
rubber, in a loss of energy in the form of
non-utilizable heat and thus in a contribu-
tion to friction (hysteresis friction). The
component of the friction force parallel to
the road surface thus facilitates the trans-
mission of drive or braking forces.
The principle of positive-locking grip
also functions on damp and wet micro-
and macro-rough road surfaces, but with
limited effectiveness. Figure 13 shows
that microfine asphalt points can pen-
etrate the layer of moisture and thus the
interlocking effect is maintained. However,
an enclosed layer of water forms over the
more rounded local bumps.
Essential to the interlocking effect is the
presence of micro- and macroscopically
small road irregularities. On a completely
smooth surface (the coefficient of friction
µ approaches zero) there would be no in-
terlocking effect at all.
The interlocking effect and inner-molec-
ular friction cause the tire to heat up. The
resulting loss of energy is jointly respon-
sible for the tire’s rolling resistance, which
makes up around 20…25 % of a vehicle’s
fuel consumption.
Figure 13: Micro- and macro-roughness
on a damp or wet road surface
1 Macro-roughness channels
and stores the water,
but cannot penetrate the water layer.
2 Micro-roughness generates
local pressure peaks and can thus
SFR0057-1E
­penetrate the residual layer.
2
1 ­decrease markedly as a result of the rub-
Adhesion
Molecular adhesion is created by the in-
teraction and intensive contact between
tire and dry road. The creation and sub-
sequent breaking up of adhesive con-
nections at the contact points result in a
contribution to the coefficient of friction
(adhesion friction). On a wet road molec-
ular adhesion fails while the interlocking
effect remains effective.
The frequency range of molecular ad-
hesion, excited by the micro-rough road
surface during drastic braking and ex-
treme cornering, encompasses the spec-
trum of 106…109 Hz.
Load frequency and temperature
Two further important influencing factors
on the quality of grip must be mentioned:
If the tire when rolling is only excited with
a low frequency (exposure frequency), the
rubber behaves elastically (low energy
loss, Figure 14a). In this low frequency
range the rolling resistance is very low,
the tire is relatively cold, and the grip is
weaker. If, on the other hand, the fre-
quency increases due to the excitations
caused by micro- and macro-roughness,
a viscoelastic behavior is manifested – the
ideal range for tire grip (energy loss has
its maximum). If the frequency continues
to increase, viscosity (flowability) and en-
ergy loss decrease again, the is barely
able to be deformed and hardens (glass
behavior).
In parallel, rubber part exhibits pro-
nounced heat-dependence behavior: In
the glass-temperature range – when for
example winter ambient temperatures
cause the rubber compound to harden
and become brittle (hence the analogy to
glass) – the coefficient of friction of the
tire rubber and with it the energy loss
ber’s molecular immobility (Figure 14b).
Conversely, higher forces can be transmit-
ted when the tire is moved in its optimum
operating-temperature range.
 Tires 1179

Figure 14: Energy loss in the tire as a Figure 15: Rubber behavior as a function
function of frequency and temperature of frequency and temperature
a) Behavior as a function of frequency,

SFR0059-1E
b) Behavior as a function of temperature. Hz

SFR0058E
Glass behavior
a 108

106

Frequency
Rubber Glass Rubber behavior
104
behavior behavior
Energy loss

102
Range
of maximum 1
energy loss
−50 0 50 100 150 °C
Frequency, logarithmic Temperature
(for given temperature)

b Special case: Rubber friction

Coulomb’s classic law of friction (FR = µ m g)
Glass Rubber does not apply to vulcanized tire rubber.
behavior behavior Its coefficient of friction µ (also called
Energy loss

­friction value or friction factor) is not con-

stant, but
Range – increases with decreasing surface
of maximum
energy loss
pressure (force per contact patch, given
in N/mm2),
– decreases with increasing surface
Temperature
pressure,
(for given frequency)
– depends on the sliding velocity,
– depends on the temperature and expo-
For rubber, therefore, an inversely propor- sure frequency.
tional dependence between temperature
increase and exposure frequency can be The phenomenon of increased grip with
ascertained. Thus the glass temperature decreasing surface pressure explains the
of an elastomer rises from −20 °C at only importance of very wide (and thus low-
10 Hz to +10 °C at 105 Hz (Figure 15). surface-pressure) tires in motor sport.
Compound developers are able to design
rubber compounds with a glass tempera-
ture of between −60 °C and 0 °C at a fre-
quency of 10 Hz.
1180 Chassis systems
Rolling resistance
Definition of terminology
Tractive resistances inhibit the forward
movement of the vehicle and must be
overcome by motive means. In addition
to the aerodynamic drag, the frictional re-
sistances in moving engine, transmission
and chassis/suspension components, the
climbing resistance, and inertia forces,
the rolling resistance of tires is classed
as one of the main tractive resistances.
It contributes to approx. 20 % of the fuel
consumption on expressways/interstates,
approx. 25 % on orbital roads and approx.
30 % on urban and ordinary roads [4].
Rolling-resistance decreases thus re-
sult directly in consumption and emission
reductions. Rolling resistance (RR) cor-
responds to the energy loss per unit of
distance and is given like every force in
N (newtons). The dimensionless rolling-
resistance coefficient cRR denotes the
ratio of rolling-resistance force to vehicle
weight.
Example: Assuming a rolling-resistance
force FRR = 120 N and a vehicle weight
G = 10,000 N (G = m g; vehicle mass m in
kg, gravitational acceleration g ≈ 9.81 m/s2)
cRR amounts to 0.012 = 1,2 %. Standard
values for cRR for passenger-car tires on
asphalt amount to 0.006 to 0.012, the
(lower) value for truck tires to 0.004 to
0.008.
Figure 16: Shearing, upsetting and flexion
in the contact lead-in
Direction of motion
SFR0060-1E
Bending Bending
Shearing and upsetting
The “unit” kg/t (kilogram per ton) is occa-
sionally used. In the example above the
result 0.012 is 12 kg/t. This means in the
case of a wheel load of 1 t = 1,000 kg that
the rolling-resistance force FRR assumes
a value of 120 N.
Rolling-resistance-optimized tires have
additional designations such as “Eco”,
“Green” or “Energy”. Tire designers could
indeed immediately and quite significantly
reduce the rolling resistance by choosing
rubber grades with low hysteresis and
thus a low energy loss, but, as already
explained, this would reduce the grip
values to unacceptable levels. In other
words, lower fuel consumption comes at
the expense of less grip.
Generation of rolling resistance
With each wheel rotation the tire is de-
formed during the forcible flattening in
the contact patch by flexion, upsetting
and shearing of the rubber blocks and of
the proportional tire casing (Figure 16).
The fabric plies of the tire rub against
each other (flexion), during which the tire
performs flexing work. This produces a
viscoelastically caused energy loss in
the form of non-utilizable heat. This heat
loss makes up 90 % of the rolling resis-
tance.
Narrow tires and higher tire inflation
pressure do increase the rolling resis-
tance because contact patch and flexing
work are reduced. However, designers
are subject to very tight limits in terms
of their scope of action in that the catalog
of requirements with regard to handling
performance, grip level and comfort are
in direct conflict. Nevertheless, the tech­
nical specifications of the tire industry
for future tire generations already feature
tire dimensions such as 115/65 R 15 for
subcompact-size cars and 205/50 R 21
for medium-size cars. Further drastic
rolling-resistance reductions are not
­
achievable with the requirements still
standard today with regard to vehicle size,
weight, maximum speed, sportiness, and
comfort.

Even increasing the tire inflation pressure
by 1 bar above the recommended value
will only deliver a rolling-resistance reduc-
tion of 15 %. In a vehicle with an assumed
fuel consumption of 10 l / 100 km this
would only produce a saving of 1.6 %. But
because drivers still neglect to check tire
pressure, the rolling-resistance reduc-
tions achieved in the most recent develop-
ment cycles are not always implemented
in real driving conditions. In addition, there
is a direct conflict of aims between rolling-
resistance optimization and the wet grip
essential to road safety.
Conflict of aims between
rolling ­resistance and grip
Frequency ranges
The deformations of the tread and rubber
blocks caused by micro- and macro-
roughness in the contact area between
road surface and tire surface which gener-
ate the grip potential due to viscoelasticity
occur in the very high frequency range of
103…1010 Hz. The energy loss caused by
hysteresis is high here, resulting in the
creation of high grip values.
However, the frequency spectrum which
is important to rolling resistance is much
lower at 1…100 Hz – precisely the range
in which the inner tire structure is excited
with each wheel rotation. At a driving
speed of 100 km/h a passenger-car tire is
deformed roughly 15 times per second,
equating to a load frequency of 15 Hz. Tire
designers nonetheless refer here to low-
frequency excitation of the tire structure,
particularly the casing.
Optimization incompatibility
These greatly differing frequency ranges
explain the basic optimization incompati-
bility of simultaneously high values for grip
and low rolling resistance. In conventional
tires using industrial soot as the primary
filler (up until the mid-1990s) a rubber
compound with high hysteresis in the
high-frequency grip range automatically
results in a high energy loss in the tire
components subjected to low-frequency
load and thus in high rolling resistance.
Tires 1181
Silica to resolve the conflict of aims
The solution in the late 1990s involved
the introduction of silica (trade name for
­refined silicate) as a gray-powdered filler,
which increasingly replaced the standard
industry soot used up that point. Together
with auxiliary binding materials, or silanes,
the conflict of interests between rolling
resistance, grip and abrasion resistance
can be elevated to a high level of compro-
mise.
Silica-based rubber compounds exhibit
low energy losses in the low-frequency
range relevant to rolling resistance, but
high energy losses in the high-frequency
rubber-grip range (Figure 17). The curve
for energy absorption has this rise
steeply and thus advance in frequencies
of 102…104 Hz. This results in tires which
have low rolling resistance but neverthe-
less very good grip.
Figure 17: Frequency dependence
of energy loss
1 Rubber compound with distinct
hysteresis (high tire-grip values),
2 Latest-generation rubber compound
(combines low rolling resistance,
good grip and high abrasion resistance),
3 Rubber compound with weak hysteresis
(low rolling resistance, poor grip).
1
2
Energy loss
3
Rolling-
SFR0061E
resistance Tire-grip
range range
1 100 10,000 1,000,000 Hz
Frequency
1182 Chassis systems
Rolling resistance and air pressure
Reduced tire pressure means increased
flexing work and thus higher rolling resis-
tance and impaired steering precision and
braking stability.
Safety checks carried out in 2009 by the
tire industry (Goodyear, Dunlop, Fulda) on
52,400 vehicles in 15 EU countries estab-
lished that 81 % of all car drivers drive with
excessively low tire pressure. Of these,
26.5 % were driving with clearly (down
to 0.3 bar) and 7.5 % with significantly
reduced pressure (0.75 bar and higher).
The upshot of excessively low tire pres-
sure is that fuel is wasted.
Figure 18: Tire designation (example)
195 / 65 R 15 91 V
Speed symbol
Load capacity
Rim outside diameter
Tire inside diameter (code)
R for Radial tire
D for Diagonal (cross-ply) tire
B for Bias Belted
Tire cross-section
Ratio of height to width in %
Tire width in mm
SFR0064-4E
DOT ABCD 12
14
Tire designation
Definition of terminology
According to EU Directives ECE 30
(for passenger cars, [5]), ECE 54 (for
trucks, [6]) and ECE 75 (for motorcycles,
[7]) tires must be provided with interna-
tionally agreed, standardized tire designa-
tions. This applies in particular to the tire
sidewall (Figure 18). Tires tested in accor-
dance with ECE (mandatory since Octo-
ber 1998) carry a burned-in circle with a
capital “E” or a lower-case “e” and the
code of the approving authority, e. g. E4,
and followed by a release number (homol-
ogation number, see Figure 20).
The lettering, codes and symbols on the
sidewall indicate, as well as the tire manu-
facturer and the type designation, the ori-
gin, the production date, the dimension,
the load capacity, the maximum permissi-
ble speed, the tire design, and the ratio of
tire width to tire height (tire cross-section).
Reading the information is made more
difficult by the fact that units of measure-
ment of the metric system standard in
Central Europe (mm, bar) and of the Brit-
ish imperial system (1 inch = 25.4 mm)
are jointly used.
The service description must feature
near the size specification. This con-
sists of the load index (LI, Table 1) and
the speed symbol (SSY; also used is SI,
speed index, Table 2) and provides infor-
mation about the maximum load capacity
of the tire in question for the top speed
corresponding to the speed symbol. This
regulation is binding in all EU member
states and in Switzerland.
On tires with directional treads (often on
winter and summer tires with V-shaped
treads) an arrow on the sidewall indicates
the prescribed rolling direction. If the tires
are already mounted on the rim, they can
only be mounted on one side of the vehi-
cle and may not for example be ex-
changed cross-wise (diagonally) together
with the rim.
Example: A 205/55 R 16 91 H size tire
has a nominal width of 205 mm, the height
of the sidewall is 55 % of the nominal
width, which in this case in roughly
112 mm. The diameter of the matching
rim to be mounted is 16 inches, i. e.
 Tires 1183

406 mm. The load capacity corresponds digits the final digits of the production year
with a load index LI = 91 to the table value (Figure 18).
615 kg – the ­vehicle axle load therefore
according to the certificate of registration
must not exceed 2 x 615 kg, i. e. 1,230 kg.
With the speed index SI = H the vehicle Table 2: Speed index SI (speed symbol)
may be driven with this tire at a speed not
A1 up to    5 km/h L up to 120 km/h
exceeding 210 km/h, even if the vehicle is
designed to reach an higher final speed. A2 up to 10 km/h M up to 130 km/h
Load-capacity reductions must be taken A3 up to 15 km/h N up to 140 km/h
into account from speed index V and A4 up to 20 km/h P up to 150 km/h
­upwards. A5 up to 25 km/h Q up to 160 km/h
A6 up to 30 km/h R up to 170 km/h
Production date A7 up to 35 km/h S up to 180 km/h
There is usually a pressed-in four-digit A8 up to 40 km/h T up to 190 km/h
number in an oval field on at least one B up to 50 km/h U up to 200 km/h
of the two sidewalls next to the acronym C up to 60 km/h H up to 210 km/h
DOT (US Department of Transportation)
D up to 65 km/h V up to 240 km/h
and a sequence of letters (code for man-
F up to 80 km/h W up to 270 km/h
ufacturing plant). This number denotes
the production date. The first two digits G up to 90 km/h ZR over 240 km/h
indicate the calendar week, the last two J up to 100 km/h Y up to 300 km/h
K up to 110 km/h (Y) over 300 km/h

Table 1: Load index LI (values up to 3,350 kg, table open in upward direction)
LI kg LI kg LI kg LI kg LI kg LI kg
  1 46.2 26 95 51 195 76 400 101 825 126 1,700
  2 47.5 27 97.5 52 200 77 412 102 850 127 1,750
  3 48.7 28 100 53 206 78 425 103 875 128 1,800
  4 50 29 103 54 212 79 437 104 900 129 1,850
  5 51.5 30 106 55 218 80 450 105 925 130 1,900
  6 53 31 109 56 224 81 462 106 950 131 1,950
  7 54.5 32 112 57 230 82 475 107 1,000 132 2,000
  8 56 33 115 58 236 83 487 108 1,030 133 2,060
  9 58 34 118 59 243 84 500 109 1,060 134 2,120
10 60 35 121 60 250 85 515 110 1,090 135 2,180
11 61.5 36 125 61 257 86 530 111 1,120 136 2,240
12 63 37 128 62 265 87 545 112 1,150 137 2,300
13 65 38 132 63 272 88 560 113 1,180 138 2,360
14 67 39 136 64 280 89 580 114 1,215 139 2,430
15 69 40 140 65 290 90 600 115 1,250 140 2,500
16 71 41 145 66 300 91 615 116 1,285 141 2,575
17 73 42 150 67 307 92 630 117 1,320 142 2,650
18 75 43 155 68 315 93 650 118 1,360 143 2,725
19 77.5 44 160 69 325 94 670 119 1,400 144 2,800
20 80 45 165 70 335 95 690 120 1,450 145 2,900
21 82.5 46 170 71 345 96 710 121 1,500 146 3,000
22 85 47 175 72 355 97 730 122 1,550 147 3,075
23 87.5 48 180 73 365 98 750 123 1,600 148 3,150
24 90 49 185 74 375 99 775 124 1,650 149 3,250
25 92.5 50 190 75 387 100 800 125 1,700 150 3,350
1184 Chassis systems

Example: 1214 means the 12th week of
the year 2014. Prior to the year 2000 the
designation of the production date had
only three digits.
Special case:
Winter-tire designation
M+S tires
Winter tires must carry the M+S symbol
(Mud and Snow) (see Figure 18). EU
Regulation No. 661/2009 [8] denotes as
an M+S tire a tire whose tread pattern,
tread compound or construction is de-
signed first and foremost “to achieve com-
pared with a summer tire better values for
winter handling performance and traction
on snow” – an extremely woolly definition.
To compare: The previously applicable
EU Regulation from 1992 [9] stated that
“M+S tires” are such tires “on which the
pattern of the tread and the structure are
designed in such a way that they guaran-
tee above all in mud and fresh or melting
snow better handling performance than
normal tires. The pattern of the tread
of M+S tires is generally characterized
by larger tread grooves and lugs which
are separated from each other by larger
spaces than is the case on normal tires”.
“M+S” is to date not a protected or pre-
cisely defined designation and for this rea-
son may also be used on tires not suitable
for winter driving conditions (i. e. also on
summer tires). The M+S symbol no longer
has any significance with regard to suit-
ability for winter driving conditions.
Amendment of StVZO §36 section 4 [12]
With the 52nd Regulation to amend road-
traffic legislation of 18 May 2017 the
definition of tires for winter weather con-
ditions was adapted and consequently a
new winter-tire regulation came into force.
By force of this regulation the snow-flake
symbol for winter tires is already manda-
tory for the winter season 2017/2018 in
Germany and consequently replaces the
M+S marking. In a transition phase lasting
until 30 September 2024 tires which only
have an M+S marking which continue to
be classed as winter tires provided there
date of manufacture is before 31 Decem-
ber 2017. M+S tires which are manufac-
tured from 2018 onwards and only have
an M+S marking will no longer be classed
as winter tires.
For truck and bus tires on the steering
axle the introduction of this regulation will
be deferred until no later than 1 July 2020.
This time will be used to check as part of a
study the necessity of the new winter-tire
regulation for the steering axle of these
vehicle categories. The deferment of the
winter-tire regulation does not apply to
the permanently driven axles of these
vehicles.

Snow-flake symbol
A revision of the M+S designation was
called for in response to the widespread
traffic chaos in the USA in 1995. A win- Figure 19: Snow-flake symbol (3PMSF)
ter tire should satisfy certain criteria with in acc. with UN-ECE R117
regard to its suitability for winter driving
conditions and verify this by way of appro-
priate tests. This gave rise to the designa-
tion 3PMSF (Three Peak Mountain Snow
Flake), which today is firmly established in
North American legislation.
This designation has also be used vol-
untarily for a few years in Europe. This
is intended to verify to the consumer
SFR0065Y

suitability for winter driving conditions

substantiated by tests. The test criteria
are defined by the European Union in
UN-ECE R 117 [11].
 Tires 1185

Sound identification EU tire label

Tires featuring this marking comply with
Directive ECE 2001/43 [10], which lays
down the maximum values for rolling
noise. This marking has been mandatory
since 1 October 2009, is featured next to
the UN/ECE approval mark, and can be
recognized by the code letter “s” after the
homologation number.
With the introduction of the tire label
on 1 November 2012 this designation for
new tire types was extended by a capital
“S” and by the letters “W” for wet grip and
“R” for rolling resistance (Figure 20). Addi-
tional code numbers (1 and 2) after the let-
ters S and R denote the limit values which
must be adhered to for the prescribed
time phases (periods) (regulations, see
UN/ECE Regulation No. 117 [11]).
Definition of terminology
Since November 2012 new tires sold in
the EU which were produced from July
2012 onwards must be provided with a
standardized tire label (7.5 cm × 11 cm)
(Figure 21). This label is meant to provide
the buyer with quick and unmistakable in-
formation on the three tire properties of
rolling resistance, wet grip (restricted to
wet braking distance) and pass-by noise
(not passenger compartment), thereby
helping them to make a more informed
decision to purchase. The winter proper-
ties of winter tires are currently not re-
corded by the EU tire label.
The tire label records tires in the cate-
gories C1 (passenger cars), C2 (light util-
ity vehicles) and C3 (heavy commercial
vehicles) as set out in Table 3. Excluded
from the regulation are retreaded tires,

Figure 21: EU label

Figure 20: E designation

Example of a homologation number acc. to
SFR0069Y

ECE R 117 for complying with rolling noise.

A A
B
C
B B
C
B
D D
E E
F F
G G

72 dB
SFR0062Y

1222/2009 - C1

Table 3: Energy-efficiency classes of the different tire categories

Class C1 tires Class C2 tires Class C3 tires
(passenger cars) (light utility vehicles) (heavy commercial vehicles)
Energy-­ Energy-­ Energy-
cRR in kg/t efficiency cRR in kg/t efficiency cRR in kg/t efficiency
class class class
cRR ≤ 6.5 A cRR ≤ 5.5 A cRR ≤ 4.0 A
6.6 ≤ cRR ≤ 7.7 B 5.6 ≤ cRR ≤ 6.7 B 4.1 ≤ cRR ≤ 5.0 B
7.8 ≤ cRR ≤ 9.0 C 6.8 ≤ cRR ≤ 8.0 C 5.1 ≤ cRR ≤ 6.0 C
not assigned D not assigned D 6.1 ≤ cRR ≤ 7.0 D
9.1 ≤ cRR ≤ 10.5 E 8.1 ≤ cRR ≤ 9.2 E 7.1 ≤ cRR ≤ 8.0 E
10.6 ≤ cRR ≤ 12.0 F 9.3 ≤ cRR ≤ 10.5 F cRR ≥ 8.1 F
cRR ≥ 12.1 G cRR ≥ 10.6 G
Example: cRR = 10.5 kg/t (label class E) corresponds to cRR = 0.0105 or FRR = 105 N.
1186 Chassis systems
professional off-road tires, racing tires,
spikes, compact spare-wheel tires, vin-
tage-car and modern classic-car tires (for
vehicles first registered before 1 October
1990), tires for top speeds below 80 km/h,
tires with inside diameters of less than
254 mm or more than 635 mm, and motor­
cycle tires.
Naturally, the tire label cannot show
all the tire criteria (there are up to fifty),
but the criteria selected do represent a
certain combination of many other linked
properties.
Fuel consumption
Letters from A (highest efficiency) through
G (lowest efficiency) and the traffic-light
colors green, yellow and red in the EU
label denote the efficiency of the tire
with regard to rolling resistance and thus
fuel consumption. The range for rolling
resistance from class A through G rep-
resents a difference in fuel consumption
of up to 7.5 % [13]. The potential for sav-
ings is even higher, depending on the
driving situation. The difference between
the individual stages of the tire classes
with regard to rolling resistance is clearly
defined: for instance 0.11 l / 100 km for a
vehicle with an average consumption of
approx. 6.6 l / 100 km. The difference be-
tween an A-rated tire and a G-rated tire
adds up to approx. 0.5 l / 100 km (in each
case provided a consistent driving style
and identical tire inflation pressure).
Wet grip
Letters A (shortest braking distance)
through G (longest braking distance)
provide information on the tire’s wet grip
when braking. The difference in wet grip
between a particularly good tire and a
poor tire when applying full brakes from
80 km/h to zero produces an 18-meter
shorter braking distance.
Tire noise
Pass-by noise is depicted in the EU label
by a symbol together with an indication of
the dB value. The symbol is based on the
binding noise-emission limit values. The
more sound waves are shaded black in
the EU label, the louder the tire.
Winter tires
Technical characteristics
Passenger-car winter tires exhibit no or
only slight differences in structural design
from summer tires. They are character-
ized by good force transmission (traction)
on snow and mud, satisfactory grip on ice,
good adhesion on wet and dry road sur-
faces, safe handling, comfortable rolling,
and low noise.
The feature that is unique to them is
primarily the softer and elastic-when-cold
rubber compound with high natural-rub-
ber content. Unlike the summer rubber
compound, it does not become brittle
and harden (“vitrify”) at minus tempera-
tures (which results in reduced adhesion
because the interlocking effect can no
longer occur).
Added to this are increased tread area
(thus a greater positive proportion) and,
as a conspicuous external identifying fea-
ture, a multidimensional superfine tread
(design shapes: zigzag, spheres, honey-
combs, and mixed shapes, see Figure 4)
in the rubber blocks themselves. These
sipes (up to 2,000, depending on tire size)
offer additional gripping edges in the snow
and increase both traction and braking
performance noticeably.
As the tread depth decreases, but also
with increasing age (hardening caused
by among others the influence of UV
and ozone) the winter properties dimin-
ish: Traction and cornering-stability po-
tential deteriorate, the braking distance
is extended, and the risk of aquaplaning
increases. Winter tires identified for ex-
ample in Austria under a remaining tread
depth of 4 mm are always classed as
summer tires.
Standard winter tires customary in
Europe are offered in speed ratings
up to speed index W (maximum speed
270 km/h).

Development of a tire
The tire is always a compromise product:
If a particular property (e. g. rolling resis-
tance) is predominantly developed, this is
inevitably at the expense of other proper-
ties (e. g. with the upshot of reduced wet
grip) and thus of balance. This is only
desirable or permissible in special cases
(motor sport, special tires, industrial re-
quirements). There is a conflict of aims
when on principle contrasting properties
are to be simultaneously optimized. Mod-
ern rubber compounds with a high silica
filler content and optimized ground con-
tact patches raise this balancing act to a
higher level, but this does not eliminate
the conflict.
The conflicting development aims
which can negatively influence each
other include grip potential and rolling
resistance, dry braking and wet braking,
aquaplaning and dry handling, and grip
and abrasion.
________________________________
References for tires
[1] Source: Goodyear Dunlop, 2012.
[2] Council Directive 89/459/EEC of 18 July
1989 on the approximation of the laws of
the Member States relating to the tread
depth of tyres of certain categories of
­motor vehicles and their trailers.
[3] Source: Continental AG, 2011. The
specified brake differences were deter-
mined with a Mercedes C-Class car on
205/55 R 16 V size tyres in over 1,000
brake tests.
[4] Source: Michelin tire plants, 2010.
[5] ECE 30: Regulation No. 30 of the
United Nations Economic Commission for
Europe (UN/ECE) – Uniform provisions
concerning the approval of pneumatic
tyres for motor vehicles and their trailers.
[6] ECE 54: Regulation No. 54 – Uniform
provisions concerning the approval of
pneumatic tyres for commercial vehicles
and their trailers.
[7] ECE 75: Regulation No. 75 – Uniform
provisions concerning the approval of
pneumatic tyres for motor cycles and
mopeds.
Tires 1187
Tire tests
Tire manufacturers conduct around fifty
objective laboratory tests and subjective
road tests on in-house test and racing
­circuits. The most important tests are:
Handling on a dry road
Criteria are directional stability, steering
precision, straight-running stability, noise,
and tire comfort.
Properties in the wet
Criteria are handling on a wet course with
bends, braking, aquaplaning, longitudinal
and lateral, and circular-course driving.
Machine tests
Criteria are top speed, continuous run-
ning, and abrasion.
Winter properties
Criteria are snow handling, driving on
passes, traction measurement, accelerat-
ing performance, and braking.
________________________________
[8] Regulation (EC) No. 661/2009 of the
European Parliament and of the Council
of 13 July 2009 concerning type-approval
requirements for the general safety of
motor vehicles, their trailers and systems,
components and separate technical units
intended therefore.
[9] Council Directive 92/23/EEC of 31 March
1992 relating to tyres for motor vehicles
and their trailers and to their fitting instal-
lation.
[10] Directive 2001/43/EC of the Euro-
pean Parliament and of the Council of
27 June 2001 amending Council Directive
92/23/EEC relating to tyres for motor ve-
hicles and their trailers and to their fitting.
[11] Regulation No. 117 of the United Na-
tions Economic Commission for Europe
(UN/ECE) – Uniform provisions concern-
ing the approval of tyres with regard to
rolling sound emissions and/or to adhe-
sion on wet surfaces and/or to rolling re-
sistance.
[12] §36 StVZO: Bereifung, Laufflächen
(Tires, treads).
[13] Source: Tire manufacturers.
1188 Chassis systems
Tire-pressure
monitoring systems
Application
Tire-Pressure Monitoring Systems (TPMS)
are used to monitor the tire pressure on
vehicles to prevent tire defects due to in-
sufficient tire pressure, thus reducing the
number of accidents resulting from defec-
tive tires.
If a vehicle is operated with insufficient
tire pressure, this leads to increased flex-
ing energy on the tire sidewalls and thus
to increased wear of the tire. When op-
erated at full load or at high speed, the
greater flexing energy results in increased
thermal load, which can even cause tire
bursts. Following a spate of severe fatal
accidents in the USA due to tire bursts
caused by insufficient inflation pressure,
legislation was passed (NHTSA Tread
Act) to regulate the nationwide introduc-
tion of tire-pressure monitoring systems
in the USA in order to warn drivers about
low tire inflation pressure at an early stage
in the future. Since September 2007, all
new cars have been required to be fitted
with tire-pressure monitoring systems
which detect both tire damage and slow
pressure losses through the tire rubber
caused by gas diffusion.
The tire inflation pressure, however, is
not only an important variable for traffic
safety. Ride comfort, tire service life, and
fuel consumption are also significantly in-
fluenced by the inflation pressure. Inflation
pressure reduced by 0.6 bar can increase
fuel consumption by up to 4 % in urban
traffic and shorten the service life of the
tire by up to 50 %. In the European Union
(EU), the decision has been taken to
prescribe the fitting of tire-pressure moni-
toring systems in all new cars as from
­October 2012 in order to help reduce CO2
emissions.
Already today the rising proportion of
tires with run-flat properties necessitates
the deployment of tire-pressure monitor-
ing systems, as the car driver is no longer
able to detect a tire with a considerable
pressure deficiency (“flat”) on the basis of
the drivability. In order to prevent the driver
from inadvertently exceeding the speed
and range limits that apply in this case,
run-flat tires may only be used in conjunc-
tion with tire-pressure monitoring sys-
tems.
As a general principle, two different
types of tire-pressure monitoring system
are used: directly measuring and indi-
rectly measuring systems.
Directly measuring systems
In directly measuring systems, a sensor
module with a pressure sensor is installed
in each tire of the vehicle. This transfers
data such as the tire pressure and tire
temperature from inside the tire across a
coded high-frequency transmission link to
a control unit. The control unit evaluates
these data in order to detect not only pres-
sure losses in individual tires (“puncture
detection”) but also slow pressure losses
in all the tires (“diffusion detection”). If
the tire pressure falls below a specified
threshold or if the pressure gradient ex-
ceeds a certain value, the driver is warned
by a visual or acoustic signal.
The sensor modules are usually inte-
grated into the tire valve. As a rule, they
are supplied by a battery. In comparison
with other applications, this results in ad-
ditional requirements with regard to power
consumption, media resistance, and sen-
sitivity to acceleration. Micromechanical
absolute-pressure sensors are used as
sensor elements.
The data measured with the pressure
and temperature sensor in the tire are
processed in the sensor module, modu-
lated on a HF carrier signal (433 MHz in
Europe, 315 MHz in the USA), and emit-
ted via an antenna. This signal is either
detected via individual antennas on the
wheel arches or in a central receiver (e.g.
in the control unit of existing Remote Key-
less Entry systems).
Directly measuring systems do not
need a reset function if they have a fixed,
constant pressure-loss warning threshold.
For such a system to work, the vehicle
must only have one prescribed inflation
pressure, regardless of vehicle load and
tire size. As soon as different inflation
pressures have to be set in the vehicle,
a directly measuring system also needs
a reset function to be able to adapt the
warning threshold accordingly.
The advantages of directly measuring
systems are that they provide precise,

real measurement of the tire pressure
and temperature, and their functioning
is not dependent on specific tire types,
vehicle conditions and road conditions.
The disadvantages of direct systems
compared with indirect systems are the
much higher system costs, the additional
logistical costs in the field of maintain-
ing the availability of all the design vari-
ants, the follow-up costs for each new
rim, and their battery-dependent, limited
service life.
Indirectly measuring systems
In indirectly measuring systems, pressure
loss in the tires is not determined directly,
but rather by means of a derived variable.
To achieve this, these systems perform a
mathematical-statistical evaluation of the
speed differences of all wheels for “punc-
ture detection”, and if necessary also an
evaluation of a wheel natural-frequency
shift for “diffusion detection”. In vehicles
with antilock braking or driving-dynamics
control systems, the wheel speed re-
quired for this is determined by sensors
that are already present and transferred
to the control unit. Speed differences oc-
cur when pressure loss reduces the roll-
ing circumference of the corresponding
tire, thus increasing its speed relative to
the other three wheels. The subtraction,
which can be implemented using a low-
cost extension of the software algorithms
in the antilock braking or driving-dynamics
control system, enables detection of high
pressure losses on up to three tires. The
wheel natural-frequency spectrum of the
individual wheels is evaluated to enable
a simultaneous pressure loss at all four
wheels to be detected. Typically, the maxi-
mum wheel natural frequency shifts at a
pressure loss of 20 % from 40 Hz to ap-
proximately 38 Hz.
Indirectly measuring systems must nec-
essarily be calibrated to the nominal pres-
sure. A calibration is initiated by operating
the reset button. When the reset function
is activated, the system stores the current
learning values on the next few kilome-
ters as new reference values, based on
the current rolling circumferences and
wheel natural-frequency characteristics.
The warning capability takes effect after
approx. ten minutes of driving time.
Tires 1189
The driver is required to activate the reset
function to recalibrate the system when
one or more tires are changed, the tire
positions are changed (e. g. switching the
front and rear wheels), the tire pressure is
altered (e. g. when the vehicle is fully
laden), or work has been carried out on
the wheel suspension (e. g. adjustment
work, shock-absorber replacement).
Advantages of indirectly measuring
systems are their lower system costs and
their robustness over the service life of
vehicles, since no additional components
are required. Because the system is
linked to the vehicle and not to the wheels,
no further costs are incurred in the field for
logistics and spare parts. A disadvantage
is the system’s dependence on the spe-
cific tire, resulting in a wider variation of
the detection times and in higher costs for
adapting the system’s function to the tire
dimensions permitted for a particular ve-
hicle. The system’s dependence on mile-
age and road surface also influences the
detection times.
Fulfillment of statutory requirements
As things stand, both systems satisfy the
statutory requirements in North America
and Europe with regard to “puncture
­detection” and “diffusion detection”. Statu-
tory provisions for tire-pressure monitor-
ing systems are also being drafted in
China and Korea.
1190 Chassis systems
Rotary seal for tire-pressure
control
Function
The Turcon PTFE rotary seal (Turcon
Roto L, Figure 1) was developed for
tire-pressure control purposes in order
to seal around the axle of the central
tire-pressure system only when required
and always when the tire pressure is in-
creased or decreased. In conventional
seal concepts the seal remains in perma-
nent contact with the axle that bears the
seal. This causes friction, which in turn
leads to increased fuel consumption. By
avoiding friction in pressureless operation
this rotary seal necessarily reduces fuel
consumption.
Application
The Turcon Roto L was originally devel-
oped primarily for off-road vehicles to
adapt the tire inflation pressure to the
ground. On asphalt surfaces a high tire
inflation pressure is required, whereas on
dirt tracks a low tire inflation pressure is
advantageous.
The use of this tire-pressure control can
also produce benefits for trucks. It facili-
tates the extension of tire-pressure control
systems and produces benefits for trucks
with long loading areas or different semi-
trailers in which the tire pressure could be
optimized for the respective road and load
conditions. This would increase traction
Figure 1: Turcon Roto L sealing system
a) Setting a high tire inflation pressure,
b) Setting a low tire inflation pressure.
a b
and safety and help to deliver significant
fuel savings to transport companies.
Performance and passenger cars are
a further target market. When sports cars
are driving at low speeds the tire pres-
sure should be kept low. At high speeds
the handling performance is improved if
the tire pressure can be set to high or,
depending on the road surface, set differ-
ently at each wheel. Furthermore, it can
be used as a safety system in the event
of a blow-out in order to inflate the system
with air until the driver reaches the near-
est repair shop.
Design
The Turcon Roto L combines a polytet-
rafluoroethylene (PTFE) sealing lip with
an elastomer seal body and a stable,
shape-forming metal ring (Figure 2). The
seal's design ensures that during pres-
sure build-up the sealing lip is pressed
against the mating sealing surface. As the
pressure decreases, the relaxing elasto-
mer area, which acts like a spring, returns
the sealing lip to its neutral initial position.
Seal wear
A further important effect on the perfor-
mance of the Turcon Roto L with regard
to the service life of the overall system is
the significantly reduced shaft run-in. This
is due on the one hand to the use of a
special seal material which is filled with a
complex mixture of non-abrasive mineral
fibers and on the other
hand to the low friction
when the seal is not
activated.
A conventional stan-
dard seal used today
in a tire-pressure con-
trol system already
exhibits a shaft run-in
of around 10 µm after
168 hours. In compari-
son, the Turcon Roto L
has a shaft run-in of
around 4 µm after 780
hours (Figure 3). In
other words, the ser-
vice life of a sealing
SAM0210-1Y
system with this rotary
seal is at least four
times longer.
 Tires 1191

Seal seat the tire pressure can also be reduced or

Rotary seals for tire-pressure control increased during driving. In the case of
need to be well seated in the groove to large commercial-vehicle tires it can take
ensure tightness, even when the sys- 20 to 30 minutes to adjust the tire pres-
tem is pressurized. In this way, a relative sure. If this can be done en route while the
movement of the body is also prevented vehicle is driving, the vehicle can be active
when the shaft is subject to axial move- for up to 30 minutes instead of standing
ment. The groove should have a diameter idle. This means a reduction of overall
tolerance of H8 (according to DIN 3760 costs for the operator.
[1], ISO 6194-1 [2], and ISO 16589-1 [3]).
It is important that the seal has not been ________________________________
subjected to load by other components References for rotary seal
beforehand (for example, by bearings). for tire-pressure control
The shaft should have a diameter toler- [1] DIN 3760: Rotary shaft lip type seals;
ance of h7. The surface should be ground 1996.
to a perfectly flat finish. A surface with Ra [2] ISO 6194-1: Rotary shaft lip-type
= 0.2 to 0.4 μm and a maximum Rz value seals incorporating elastomeric sealing
of 1.5 μm is recommended for this rotary elements – Part 1: Nominal dimensions
seal. and tolerances; 2007.
[3] ISO 16589-1: Rotary shaft lip-type
Benefits seals incorporating thermoplastic sealing
One benefit of this concept is that it ex- elements – Part 1: Nominal dimensions
tends the seal life. If the seal in a vehicle is and tolerances; 2011.
only used for around 10 % of the axle sys-
tem's service life, it remains operational
and fit for use over the system's entire
service life.
Even more important, however, is the
elimination of friction when there is no
pressurization. This means considerable
fuel savings for the vehicle operator. Be-
cause the seal generates less than half
the friction of conventional seal solutions,

Figure 2: Turcon Roto L design

1 Metal ring,
2 Sealing lip.
m
ax
.R
0. 4.4 0+0.2
3
Figure 3: Shaft run-in
SAM0211-2E
SAM0212-2E

1 Radial shaft seal,

ma 2 Turcon Roto L.
x. R
0.2
µm
40 1 2
Support max. dia. 53.8

Shaft run-in

1 2
20°

30
Shaft dia. 50 h7
Bore dia. 60 H8

20

10
dia. 54.6

0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 h
Time
1192 Chassis systems
Steering
Purpose of automotive
steering systems
The direction of vehicles of any kind is
changed with the steering. In single-track
vehicles, for example motorcycles, steer-
ing is performed by turning the pivoted
front fork in the steering head (steer-
ing-head steering). In two-track vehicles
kingpin steering as described in the fol-
lowing is used.
In road vehicles the wheels on the front
axle are steered; in some vehicle models
the wheels on the rear axle also steer.
Rear-axle steering reduces the turning
circle at low speeds and increases the
driving dynamics at high speeds.
Kingpin steering
In a kingpin-steering system the two
wheels are each secured to a pivoted
steering knuckle (Figure 1). The rotary
movement is introduced via the steering
arms rigidly connected to the steering
knuckle by the two tie rods actuated by the
steering box. The casing of the steering
box is permanently connected to the vehi-
Figure 1: Kingpin steering
1 Steering knuckle
with steering arm,
2 Tie rod,
3 Steering box
with servo unit,
4 Steering column.
cle. The rotary movement is introduced via
the steering column, at the upper end of
which the steering wheel is located.
Aside from the vehicle weight and the
friction coefficient of the wheels on the
road surface, the axle kinematics affect
the steering behavior and the forces to be
applied by the steering. As a result of the
toe-in (see Fundamentals of automotive
engineering) the two front wheels are not
parallel but instead are slightly inclined
towards each other in the direction of
travel in order to improve straight-run-
ning stability. As a result of the camber
the wheels are not exactly vertical on the
road but instead are slightly inclined in-
wards. This results in a side force on the
wheels acting towards the inside of the
vehicle. This force pretensions the bear-
ings in the straight-ahead position and
provides a better steering response and
greater directional stability. The kingpin
inclination influences the steering forces.
In the transverse direction the swivel axis
of the steering knuckle is inclined inwards,
equating to a positive kingpin angle. A
small kingpin angle reduces the steering
4
SFL0044Y
1

forces, whereas a large kingpin inclina-
tion assists the automatic return to the
straight-ahead position.
The automatic return to the straight-
ahead position is achieved above all by
the caster offset. Inclining the swivel axes
in the direction of travel towards the rear
moves the piercing point of the swivel axis
through the road surface in the direction
of travel ahead of the wheel contact point
and consequently the wheels are pulled in
the direction of travel.
Classification of automotive steering
systems
Muscular-energy steering system
The required steering forces are gener-
ated exclusively by the muscular energy
of the driver. These steering systems are
currently used in the smallest vehicle cat-
egories.
Power-assisted steering system
The steering forces are generated by the
muscular energy of the driver and by an
additional auxiliary force hydraulically and
increasingly electrically. This steering sys-
tem is currently the type typically used in
passenger cars and commercial vehicles.
Power-steering system
The steering forces are generated exclu-
sively by non-muscular (external) energy
(e.g., in machinery).
Friction steering system
The steering forces are generated by
forces which act on the tire contact patch.
The trailing axles in trucks are an exam-
ple of this type. The transmissions for the
steering and auxiliary forces are effected
by mechanical, hydraulic or electrical
means or by combinations of the three.
Steering 1193
Steering-system
requirements
General requirements
To ensure that the road wheels roll cleanly
and are thereby not subjected to exces-
sive tire wear, the entire steering kinemat-
ics must satisfy the Ackermann condition.
This means that the extensions of the
wheel axes of the steered wheels inter-
sect at the same point on the extension of
the wheel axis of the non-steered wheels
(Figure 2).
Steering kinematics and axle design
must be such that, although the driver
receives feedback on the adhesion be-
tween wheels and road surface, the steer-
ing wheel is not subjected if possible to
any forces from the spring motion of the
wheels or from motive forces (front-wheel
drive). Furthermore, damping properties
must be utilized to ensure that no vibra-
tion, caused by road irregularities for ex-
ampled, occurs in the steering train.
Jolts from irregularities in the road sur-
face should be damped as much as pos-
sible during transmission to the steering
wheel. But, in the process, the required
haptic feedback from the road to the driver
must not be lost.
The steering-angle requirement for
turning the steering wheel from lock
to lock should, for comfort reasons, be
as small as possible when parking and
driving at low speed. However, the direct
Figure 2: Ackermann condition
1 Front axle,
2 Rear axle.
S Point of intersection of extension
of wheel axes.
S
UFL0037-2Y
2
1194 Chassis systems

steering ratio should not make the vehicle
susceptible to instability at medium and
high speeds.
Statutory requirements
Displacement and time synchronization
when the steering system is operated is
required by law. A rigid, zero-play configu-
ration of all the components in the steering
train helps to achieve this and causes the
slightest steering-wheel movements by
the driver to be translated into changes of
direction at the steered wheel. This prop-
erty is particularly important in the range
of the straight-ahead position. This makes
possible safe, precise, and fatigue-free
vehicle guidance.
A further statutory requirement is the
tendency of the steering to return auto-
matically to the straight-ahead position.
This is achieved by appropriate axle ki-
nematics and a low-friction design of the
components in the steering train.
The statutory requirements imposed on
steering systems in motor vehicles are
described in the international regula-
tion ECE-R79 [1]. These requirements
include, as well as the basic functional
requirements, the maximum permissi-
ble control forces for an intact steering
system and for a faulty steering system.
These requirements govern, above all,
the behavior of the vehicle and the steer-
ing system when driving into and out of
a circle. Owing to different requirements,
vehicles are divided in ECE-R79 into dif-
ferent categories, to which different stipu-
lations then apply (Table 1).
For vehicles of all categories: After the
steering wheel is released when the ve-
hicle is driven on a circular course at half
lock and at a speed of 10 km/h or faster,
the driven radius of the vehicle must be-
come larger or at least remain the same.
For M1 category vehicles (passenger
cars with up to eight seats in addition

Table 1: Categorization of vehicles in ECE-R79

Vehicle
category
M1 Vehicles for the carriage of passengers comprising no more than 8 seats in addition to
the driver's seat
M2 Vehicles for the carriage of passengers comprising more than 8 seats in addition to the
driver's seat and having a maximum mass not exceeding 5 tons
M3 Vehicles for the carriage of passengers comprising more than 8 seats in addition to the
driver's seat and having a maximum mass exceeding 5 tons
N1 Vehicles for the carriage of goods and having a maximum mass not exceeding 3.5 tons
N2 Vehicles for the carriage of goods and having a maximum mass exceeding 3.5 tons but
not exceeding 12 tons
N3 Vehicles for the carriage of goods and having a maximum mass exceeding 12 tons

Table 2: Regulations for steering operating force when driving into a circle at a speed of 10 km/h
Vehicle Intact system Faulty system
category Maximum operating Time Turning Maximum operating Time Turning
force in daN1 in s circle radius force in daN1 in s circle radius
in m in m
M1 15 4 12 30 4 20
M2 15 4 12 30 4 20
M3 20 4 12 2 45 6 20
N1 20 4 12 30 4 20
N2 25 4 12 40 4 20
N3 20 4 12 2 45 3 6 20

1
1 daN = 10 N.
2
Or steering lock in case this value is not reached.
3
50 daN for non-articulated vehicles, with two or more steered axles,
excluding friction-steered axles.

to the driver's seat): When the vehicle is
driven tangentially out of a circle with a ra-
dius of 50 m at a speed of 50 km/h, no un-
usual vibrations may occur in the steering
system. In vehicles of the other catego-
ries, this behavior must be substantiated
at a speed of 40 km/h or, if this value is not
reached, at top speed.
This behavior is also prescribed in the
event of a fault in vehicles with power-as-
sisted steering systems. For M1 category
vehicles, it must be possible in the event
of a steering-servo failure to drive at a
speed of 10 km/h within four seconds into
a circle with a radius of 20 m. The con-
trol force at the steering wheel must not
exceed 30 daN in the process (Table 2).
The same applies to the behavior with an
intact system.
Figure 3: Rack-and-pinion steering
a) Design,
b) Detail.
1 Steering-gear box with rack,
2 Steering spindle with pinion,
3 Steering mounting,
4 Gaiter,
5 Tie rods with outer links,
6 Steering pinion,
7 Rack with toothing.
b a
6
7 5
4
Steering 1195
Types of steering box
The specified steering-system require-
ments have given rise above all to two
fundamental types of steering box. Both
types can be utilized in pure muscular-en-
ergy steering systems or, in combination
with appropriate servo systems, as pow-
er-assisted steering systems.
Rack-and-pinion steering
Rack-and-pinion steering is by far the
most commonly used type and consists
essentially of steering pinion and rack
(Figure 3). The steering pinion is driven
by the steering wheel and the steering
column (Figure 1). The steering ratio is
defined by the ratio of pinion revolutions
(steering-wheel revolutions) to rack travel.
As an alternative to a constant reduc-
tion ratio on the rack, suitable toothing
of the rack allows the ratio to be varied
as a function of travel. In this way, the
straight-running stability of the vehicle
can be improved by a suitably indirect
2
3
SFL0045-1Y
1196 Chassis systems
ratio around the center of the steering.
At the same time, it is possible with a
direct ratio arrangement in the range of
medium and large steering angles (e.g.,
when parking) to reduce the necessary
steering-angle requirement when turning
from lock to lock.
Recirculating-ball steering
The forces generated between steering
worm and steering nut are transmitted
via a low-friction row of recirculating balls
(Figure 4). The steering nut acts on the
steering output shaft via gear teeth. A vari-
able ratio is also possible with this type of
steering box.
The increasing performance of rack-
and-pinion steering has meant that re-
circulating-ball steering is practically no
longer used in passenger cars.
Figure 4: Recirculating-ball steering
1 Steering worm,
2 Recirculating balls,
3 Steering nut,
4 Steering output shaft with toothing
segment.
1 2 3 4
UFL0012-1Y
Power-assisted steering
systems for passenger cars
The upshot of the increasing size and
weight of vehicles and the heightened
comfort and safety requirements involved
is that in the last few years power-assisted
steering has gained acceptance in all ve-
hicle categories down to the compact-car
segment. These steering systems are, but
for a few exceptions, already installed as
standard. The steering forces exerted by
the drive are boosted by a hydraulic or an
electric servo system. This servo system
must be such that the driver receives good
feedback on the adhesion conditions be-
tween the tires and the road surface at
all times, and yet negative influences
caused by road-surface jolts are effec-
tively damped.
Hydraulic power-assisted steering
Combining the mechanical type of steer-
ing box with a hydraulic servo system
produces rack-and-pinion power steering
(Figure 6) and ball-and-nut power steer-
ing.
Control valve
The control valve provides the working
cylinder with an oil pressure that corre-
sponds to the rotary force of the steering
wheel (Figure 5). For this purpose, a tor-
sion-bar spring is used to convert the op-
erating torque into proportional actuator
travel inside the valve. The actuator travel
changes opening cross-sections inside
the valve and thereby control the oil and
pressure ratios in the working cylinder.
Control valves are built according to the
“open center” principle, i.e., when the con-
trol valve is not actuated, the oil delivered
by the pump flows back to the oil reservoir
at zero pressure.
Power-assisted steering systems with
modulation capability
Increasing demands regarding us-
er-friendliness and safety have resulted
in the introduction of power-assisted
steering systems with modulation capa-
bility. An example of this is the rack-and-
pinion power-steering system operating
in response to driving speed. An ECU
evaluates the driving speed and controls,
 Steering 1197

via an electrohydraulic control valve, the Working cylinder

hydraulic feedback in the system and
consequently the operating force at the
steering wheel.
This produces in the parking range and
when driving slowly low operating forces,
which then increase as the speed in-
creases. In this way, precise and accurate
steering is possible at high speeds.
The double-action working cylinder inte-
grated in the steering box converts the
applied oil pressure into an assisting force
which acts on the rack and intensifies the
steering force exerted by the driver. As the
working cylinder has to have extremely
low friction, particularly high demands are
made on the piston and rod seals.

Figure 5: Functioning principle of control valve of hydraulic power-assisted steering

a) Control valve
in neutral position, a b
b) Control valve 1
in working position.
1 Power-steering pump, 2
2 Control bushing,
3 Rotary slide, 3
4 Left working-cylinder
chamber, 4 5
5 Right working-cylinder
chamber,
6 Oil reservoir.

UFL0038-2Y
6

Figure 6: Rack-and-pinion power steering

1 Hydraulic steering box, 2 Power-steering pump, 3 Oil reservoir,
4 Hydraulic lines, 5 Steering column.

3 4

2
5

1
SFL0046-1Y
1198 Chassis systems

Energy source speed can be adapted to the steering's

The energy source consists of a vane-
type supply pump (generally driven by
the internal-combustion engine) (pow-
er-steering pump) with an integrated oil-
flow regulator, an oil reservoir, and con-
necting hoses and pipes. The pump must
be dimensioned so that it makes available
the required oil pressure and the required
oil quantity for parking maneuvers, even
when the engine is just idling.
To provide protection against overload,
steering systems contain a pressure-re-
lief valve which is usually integrated in
the pump. The pump and the components
in the hydraulic working circuit must be
designed so that no offending noise is
generated and the operating temperature
of the hydraulic fluid does not rise to an
excessive level.
Alternatively, the pump for the energy
supply of the steering can also be driven
by an electric motor. The pump is usually
designed as a gear or roller-cell pump.
The pump can be mounted in a variety of
locations due to the omission of the belt
drive for the internal-combustion engine.
Thanks to an electronic control module
which evaluates signals like the vehicle
or steering speed, the pump's rotational
current energy demand and to the driving
situation, and consequently greater en-
ergy efficiency can be achieved.
Electric power-assisted steering
Hydraulic power-assisted steering has
been replaced in the passenger-car sec-
tor in the last few years almost exclusively
by electromechanical power-assisted
steering (EPS, Electric Power Steering).
Introduced in micro and compact cars
in around 1990 and then in the compact
class in around 2000, ever more powerful
electric ECUs and motors enable such
systems to be used even in the upper
passenger-car and SUV sectors. Elec-
tromechanical power-assisted steering is
characterized by an electric drive unit con-
sisting of an ECU and an electric motor
powered by the vehicle electrical system
which delivers the required servo force.
The system consists of the following com-
ponents (Figure 7):
– Steering column that connects the
steering pinion with the steering wheel
inside the vehicle.
– Steering pinion that converts the rotat-
ing steering movement into the linear
movement of the rack.

Figure 7: Variants of electromechanical power-assisted steering

a) Servo unit on the steering column,
b) Servo unit on a second pinion,
c) Paraxial servo unit.
1 Toothing for steering wheel, 2 Upper steering column, 3 Torque sensor, 4 Electric motor,
5 ECU, 6 Helical-gear drive, 7 Intermediate steering shaft, 8 Steering-spindle connection,
9 Mechanical rack-and-pinion
steering, a 1 b
10 Steering box,
11 Gaiter, 2
4
12 Tie rod,
13 Outer link, 10 6
14 Drive pinion 3
(second pinion), 4
3 8 9
15 Recirculating-ball and 5 5 14
toothed-belt gear. c
6
7 15

8 8
9
3
SFL0047-2Y

9 4 10
5
10
11 13
12
 Steering 1199

– Rack connected to the wheels via the nut. The slip-free toothed belt is able to
tie rods and links. transmit the torque reliably.
– Sensors to record the information re- This system is used in vehicles with
quired to calculate the necessary sup- high steering forces (sports cars, upper
porting steering torque. mid-size, off-road vehicles, light commer-
– Servo unit, consisting of an electric cial vehicles).
ECU with microprocessor, electric mo-
tor and reduction gear which generates Servomotor
the assisting steering torque and links Brushed or brushless DC motors are
into the steering train. used as servomotors. Depending on the
required performance capability of the
Variants steering the design of the reduction gear,
The mechanical coupling of the motor to the torque generated by these motors is 3
the steering box can be set up as a steer- to over 10 Nm.
ing-column, steering-pinion or rack drive. Activation of the motor and hence the
power consumption itself are demand-ori-
Servo unit on the steering column ented; in other words, only when assisting
The servo unit is integrated along with its power is actually required is the vehicle
electronics in the steering column (Fig- electrical system subjected to load ex-
ure 7a). It is connected via the intermedi- tending beyond the stand-by power input.
ate steering shaft with universal joints to
the mechanical rack-and-pinion steering. Reduction gear
The torque generated by the electric mo- Primarily two principles are used in the
tor is converted via the helical-gear drive reduction gear.
(Figure 8) into an assisting torque and
transmitted to the steering column. The
sensor technology and the torsion-bar
spring are located next to the helical-gear Figure 8: Helical-gear drive
drive. 1 Helical gear,
This system is used in vehicles with low 2 Drive pinion,
steering forces (micro and compact cars). 3 Overload safety,
4 Locating bearing,
5 Housing,
Servo unit on a second pinion 6 Worm,
The servo unit is mounted on a second 7 Spring-damper element.
pinion (Figure 7b), meaning that the sen-
sor unit and drive unit can be separate.
The helical-gear drive (Figure 8) converts
the torque provided by the electric motor
into the servo assisting torque and trans-
mits it to the rack. The drive-pinion ratio is 1
not dependent on the steering ratio; this
makes possible a power-optimized design 2
with 10 % to 15 % more system power. 3
This system is used in mid-size vehi-
cles.
Paraxial servo unit
To convert the rotary movement of the
steering wheel into a linear motion of the
rack, this system uses a gear concept
consisting of toothed belt and recirculat-
ing-ball gear. A system with ball recircula- 4
tion is used in the ball-and-screw spindle
5 6 7
SFL0050Y

drive. The ball chain is returned through a

channel integrated in the recirculating-ball
1200 Chassis systems
Helical-gear drive
When a helical-gear drive is used (Fig-
ure 8), the motor drives a worm which en-
gages a helical gear and thereby acts on
the steering output shaft, the steering pin-
ion or a separate drive pinion (Figure 8).
It is important to ensure in the design of
the helical-gear drive that there is no ten-
dency to self-lock when turning back as a
result of the rack force.
Recirculating-ball gear
When a recirculating-ball gear is used
(Figure 9), the motor drives, either directly
or additionally reduced by an upstream
belt-transmission stage, a ball-and-screw
spindle drive, which converts the rotary
movement into linear motion of the rack.
Torque sensor
To deliver the assisting force in line with
demand, the driver manual torque is mea-
sured by the torque sensor integrated in
the steering system, the required servo
force is calculated in the electric ECU, and
the motor is activated accordingly. The as-
sisting force is delivered by the motor on
the basis of torque control (see Torque
sensor).
Figure 9: Recirculating-ball gear
1 Ball bearing,
2 Return channel,
3 Ball chain,
4 Rack.
1 or subtracted from the steering-wheel an-
2 power-assisted steering system. Super-
3 4
SFL0048Y
Functions
Further functions are executed in the
ECU software to optimize the steering
behavior. The ECU evaluates further
signals from the vehicle or the steer-
ing (e.g., driving speed, steering angle,
steering torque, and steering speed) for
this purpose. Thus, for example, the re-
setting movement of the steering wheel
is optimized as a function of the steering
angle and the driving speed by an addi-
tional motor torque. Likewise, a damping
function is implemented with the informa-
tion on driving speed and steering speed;
this function supports the straight-ahead
stability of the steering and hence of the
vehicle at high driving speeds.
By networking the steering ECU with
other ECUs in the vehicle network, it is
possible to realize assistance functions
with the electromechanical power-as-
sisted steering to enhance comfort and
safety.
Demand-oriented control of the elec-
tric motor leads to considerable fuel
savings of 0.3 l/100 km on average com-
pared to hydraulic power steering with
a pump driven by the vehicle engine. In
urban driving, the fuel savings increase
to 0.7 l/100 km.
In the event of a failure of the energy
supply or steering assistance, the driver
can continue to steer mechanically, but
with higher manual steering torque.
Superimposed steering
With a superimposed-steering system, an
additional steering angle can be added to
gle set by the driver at the steering wheel.
This system is usually combined with a
parameterizable hydraulic or an electric
imposed does not facilitate autonomous
driving, but it does provide for a steer-
ing characteristic optimally adapted to
the driving situation, and thus maximum
comfort and directional stability. When
networked with driving-dynamics control
systems, it can further increase safety
in critical driving situations by means of
driver-independent steering adjustments.
Such steering systems are already in se-
ries production, known as Active Steering
at BMW and Dynamic Steering at Audi.
 Steering 1201

Technical solution Planetary-gear set

The angle superimposition independent A twin planetary-gear set with different
of the driver’s steering angle is currently gear ratios of the gear stages is inte-
effected by two different technical solu- grated into a common planetary-gear
tions. carrier in the steering train (Figure 10).
This means there is always a mechanical
link between the steering wheel and the
Figure 10: Planetary-gear set steered wheels. The different gear ratios
of superimposed steering of the gear stages mean that turning the
1 Valve, planetary-gear carrier sets the additional
2 Electromagnetic lock, steering angle. The angle setting is made
3 Worm,
4 Electric motor, by a electric motor that drives the worm
5 Rack, gear of the planetary-gear carrier.
6 Planetary gear,
7 Worm gear. Harmonic drive
The steering-angle superimposition unit
1 2 consists in this case of a harmonic drive
and an electric motor with a hollow shaft
(Figure 11). The highly compact design
enables it to be integrated into the steer-
ing column without compromising the
3 4 requirements with regard to installation
space and crash behavior. The shaft at
the steering-wheel end (input shaft) is
positively connected (Figure 12) to a flex
7 spline. The rotary movement of the steer-
6
ing wheel is transmitted via the toothing
of the flex spline (teeth in the region of
the flexible ball bearing point outwards) to
the toothing of the internal gear (circular
spline, teeth point inwards in the direction
of the axle) for the output shaft. An ellipti-
cal inner rotor (shaft generator) located in
SFL0034-1Y

the flex spline, which is driven by the elec-

5
tric motor, generates the superimposed
steering angle via the different number

Figure 11: Steering train of superimposed steering

with harmonic drive
1 Electric motor with harmonic drive,
2 Steering column,
3 Intermediate steering shaft,
4 Power-steering pump, 1
5 Rack-and-pinion power steering.

4 3

5
UFL0043-1Y
1202 Chassis systems
of teeth between the flex spline and the
circular spline. The races of the flexible
ball bearing follow the shaft motion of the
elliptical inner rotor and transmit this shaft
motion to the flex spline. Here, too, there
is always a mechanical link between the
steering wheel and the steered wheels via
the toothing of the harmonic drive.
In the passive state, the electric mo-
tor is blocked by an electromechanical
lock, thereby ensuring direct mechanical
through-drive for the steering movement.
Activation concept
The superimposed-steering ECU checks
the plausibility of the required sensor in-
formation and evaluates this information. It
calculates the setpoint angle for the elec-
tric motor and generates via an integrated
driver stage the pulse width-modulated
signals for activating the electric motor.
This is implemented as a brushless DC
motor with integrated rotor position sen-
sor. The maximum motor current is 40 A at
a vehicle system voltage of 12 V. The rotor
position sensor enables the control unit
to control the electronic commutation and
thus the direction of rotation of the motor.
It also calculates and checks the total set
Figure 12: Actuator of superimposed
steering with harmonic drive
1 Input shaft,
2 Output shaft,
3 Electric motor,
4 Rotor-position sensor,
5 Elliptical inner rotor (shaft generator),
6 Internal gear (circular spline),
7 Flex spline,
8 Flexible ball bearing.
2 7 6 5 4 3 1
UFL0042-1Y
8
additional steering angle using a summa-
tion algorithm in the control unit software.
The effective steering angle, the sum
total of the steering-wheel angle and the
superimposed angle of the electric motor,
is calculated by the ECU, and made avail-
able on the vehicle communication bus to
the partner ECUs.
Setpoint value
The setpoint value for the effective
steering angle formed in the superim-
posed-steering ECU is made up of the
partial setpoint value for steering comfort
and the partial setpoint value for vehicle
stabilization. The signals required to cal-
culate these variables are read in by the
control unit via the CAN bus.
The partial setpoint value for the steer-
ing comfort is implemented as a speed-de-
pendent, variable steering ratio. The value
is calculated from the input variables of
steering angle and driving speed. When
the vehicle is stationary and at low driving
speeds, an angle is added to the steering
angle set by the driver. This makes the
steering ratio more direct. The driver can
turn the wheels fully with less than one
complete steering wheel revolution. This
steering-angle addition is continuously re-
duced as driving speed increases. From
speeds of roughly 80 – 90 km/h, a propor-
tion is subtracted from the driver’s steer-
ing angle and steering becomes more
indirect. This ensures straight-running
vehicle stability at high speeds and at the
same time prevents the driver from losing
control of the vehicle due to excessively
fast steering movements.
For the calculation of the partial set-
point value for vehicle stabilization – in
addition to the steering angle and the
driving speed – the vehicle movement is
measured using the sensors for the ve-
hicle yaw rate and lateral acceleration.
The superimposed steering uses the
driving-dynamics control sensors for this
purpose. In the same way as the driv-
ing-dynamics control, a calculation model
that runs in the ECU software calculates
the reference vehicle movement. In the
event of a deviation of the actual vehicle
movement from the reference movement,
the steering is activated to stabilize the
vehicle. The two systems continuously

exchange information so that the control-
lers of the driving-dynamics control and
the superimposed steering cooperate to
optimal effect.
Safety concept
All of the internal and external signals
that are used are continuously monitored
in the control unit and their plausibility
checked. If a sensor signal is no longer
plausible, the additional steering function
on which it is based is first disabled. For
example, if the yaw-rate sensor that mea-
sures the rotation of the vehicle around
its vertical axis (yaw rate) fails, the yaw-
rate control of the superimposed-steering
system is disabled. The variable steering
ratio remains active.
If safe activation of the electric motor
is no longer possible due to a fault, the
system is completely shut down and direct
steering-wheel through-drive is ensured
by self-locking of the gear stage and by
an electromechanical lock. This fallback
level is always automatically active when
the internal-combustion engine is not run-
ning or even if there is no electrical supply
voltage.
Steering 1203
Power-assisted steering
systems for commercial
vehicles
Power-assisted steering
with all-hydraulic transmission
Hydrostatic steering systems are hydrau-
lic power-assisted steering systems. The
steering force of the driver is hydraulically
boosted and transmitted exclusively by
hydraulic means to the steered wheels.
Because there is no mechanical connec-
tion, the maximum permissible speed is
limited by national regulations. In Ger-
many, this is 25 km/h. Depending on the
system configuration and emergency
steering properties, approval up to a
speed of 62 km/h is possible. Use of these
systems is therefore confined to machin-
ery and special vehicles.
Single-circuit power-assisted steering
system for commercial vehicles
Commercial vehicles are usually
equipped with ball-and-nut power steering
(Figure 13). The control valve is integrated
into the steering box and together with the
steering worm forms a single unit. The ro-
tary movement of the steering wheel is
transmitted via an endless ball chain to
Figure 13: Ball-and-nut power steering
1 Piston,
2 Steering-sector shaft,
3 Housing,
4 Steering-spindle connection,
5 Ball nut with ball chain,
6 Steering worm.
1 2 3 4
SFL0049Y
5 6
1204 Chassis systems

the ball-and-nut. Short toothing on the Dual-circuit power-assisted steering

ball-and-nut meshes with the toothing on
the segment shaft. The generated rotary
movement of the segment shaft is trans-
mitted via a steering arm to the steering
linkage and the steered wheels.
The servo force is applied, as with
rack-and-pinion power steering, by a ro-
tary-slide valve. The working cylinder is
formed by a sealing surface between the
ball-and-nut housing and the steering box.
Because no additional lines are required
outside the housing, a robust and com-
pact steering box with high power output
is created.
Figure 14: Dual-circuit power-assisted
steering
1 Steering pump 1,
2 Steering pump 2,
3 Oil reservoir 1,
4 Oil reservoir 2,
5 Working cylinder,
6 Left cylinder chamber,
7 Right cylinder chamber,
8 Dual-circuit steering valve.
UFL0041Y
system for heavy-duty commercial
vehicles
Dual-circuit steering systems (Figure 14)
are required when the operating forces
needed at the steering wheel exceed the
statutory requirements in ECE-R79 [1] if
the power-assistance system fails. These
steering systems feature hydraulic redun-
dancy. Both steering circuits in these sys-
tems are functionally tested by means of
flow indicators and a fault is indicated to
the driver. The pumps for supplying the
independent steering circuits must be
driven in various ways (e.g., engine-de-
pendent, driving speed-dependent, or
electrically). If a circuit fails, caused for ex-
ample by a fault in the steering system or
engine failure, the vehicle can be steered
with the still operational redundant circuit
in accordance with the statutory require-
ments.
Dual-circuit systems take the form of
ball-and-nut power steering with an inte-
grated second steering valve. This second
valve controls an additionally externally
installed working cylinder and thereby
provides the redundancy in relation to the
existing servo system in the ball-and-nut
steering.

________________________________
3 4 References
[1] ECE-R79: Uniform provisions con-
cerning the approval of vehicles with re-
2 gard to steering equipment.
1

6 7 8

5
1206 Chassis systems
Brake systems
Definitions and principles
(based on ISO 611 [1] and DIN 70024 [2]).
Brake equipment
All the vehicle brake systems whose func-
tions are to reduce vehicle speed or bring
the vehicle to a halt, or to hold the vehicle
stationary if already halted.
Brake systems
Service brake system
All the elements, the action of which may
be regulated, allowing the driver to reduce,
directly or indirectly, the speed of a vehicle
during normal driving or to bring the vehi-
cle to a halt.
Secondary brake system
All the elements, the action of which may
be regulated, allowing the driver to reduce,
directly or indirectly, the speed of a vehicle
or to bring the vehicle to a halt in case of
failure of the service brake system.
Parking brake system
All the elements allowing the vehicle to be
held stationary mechanically even on an
inclined surface, and particularly in the
absence of the driver.
Continuous-operation brake system
System of components which allows the
driver to reduce the vehicle’s speed or de-
scend a long downhill gradient at a virtu-
ally constant speed with practically no
wear to the friction brakes. A continuous-
operation brake system may incorporate
one or more retarders.
Automatic brake system
All the elements which automatically brake
the trailer as a result of intended or acci-
dental separation from the tractor vehicle.
Electronic brake system (ELB, EHB)
Brake system controlled by an electrical
signal generated and processed by the
control transmission system. An electrical
output signal controls components which
generate the application force.
Component parts
Energy-supplying device
Parts of a brake system which supply,
regulate and, if necessary, condition the
energy required for braking. It terminates
at the point where the transmission device
starts, where the various circuits of the
brake systems, including the circuits of
accessories if fitted, are isolated either
from the energy supplying device or from
each other.
The energy source is that part of an
energy-supplying device which generates
the energy. It may be located remotely
from the vehicle (e. g. in the case of a
compressed-air braking system for a
trailer) or may be the muscular force of the
driver.
Control device
Parts of a brake system which initiate the
operation and control the effect of this
brake system. The control signal can be
conveyed within the control device by, for
example, mechanical, pneumatic, hydrau-
lic or electrical means, including the use of
auxiliary energy or non-muscular force.
The control device is defined as start-
ing at the component to which the con-
trol force is directly applied. It can be
operated:
– By direct application of force by the
driver by hand or foot,
– by indirect action of the driver or without
any action (only in the case of trailers),
– by varying the pressure in a connecting
line, or the electric current in a cable,
between the tractor vehicle and the
trailer at the time when one of the brake
systems on the tractor vehicle is oper-
ated, or if it fails,
– by the inertia of the vehicle or by its
weight or of one of its main component
parts.
The control device is defined as ending at
the point at which the braking energy is
distributed, or where part of the energy is
diverted to control braking energy.

Transmission device
Parts of a brake system which transmit the
energy distributed by the control device. It
starts either at the point where the control
device terminates or at the point where the
energy supplying device terminates. It ter-
minates at those parts of the brake system
in which the forces opposing the vehicle’s
movement, or its tendency towards move-
ment, are generated. It can, for example,
be mechanical, hydraulic, pneumatic
(pressure above or below atmospheric),
electric, or combined (for example hydro-
mechanical, hydropneumatic).
Brake
Parts of a brake system in which the forces
opposing the vehicle’s movement, or its
tendency towards movement, are devel-
oped, such as friction brakes (disk or
drum) or retarders (hydrodynamic or elec-
trodynamic retarders, exhaust brakes).
Auxiliary device of the tractor vehicle
for a trailer
Parts of a brake system on a tractor ve-
hicle which are intended to supply energy
to, and control, the brake systems on the
trailer. It comprises the components be-
tween the energy supplying device of the
tractor vehicle and the supply-line cou-
pling head (inclusive), and between the
transmission device(s) of the tractor ve-
hicle and the control-line coupling head
(inclusive).
Brake-system types relating to the
energy supplying device
Muscular-energy brake system
Brake system in which the energy neces-
sary to produce the braking force is sup-
plied solely by the physical effort of the
driver.
Energy-assisted brake system
Brake system in which the energy neces-
sary to produce the braking force is sup-
plied by the physical effort of the driver and
one or more energy supplying devices.
Brake systems 1207
Non-muscular-energy brake system
Brake system in which the energy neces-
sary to produce the braking force is sup-
plied by one or more energy-supplying
devices excluding the physical effort of
the driver. This is used only to control the
system.
Note: A brake system in which the driver
can increase the braking force, in a state
of totally failed energy, by muscular effort
acting on the system, is not included in the
above definition.
Inertia brake system
Brake system in which the energy neces-
sary to produce the braking force arises
from the approach of the trailer to its trac-
tor vehicle.
Gravity brake system
Brake system in which the energy neces-
sary to produce the braking force is sup-
plied by the lowering of a component part
of the trailer (e. g. trailer drawbar) due to
gravity.
Definitions of brake systems
relating to the arrangement of
the transmission device
Single-circuit brake system
Brake system having a transmission de-
vice embodying a single circuit. The trans-
mission device comprises a single circuit
if, in the event of a failure in the transmis-
sion device, no energy for the production
of the application force can be transmitted
by this transmission device.
Multi-circuit brake system
Brake system having a transmission de-
vice embodying several circuits. The
transmission device comprises several
circuits if, in the event of a failure in the
transmission device, energy for the pro-
duction of the application force can still be
transmitted, wholly or partly, by this trans-
mission device.
1208 Chassis systems
Definitions of brake systems relating
to vehicle combinations
Single-line brake system
Assembly in which the brake systems of
the individual vehicles act in such a way
that the single line is used both for the en-
ergy supply to, and for the control of, the
brake system of the trailer.
Dual- or multi-line brake systems
Assembly in which the brake systems of
the individual vehicles act in such a way
that several lines are used separately and
simultaneously for the energy supply to,
and for the control of, the brake system of
the trailer.
Continuous brake system
Combination of brake systems for vehi-
cles forming a road train. Characteristics:
– From the driving seat, the driver can
operate a directly operated control de-
vice on the tractor vehicle and an indi-
rectly operated control device on the
trailer by a single operation and with a
variable degree of force.
– The energy used for the braking of each
of the vehicles forming the combination
is supplied by the same energy source
(which may be the muscular effort of the
driver).
– Simultaneous or suitably phased brak-
ing of the individual units of a road train.
Semi-continuous brake system
Combination of brake systems for vehi-
cles forming a road train. Characteristics:
– The driver, from his driving seat, can
gradually operate a directly operated
control device on the tractor vehicle and
an indirectly operated control device on
the trailer by a single operation.
– The energy used for the braking of each
of the vehicles forming the road train is
supplied by at least two different energy
sources (one of which may be the mus-
cular effort of the driver).
– Simultaneous or suitably phased brak-
ing of the individual units of a road train.
Non-continuous brake system
Combinations of the brake systems of the
vehicles forming a road train which is nei-
ther continuous nor semi-continuous.
Brake-system control lines
Wiring and conductors: These are em-
ployed to conduct electrical energy.
Tubular lines: Rigid, semi-rigid or flexible
tubes or pipes used to transfer hydraulic
or pneumatic energy.
Lines connecting the brake equipment
of vehicles in a road train
Supply line: A supply line is a special feed
line transmitting energy from the tractor
vehicle to the energy accumulator of the
trailer.
Brake line: A control line is a special con-
trol line by which the energy essential for
control is transmitted from the tractor ve-
hicle to the trailer.
Common brake and supply line:
Line serving equally as brake line and as
supply line (single-line brake system).
Secondary-brake line: Special actuating
line transmitting the energy from the trac-
tor vehicle to the trailer essential for sec-
ondary braking of the trailer.
Braking mechanics
Mechanical phenomena occurring be-
tween the start of actuation of the control
device and the end of the braking action.
Gradual braking
Braking which, within the normal range of
operation of the control device, permits
the driver, at any moment, to increase or
reduce, to a sufficiently fine degree, the
braking force by operating the control de-
vice. When an increase in braking force is
obtained by the increased action of the
control device, an inverse action must
lead to a reduction in that force.
Brake-system hysteresis: Difference in
control forces between application and
release at the same braking torque.
Brake hysteresis: Difference in applica-
tion force between application and re-
lease at the same braking torque.

Forces and torques
Control force Fc: Force exerted on the
control device.
Application force Fs: On friction brakes,
the total force applied to a brake lining and
which causes the braking force by the ef-
fect of friction.
Braking torque: Product of frictional forces
resulting from the application force and
the distance between the points of appli-
cation of these forces and the axis of rota-
tion of the wheels.
Total braking force Ff: Sum of the braking
forces at the tire contact patches of all the
wheels and the ground, produced by the
effect of the brake system, and which op-
pose the movement or the tendency of the
vehicle to move.
Braking-force distribution: Specification of
braking force according to axle, given in %
of the total braking force Ff. Example: front
axle 60 %, rear axle 40 %.
Figure 1: Times and deceleration during
braking to a stop
Deceleration a
t0 t1 t1' t2
Time t
before t0: Reaction time,
t0: Initial application of force
on control device,
t1: Start of deceleration,
t19: End of pressure build-up time,
t2: Fully developed deceleration,
t3: End of maximum retardation,
t4: End of braking operation
(vehicle stationary),
t1 – t0: Initial response time,
t19– t1: Pressure build-up time,
t3 – t2: “Mean maximum retardation” range,
t4 – t1: Active braking time,
t4 – t0: Total braking time.
Brake systems 1209
Brake coefficient C*: Defines the relationship
between the total peripheral force of a given
brake and the brake’s application force.
F
C* = ___
​  u ​ .
Fs
Fu Total peripheral force,
Fs Application force.
The mean is employed when there are
variations in application forces at individ-
ual brake shoes (i number of brake shoes):
Fsi
Fs = S ​ ___ ​.
i
Time periods
Reaction time (see Figure 1): The time that
elapses between perception of the state or
object which induces the response, and
the point at which the control device is ac-
tuated (t0).
Actuating time of the control device:
Elapsed time between the moment when
the component of the control device (t0) on
which the control force acts starts to move,
and the moment when it reaches its final
position corresponding to the applied con-
trol force (or its travel). (This is equally true
for application and release of the brakes).
Initial response time t1 − t0: Elapsed time
between the moment when the component
of the control device on which the control
force acts starts to move and the moment
when the braking force takes effect.
Pressure build-up time t19 − t1: Period that
elapses between the point at which the
UFB0269-1E
braking force starts to take effect and the
t3 t4 point at which a certain level is reached
(75 % of asymptotic pressure in the
wheel-brake cylinder as per EU Directive
71/320/ EEC [3], Annex III/2.4).
Initial response and pressure build-up
time: The sum of the initial response and
pressure build-up times is used to assess
how the brake system behaves over time
until the moment at which full braking ef-
fect is reached.
Active braking time t4 − t1: Elapsed time
between the moment when the braking
force starts to take effect and the moment
when the braking force ceases. If the
1210 Chassis systems

vehicle stops before the braking force This means that:

ceases, the time when motion ceases is
the end of the active braking time.
Release time: Elapsed time between the
moment when the control device starts to
release and the moment when the braking
force ceases.
Total braking time t4 − t0: Elapsed time be-
tween the moment when the control de-
vice on which the control force acts starts
to move and the moment when the brak-
ing force ceases. If the vehicle stops be-
fore the braking force ceases, the time
when motion ceases is the end of the ac-
tive braking time.
Braking distance s
Distance traveled by the vehicle during
the total braking time. If the time when mo-
tion ceases constitutes the end of the total
braking time, this distance is called the
“stopping distance”.
Braking work W
Integral of the product of the instanta-
neous braking force Ff and the elemen-
tary movement ds over the braking dis-
tance s:
s stance of ams where sE = s0).
W = ​∫​F
​  f  ds​ .
0 Mean fully developed deceleration dm
Instantaneous braking power P
Product of the instantaneous total braking
force Ff and the vehicle’s road speed υ:
P = Ff    υ .
Braking deceleration
Reduction of speed obtained by the brake
system within the considered time t. A dis-
tinction is made between the following:
Instantaneous braking deceleration
​ dυ ​.
a = ___
dt
Mean braking deceleration over
a period of time
The mean braking deceleration between
two points in time tB and tE is
tE
1  ​   ​ ​∫​a
amt =  ​ _____ ​  ​ ​( t )​  dt​;
tE − tB t B
υE − υB
amt = ______
 ​ t − t  ​ ,
E B
where υB and υE are the vehicle speeds at
the times tB and tE.
Mean braking deceleration over
a specific distance
The mean braking deceleration over the
distance between two points sB and sE is:
sE
1
ams =  ​ ______
s − s  ​  ​∫​​  a​ ​(s)​ds​ ;
E B sB
This means that:
υ​ ​ − υ​ ​
2 2
ams = _________
​  E B  ​
2  ​( sE − sB )​
where υB and υE are the vehicle speeds up
to the points sB and sE.
Mean braking deceleration over
the total braking distance
The mean braking deceleration is calcu-
lated according to the equation:
2
−υ​ ​
ams0 = ____
 ​  0 ​ ,
2 s0
where υ0 relates to the time t0 (special in-
Mean fully developed deceleration over
the distance determined by the conditions
υB = 0.8 υ0 and υE = 0.1  υ0 thus:
υ​ ​ − υ​ ​
2 2
dm = _________
​  B E  ​
2  ​( sE − sB )​
The mean fully developed deceleration is
used in ECE Regulation 13 [6] as a mea-
sure of the effectiveness of a brake sys-
tem. Since positive values for dm are used
here, the mathematic sign has been re-
versed in this case. (In order to establish
a relationship between braking distance
and braking deceleration, braking decel-
eration must be expressed as a function
of the distance traveled.)
Braking factor z
Ratio between the total braking force, Ff,
and the permissible total static weight, Gs,
exerted on the axle or axles of the vehicle:

F
z = ​ ___f ​.
Gs

Legal regulations
General Certification for a vehicle with re-
gard to its brake system may only be
granted when the brake system complies
with the following regulations:
– § 41 StVZO [4] (German Road Vehicle
Registration Regulation) in conjunction
with § 72 StVZO [5] and the associated
directives.
– Council Directive of the European Com-
munity (RREG) 71/320/EEC [3], associ-
ated Amending Directives and Annexes.
– ECE Regulations R13 [6], R13H [7],
R78 [8].
In § 41 StVZO, the requirements placed
on the brake system differ depending on
the type, gross weight rating, application,
date of registration, and type-determined
top speed. In the EC Directives, the re-
quirements are allocated to individual
vehicle categories. The vehicle categories
are as follows:
– M1, M2, M3: Passenger cars
with at least four wheels,
– N1, N2, N3: Commercial vehicles
with at least four wheels,
– O1, O2, O3, O4:
Trailers and semitrailers,
– L1, L2, L3, L4:
Motorcycles, threewheelers.
The values stipulated in § 41 StVZO with
regard to mean fully developed decelera-
tion do not apply, for example, to the re-
curring inspections required in Germany
for registered vehicles on the road (gen-
eral inspection, safety inspection). In
these inspections, the requirements of
§ 29 StVZO [9], s. 1, Annex VIII in con-
junction with Annex VIIIa, Guideline for
performing the general inspection and
Guideline for performing the safety in-
spection, apply.
The requirements in § 41 StVZO and
ECE-R13H with regard to brake equip-
ment are essentially identical. However,
ECE Regulations R13, R13H and R78
have been further updated and also con-
tain, for example, regulations covering
electronically controlled brake systems.
The prescribed braking effects must be
determined in accordance with Directive
71/320/EEC, s. 1.1.2, Annex II, amended
Brake systems 1211
by Directive 98/12/EC [10], or in accor-
dance with § 41 StVZO, s. 12.
Requirements placed
on brake systems
(as per § 41 StVZO, EC Directive 71/320/
EEC, ECE-R13, as at 2009)
Category M and N vehicles must comply
with the provisions which pertain to the
service, secondary and parking brake
systems. The brake systems may have
common components. Such vehicles
must have at least two mutually indepen-
dent control devices for the brake sys-
tems, one of which must be lockable. The
control devices must be fitted with sepa-
rate transmission devices, each must be
able to continue operating when the other
fails. The distribution of braking force be-
tween the individual axles is prescribed
and must be sensible. If a malfunction oc-
curs, it must be possible to achieve the
prescribed secondary braking effect with
the remaining operational part of the
brake system or with the vehicle’s other
brake system without the vehicle depart-
ing from its lane.
Vehicles in categories M2 and N2 and
above must be fitted with automatic anti-
lock braking facilities. Regulation EC
661/2009 [11] stipulates that from 1 No-
vember 2011 all new vehicle models and
from 2014 all new category M1 and N1
vehicles to be brought onto the road must
be equipped with an electronic driving-
dynamics control system (Electronic Sta-
bility Program). This regulation also ap-
plies, with the exception of off-road
vehicles as per Directive 2007/46/EC [12],
Annex II, Part A, to vehicles in the follow-
ing categories:
– M2 and M3, except vehicles with more
than three axles, articulated buses and
buses of category 1 or A,
– N2 and N3, except vehicles with more
than three axles, tractor units with a to-
tal weight of between 3.5 and 7.5 t and
special-purpose vehicles as per Direc-
tive 2007/46 /EC, Annex II, Part A,
– O3 and O4, with pneumatic suspen-
sion, except vehicles with more than
three axles, trailers for heavy transports
and trailers with areas for standing pas-
sengers.
1212 Chassis systems
The implementation of this regulation for
the vehicle categories, except categories
M1 and N1, is defined in Regulation EC
661/2009 [11], Annex V.
Continuous-operation brake systems
Continuous-operation brake systems are
additionally used to relieve the strain on
the service brake on long downhill gradi-
ents. Category M3 vehicles for local and
long-distance duty (buses weighing more
than 5.5 t (except city buses)) and other
category N2 and N3 vehicles with a gross
weight rating of more than 9 t (Directive
71/320/EEC, § 41 StVZO, s. 15) must be
equipped with a retarder. Exhaust brakes
or similar facilities are classed as retard-
ers. The retarder must be designed to hold
the vehicle when fully laden when driving
on a downhill gradient of 7 % and a dis-
tance of 6 km at a speed of 30 km/h.
Category O trailers
Category O1 trailers are not required to
have their own brake system; a securing
connection to the tractor vehicle is suffi-
cient. Category O2 trailers and above
must be fitted with service and parking
brake systems, which may have common
components. The distribution of braking
force between the individual axles is
prescribed in Directive 71/ 320/EEC. It
must be sensibly distributed between
the axles.
Category O3 trailers and above (ECE),
as well as trailers and semitrailers with a
gross weight rating of more than 3.5 t and
a type-determined top speed of more than
60 km/h (§ 41b StVZO, s. 2), must be
equipped with an antilock braking facility.
Semitrailers only need to be equipped with
ABS if the gross weight rating reduced by
the fifth-wheel load exceeds 3.5 t.
Category O3 trailers (existing types)
which are registered for use on public
roads after 11. 07. 2014 or 01. 11. 2014 must
be equipped with an electronic driving-dy-
namics control system (Electronic Stabil-
ity Program). For new types, this regula-
tion will already apply from 01. 11. 2011
or 11. 07. 2012 (Regulation EC 661/2009
[11], Annex V).
Category O2 trailers and below must be
equipped with inertia brake systems. The
trailer must brake automatically if it be-
comes decoupled from the tractor vehicle
while moving, or (for trailers weighing less
than 1.5 t) it must be equipped with a se-
curing connection to the tractor vehicle.
Category L vehicles
Motorized two- and three-wheeled vehi-
cles must be equipped with 2 mutually
independent brake systems. In the case of
duty category L5 three-wheel vehicles,
the two brake systems must both act on all
the wheels. A parking brake system must
be fitted.
Tractor vehicles and trailers with
compressed-air brake systems
The compressed-air connections be-
tween the individual vehicles must be of
the dual- or multi-line design. This ensures
that the compressed-air brake system in
the trailer can also be refilled during the
braking operation. When the service
brake system on the tractor unit is oper-
ated, the service brake system on the
trailer must also be operated with a vari-
able degree of force. If a fault occurs in the
service brake system of the tractor unit,
that part of the system not affected by the
fault must be capable of braking (control-
ling) the trailer with a variable degree of
force. If one of the connecting lines be-
tween tractor unit and trailer is interrupted
or develops a leak, it must still be possible
to brake the trailer, or it must brake auto-
matically.
The energy accumulators of the service
brake systems must be designed such
that, after eight full operations of the ser-
vice brake, at least the requested second-
ary braking effect is furnished on the ninth
braking. The energy accumulators must
not be replenished during this test. The
braking effect of the individual vehicles is
prescribed as a function of the pressure
at the “Brake” coupling head in Directive
71/320/EEC.
Vehicles with antilock
braking facilities
Antilock braking facilities must comply
with Directives 71/320/EEC, Annex X and
ECE-R13, Annex 13. An antilock braking
facility is part of a service brake system
which automatically controls the slip in the
direction of wheel rotation at one or more
 Brake systems 1213

of the vehicle’s wheels during the braking easing of the braking effect must be
operation. The requirements placed on achieved; furthermore, sufficient state-of-
the antilock braking facility differ, depend- the-art continuous brake duty must be
ing on the category, for vehicles ABS cat- guaranteed for longer stretches of down-
egories 1, 2 and 3, for trailers ABS catego- hill driving.
ries A and B.
Essential requirements placed on the anti- Minimum retardation and
lock braking facility (Category 1) are: max. permissible control forces
– Locking of the directly controlled wheels during the general inspection
under braking must be prevented at as per § 29 StVZO
speeds of over 15 km/h on all road sur- The required retardation values are deter-
faces. mined on test benches and only in excep-
– Directional stability and maneuverabil- tional cases in road tests. The required
ity must be maintained. Under a µ-split values are maximum values, because the
condition (extremely different coeffi- time response which is needed to deter-
cients of friction between the left and mine the mean fully developed decelera-
right wheels), steering corrections of tion is not measured in these recurring
120° during the first two seconds and inspections.
240° in total are permissible.
– There must be a special visual warning
system (yellow warning signal) to indi-
cate electrical faults.
– Motor vehicles (except Categories M1
and N1) with ABS which are equipped
to tow a trailer with ABS must be fitted
with a separate visual warning system
(yellow warning signal) for the trailer.
Transfer must be effected via pin 5 of
the electrical plug-in connection as per
ISO 7638 [13].
– The energy accumulators of the ser-
vice brake system in vehicles with ABS
must be designed such that the pre-
scribed secondary braking effect is still
achieved even after a controlled brak-
ing operation of longer duration
(t = υmax / 7, at least 15 seconds) and
then four uncontrolled full-braking op-
erations without energy replenishment.

Requirements and test conditions

The required values and test conditions
must be applied during the test in accor-
dance with § 19 [14] and § 20 StVZO [15].
Departures from the test method de-
scribed in Directive 71/320/EEC, Annex II,
s. 1.1.2, last amended by Directive 98/12/EC
and the test method specified in § 41
StVZO, s. 12, are permitted – especially
during verification checks as per § 29
StVZO – if the condition and the effect can
be ascertained by other means (§ 41
StVZO, s. 12). When vehicles to be newly
registered are tested, a higher braking
deceleration corresponding to the usual
1214 Chassis systems
Structure and organization
of brake systems
Essential requirements
The brake systems in motor vehicles must
comply with the requirements of Directive
71/ 320/EEC, ECE-R13 Part 1, ECE-R13
Part 2 and ECE-R13 H, and other coun-
try-specific regulations. Motor vehicles
must be equipped with two separate
brake systems, one of which must be lock-
able. The brake systems must have sepa-
rate control devices. In the event of a fault
in the service brake system, it must still be
possible for at least two wheels (not on the
same side) to be braked.
Types of brake system
The brake systems comprise the service
brake and parking brake systems and (in
commercial vehicles and motor buses)
the continuous-operation (retarder) brake
system. The requested secondary brake
system normally comes into play when a
fault occurs in the service brake system.
Special-purpose vehicles with special re-
quirements may also have special braking
functions such as a hill-climbing brake or
an anti-jackknifing brake.
Type of force generation
When it comes to how the force is gener-
ated, there are three different types of
system: muscular-energy, energy-as-
sisted, and non-muscular-energy brake
systems. In muscular-energy systems,
the muscular force of the driver alone is
effective, in energy-assisted systems this
is boosted by booster systems (brake
booster), and in non-muscular-energy
systems, the driver’s control force acts
only as a control variable. The maximum
required control forces are prescribed for
each type of vehicle.
Transmission device
Force is transmitted from the control de-
vice to the wheel brakes by mechanical,
hydraulic, pneumatic or electric means.
Mechanical force transmission is only
customary and prescribed for parking
brake systems (§ 41 StVZO, s. 5).
Force transmission for the service brake
system is performed via two separate
brake circuits by hydraulic or pneumatic
means so that at least one brake circuit
remains in operation in the event of a fault.
Electrical brake operation has up to
now only been used in electrically acting
parking brake systems (see Electrome-
chanical parking brake systems).
Brake-circuit configuration
Configuration of the brake circuits is gov-
erned by DIN 74000 [16]. In category M1
vehicles (passenger cars), the brake-­
circuit configuration is often diagonal
­(Figure 2b). But this is only possible in
conjunction with suitable front-axle geom-
etry (steering offset negative or neutral).
In all other vehicle categories, the II con-
figuration is used (Figure 2a). Here the
front axle forms one of the brake circuits
and the rear axle forms the other. All other
brake-circuit configurations as per
DIN 74000 are rarely used today and are
therefore no longer described in these
pages. The direct demand for a dual-cir-
cuit design of the transmission device is
prescribed in § 41 StVZO, s. 16 only for
motor buses.
Figure 2: Variants of brake-circuit
configuration
a) II configuration,
b) X configuration.
1 Brake circuit 1,
2 Brake circuit 2.
← Direction of travel.
a
1 2
b
UFB0544-2Y
1 2

Braking‑force distribution
Directives 71/ 320/EEC, ECE-R13 and
ECE-R13H also place requirements on
braking-force distribution between the indi-
vidual axles. This must be sensibly distrib-
uted in all load states between the axles.
Braking-force distribution can be effected
on the one hand through an assembly-re-
lated configuration of the wheel brakes
and on the other hand through a vehicle-
related configuration. Among other things,
the center-of-gravity height, the wheel-
base and the empty-empty ratio of the
vehicle are taken into consideration.
In commercial vehicles, according to the
diagrams in Directive 71/320/EEC, brak-
ing-force distribution is also dependent on
the pressure at the “Brake” coupling head.
Vehicle-related configuration of braking-
force distribution is effected by the integra-
tion of a braking-force limiter or an auto-
matically acting braking-force metering
device (automatic load-sensitive braking-
force metering).
In modern vehicles braking-force distri-
bution is integrated as an additional func-
tion into the electronic wheel-slip control
system (antilock braking facility, driving-
dynamics control).
Assemblies
Brake systems in motor vehicles consist
of the following assemblies, which differ in
design depending on whether the system
is hydraulic or pneumatic: energy supply,
control devices, transmission devices,
control facilities, wheel brakes, and auxil-
iary devices.
References
[1] ISO 611: Road vehicles – Braking of
automotive vehicles and their trailers –
Vocabulary.
[2] DIN 70024: Vocabulary for components
of motor vehicles and their trailers.
[3] EC Directive 71/320/EEC: Council Di-
rective of 26 July 1971 on the approxima-
tion of the laws of the Member States re-
lating to the braking devices of certain
categories of motor vehicles and their
trailers.
[4] § 41 StVZO: Brakes and wheel chocks.
[5] § 72 StVZO: Entry into force and tran-
sitional provisions.
Brake systems 1215
[6] ECE-R13: Standard conditions for ap-
proval of category M, N and O vehicles
with regard to brakes.
[7] ECE-R13H: Standard conditions for ap-
proval of passenger cars with regard to
brakes. Day of entry into force: 11 May,
1998.
[8] ECE-R78: Standard conditions for
approval of category L1, L2, L3, L4 and L5
vehicles with regard to brakes.
[9] § 29 StVZO: Inspection of motor vehi-
cles and trailers.
[10] EC Directive 98/12/EC of the Com-
mission of 27 January 1998 adapting to
technical progress Council Directive
71/320/EEC on the approximation of the
laws of the Member States relating to the
braking devices of certain categories of
motor vehicles and their trailers.
[11] Regulation (EC) No. 661/2009 of the
European Parliament and of the Council
of 13 July 2009 concerning type-approval
requirements for the general safety of mo-
tor vehicles, their trailers and systems,
components and separate technical units
intended therefore.
Published in the Official Journal of the Eu-
ropean Union L 200 of 31. July 2009.
[12] Directive 2007/46/EC of the Euro-
pean Parliament and of the Council of
5 September 2007 establishing a frame-
work for the approval of motor vehicles
and their trailers, and of systems, compo-
nents and separate technical units for
such vehicles (Framework Directive).
[13] ISO 7638: Road vehicles – Connec-
tors for the electrical connection of towing
and towed vehicles.
[14] §19 StVZO: Granting and effective-
ness of design certification.
[15] § 20 StVZO: General Certification for
types.
[16] DIN 74000: Hydraulic braking sys-
tems; dual circuit brake systems; symbols
for brake circuits diagrams.
1216 Chassis systems

Brake systems for passenger cars

and light commercial vehicles
Subdivision of passenger-car
brake systems
Brake systems for passenger cars and
light utility vehicles must comply with the
requirements of various directives and
statutory provisions, e.g., 71/320/EEC [1],
ECE R13 [2], ECE R13-H [3] and in Ger-
many §41 StVZO [4]. The requirements
with regard to functioning, effect and test
methods are set out in these regulations.
The entire system is subdivided into the
service-brake system, the parking-brake
system and the secondary-brake system.
Service-brake system
The service-brake system allows the
driver to reduce with graduable effect the
speed of a vehicle during normal driving
or to bring the vehicle to a halt. In pas-
senger cars and light utility vehicles it is
normally designed as an energy-assisted
brake system.
The driver meters the braking effect
steplessly by pressing on the brake pedal.
Force is transmitted to the wheel brakes
via the tandem brake master cylinder
to two mutually independent hydraulic
transmission devices (Figure 1). The ser-
vice-brake system acts on all four wheels.
Parking-brake system
The parking-brake system (“handbrake”)
is an independent brake system which
holds the vehicle stationary, even on a
gradient and especially when the driver
is not in the vehicle. The holding-station-
ary mechanism is integrated in the wheel
brake. Legal requirements stipulate that
the parking brake must have a consis-
tently mechanical connection between the
control device and the wheel brake, e.g.,
by means of a linkage or a control cable.
The parking brake is usually actuated
by a handbrake lever next to the driver’s
seat, and in some cases also by a pedal.
In the case of electrically actuated park-
ing-brake systems, the parking brake
is locked or released by means of an
electrical operating device (switch). The

Figure 1: Hydraulic dual-circuit brake system

1 Wheel-speed sensors,
2 Wheel brakes (disk brakes, drum brakes also possible on the rear axle),
3 Hydraulic modulator (for antilock braking system and driving-dynamics control system),
4 Control device with brake booster, tandem brake master cylinder and expansion reservoir,
5 ECU (can be directly mounted on the hydraulic modulator),
6 Warning lamp for antilock braking system and driving-dynamics control.

2 2
1 3 1
4

6
1 5 1

2 2
SFB0803Y
 Brake systems for passenger cars and light commercial vehicles
service- and parking-brake systems are
thus equipped with separate, individual
control and transmission devices. The
parking-brake system may be graduable
in design, acting on the wheels of only
one axle.
The holding-stationary effect is cal-
culated according to ECE R13-H on a
downhill gradient with fully laden vehicles.
The downhill gradient for single vehicles
is 20 %. If the vehicle is equipped to tow a
trailer, the holding-stationary effect must
also be achieved with an unbraked trailer
on a downhill gradient of 12 %.
Secondary-brake system
In the event of a fault, e.g., leak or frac-
tured pipe, it must still be possible with
the operational part of the brake system
to achieve at least the secondary braking
effect – with the identical control force at
the control device. It must be possible to
meter the secondary braking effect, which
in turn must be at least 50 % (ECE R13-H)
or 44 % (§41 s. 4a). The vehicle must not
leave its lane when the secondary brake
is applied.
The secondary-brake system does not
need to be an independent third brake
system (in addition to the service- and
parking-brake systems) with a special
control device. Either the intact brake cir-
cuit of a dual-circuit service-brake system
or a graduable parking-brake system can
be used as the secondary-brake system.
Figure 2: Vacuum brake booster
1 Push rod,
2 Vacuum chamber with
vacuum connection,
3 Diaphragm,
4 Power piston,
5 Valve unit,
6 Air filter,
7 Piston rod,
8 Working chamber,
9 Reaction element.
1217
Components of the
passenger-car brake system
Control device
The control device comprises those
parts of the brake system which initiate
the effect of this brake system. When the
service brake is applied, the force of the
driver’s foot acts on the brake pedal. The
lever-transmitted pedal force is boosted
in the brake booster, depending on its de-
sign, by a factor of 4 to 10 and acts on
the piston in the brake master cylinder
(Figure 1). The control force is converted
into hydraulic pressure. Under full brak-
ing, this pressure ranges between 100
and 160 bar, depending on the system
configuration.
Vacuum brake booster
Function
The brake booster reduces the applied
control force required for the braking op-
eration, but must not impair the sensitive
graduation of the braking force and the
feeling of the measure of braking.
Design
Brake boosters function as vacuum-op-
erated boosters or also hydraulically. Hy-
draulic brake boosters are supplied by the
power steering or by a separate hydraulic
pump and pressure-accumulator devices.
Passenger-car brake systems are usu-
ally equipped with vacuum brake boost-
ers. These vacuum boosters utilize the
negative pressure generated in the intake
manifold during the induction stroke on
gasoline engines or the vacuum (0.5 –
0.9 bar) produced by a vacuum pump on
2 3
4
5
6
7
1
8
9
UFB0280Y
1218 Chassis systems
diesel engines and on electric vehicles
or hybrid vehicles to amplify the force
applied by the driver’s foot. A diaphragm
separates the vacuum chamber with vac-
uum connection from the working cham-
ber (Figure 2). The piston rod transmits
the applied foot pressure to the working
piston and the amplified force is passed
to the brake master cylinder via the push
rod.
Operating principle
If the brake is not operated, the vacuum
chamber and working chamber are con-
nected via the valve unit. Given that the
vacuum connection is connected to a
vacuum source, this means that there is
a vacuum in both chambers.
As soon as a braking operation is ini-
tiated, the piston rod moves forwards in
the direction of the arrow. After a short
stroke the connection between the work-
ing chamber and the vacuum chamber
is blocked. As the piston rod continues
to move, the inlet valve in the valve unit
is opened and atmospheric air flows into
the working chamber. The pressure in the
working chamber is then greater than in
the vacuum chamber. The atmospheric
pressure acts via the diaphragm on the
diaphragm disk with which it is in contact.
Because the diaphragm disk is attached
to the valve unit, the latter moves when
the disk moves, thereby assisting the foot
pressure transmitted by the connecting
rod. Maximum boost is dependent on the
effective diaphragm or piston area, on the
atmospheric pressure and on the effective
vacuum.
When the braking operation has ended,
the inlet valve is closed and the vacuum
and working chambers are connected via
the valve unit. In this way, the pressure
(vacuum) is identical in both chambers.
Vacuum non-return valve
In all brake systems which have a vac-
uum brake booster a non-return valve is
incorporated in the vacuum line between
vacuum source and brake booster. While
there is a vacuum present, the non-re-
turn valve remains open. It closes when
the vacuum source ceases to produce a
vacuum (engine is switched off) so that
the vacuum inside the brake booster is
retained. Thus, brake boost is effective
even when the engine is switched off for
several brake actuations.
Electromechanical brake booster
The electromechanical brake booster re-
ferred to as iBooster by Bosch satisfies,
thanks to its electronic control, new de-
mands imposed on brake systems. These
demands include for example lower or no
availability of vacuum in the vehicle, re-
duced CO2 emissions, and redundancy
for highly automated driving. The iBooster
can be used with all drive concepts, in-
cluding hybrid and electric vehicles. Like
the vacuum brake booster, the iBooster
supports the driver with an assisting force
(electric motor via transmission).
Operating principle
The iBooster (Figure 3) detects the driv-
er's brake request via an integrated differ-
ential-travel sensor and sends this infor-
mation to the ECU. The ECU calculates
the activation of the electric motor, which
converts its torque via a gear unit into the
requested assisting force. Here the elec-
tric motor is activated in such a way that
the differential travel between the input
rod connected to the brake pedal and the
transmission element connected to the
electric motor is compensated to zero.
The sum total of the force supplied by the
booster and the driver is converted into
hydraulic pressure in a standard brake
master cylinder. The iBooster's resulting
pedal characteristic is dependent on the
design of the components (e.g., on the
maximum motor force). Certain parame-
ters can, in contrast to the vacuum brake
booster, be additionally influenced by the
software logic.
Special features
The iBooster enables the pedal character-
istic to be adapted whereby the assisting
force is adapted by means of a change
to the target-value calculation of the con-
trol facility. It is thus possible to adapt the
so-called jump-in and the boost factor
(Figure 4) within certain limits to the re-
quirements specified by the vehicle man-
ufacturer. Jump-in is the point at which the
driver force proportionally influences the
brake-booster braking force. Below the
 Brake systems for passenger cars and light commercial vehicles 1219

jump-in the braking force comes solely Brake master cylinder

from the booster itself. The driver must
first overcome spring forces before his/her
initiated force influences the braking force.
In vehicles with an electric or hybrid
drive the iBooster, in combination with a
special type of driving-dynamics control
(Electronic Stability Control ESC), en-
ables brake energy to be recuperated to
a vehicle deceleration of 0.3 g without af-
fecting the braking feel. Here during brak-
ing the decelerations caused by wheel
brake and electric machine are variably
matched to each other without additional
components. In hybrid vehicles this regen-
erative braking reduces fuel consumption
and CO2 emissions – especially in the
event of frequent braking and accelerating
in urban traffic.
The iBooster can build up brake pres-
sure automatically (without actuating the
brake pedal) with the aid of the engine/
transmission unit. Compared with typical
The brake master cylinder converts
the foot force applied by the driver and
boosted by the brake booster into hydrau-
lic brake pressure.
Brake master cylinder
with central valve
Design
In order to comply with statutory safety
requirements, service-brake systems are
Figure 4: Adaptation of pedal
characteristic
1 Jump-in,
2 Pedal characteristic resulting from design,
3 Adaptation of pedal characteristic by soft-
ware (adaptation of jump-in and adaptation
of iBooster assisting force).
Pressure in brake master cylinder

driving-dynamics control systems, the Control

point
required brake pressure is built up faster
and adjusted with greater accuracy. This 3
is beneficial for example for automatic 2
emergency-braking systems and ACC 3
functions.
In combination with driving-dynamics
control the iBooster offers the brake-sys-
tem redundancy required for automated
UFB0811-1E
1
driving. Both systems are, independently
of one another, able to generate brake
Pedal force
pressure and decelerate the vehicle.

Figure 3: Electromechanical brake booster (iBooster)

1 Brake-fluid reservoir,
2 Brake master cylinder,
3 Differential-travel sensor, 1 2 3 4
4 Transmission element,
5 Input rod,
6 Transmission,
7 Electric motor,
8 Control unit.

8 6
UFB0809Y

7
1220 Chassis systems

equipped with two separate service-brake
circuits. If a leak occurs (circuit failure),
the other circuit remains intact (secondary
braking effect). This can be achieved by a
tandem brake master cylinder (Figure 5).
The compression spring of the intermedi-
ate-piston circuit in the rest state holds the
intermediate piston and the push-rod pis-
ton against the rear stop. The compensat-
ing port and the central valve are opened.
Both hydraulic service-brake circuits are
depressurized (drive position).
Operating principle
The force applied at the brake pedal and
boosted by the brake booster acts directly
on the push-rod piston and pushes it to
the left. After short piston travel the com-
pensating port is sealed and a pressure
build-up can take place in the push-rod
circuit. This also causes the intermediate
piston to be pushed to the left.
Brake master cylinder
with captive piston spring
Design
The “captive” piston spring – a compres-
sion spring – in the rest state holds the
push-rod piston and the intermediate
piston always at the same distance (Fig-
ure 6). This prevents the piston spring
in the rest state from pushing the inter-

Figure 5: Tandem brake master cylinder with central valve in the intermediate-piston circuit
1 Cylinder housing, 2 Pressure chamber, intermediate-piston circuit,
3 Pressure chamber, push-rod circuit, 4 Pressure port, intermediate-piston circuit,
5 Pressure port, push-rod circuit, 6 Connection for brake-fluid reservoir, 7 Push rod,
8 Intermediate piston,
9 Central valve, 1 4 2 6 10 5 6 14 7
10 Stop for central valve,
11 Primary cup seal,
intermediate piston,
12 Primary cup seal,
push-rod piston,
13 Separating cup seal,
14 Compensating port,
15 Compression spring,
intermediate-piston circuit,
16 Compression spring,
UFB0278-2Y

push-rod circuit.
15 9 11 8 13 16 3 12

Figure 6: Tandem brake master cylinder with captive piston spring

1 Cylinder housing, 2 Pressure chamber, intermediate-piston circuit,
3 Pressure chamber, push-rod circuit, 4 Pressure port, intermediate-piston circuit,
5 Pressure port, push-rod circuit, 6 Connection for brake-fluid reservoir, 7 Compensating port,
8 Replenishing port, 9 Intermediate piston, 10 Space, 11 Captive piston spring,
12 Plastic bush, 13 Push-rod piston,
14 Compression spring,
intermediate-piston circuit, 1 4 2 678 9 10 5 11 3 6 7 8 12 13
15 Primary cup seal,
intermediate piston,
16 Separating cup seal,
17 Stop sleeve,
18 Stop screw,
19 Support ring,
20 Primary cup seal,
push-rod piston,
21 Stop disk,
22 Secondary cup seal,
UFB0647-3Y

23 Snap ring.
14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23
 Brake systems for passenger cars and light commercial vehicles
mediate piston and the latter from over-
running the compensating port with the
primary cup seal. In this situation pres-
sure compensation via the compensating
port would no longer be possible in the
secondary circuit, and in the event of a
residual pressure the brake shoes would
not lift off the brake drums when the brake
releases.
Operating principle
When the brake is actuated, the push-rod
piston and the intermediate piston move
in the direction of the arrow to the left,
overrun the compensating ports and force
brake fluid through the pressure ports into
the brake circuits. As pressure increases
the intermediate piston is no longer
moved by the captive piston spring, but
instead by the pressure of the brake fluid.
Expansion reservoir
The expansion reservoir, also called the
brake-fluid reservoir, is mounted directly
on the brake master cylinder and con-
nected to it via two ports. It is both the
reservoir for the brake fluid and the ex-
pansion reservoir. It compensates volume
fluctuations in the brake circuits which
occur after the brake is released, in re-
sponse to wear of the brake linings and
to temperature differences in the brake
system, and during intervention by the
antilock braking system (ABS) or the driv-
ing-dynamics control (Electronic Stability
Control).
Transmission device
The hydraulic pressure is transmitted by
the brake fluid via brake pipes as per
DIN 74234 [5] and brake hoses as per
SAE J 1401 [6] to the wheel-brake cylin-
ders. Brake fluids must comply with the
requirements laid down in SAE J 1703 [7]
or FMVSS 116 [8] (see Brake fluids).
Wheel brakes
Floating-caliper disk brakes are usually
used on the front wheels, but fixed-cali-
per disk brakes may also be used. Both
floating-caliper disk brakes with inte-
grated locking mechanism and Simplex
drum brakes are used on the rear wheels
(see Wheel brakes). Combinations of disk
brakes and drum brakes (drum-in-head
1221
systems) can also be used on the rear
wheels. In this case, the drum brake ac-
commodated in the brake-disk chamber
is used exclusively for the parking-brake
system.
The parking-brake control device can
be mechanically designed as a hand-
brake lever or a footbrake pedal with
locking mechanism. Force is generally
transmitted via cables or linkage to the
wheel brakes on the rear axle. In the case
of electromechanical parking brakes, the
brake is actuated by means of electric mo-
tors and gearings (see Electromechanical
parking-brake system).
Hydraulic modulator
Arranged between the brake master cylin-
der and the wheel brakes is the hydraulic
modulator of the antilock braking system
or the driving-dynamics control system
and, depending on the scope of func-
tions, a braking-force regulator or a brak-
ing-force limiter. These components, by
limiting and adapting the brake pressure
mostly on the rear axle, ensure a sensible
distribution of braking force between the
front and rear axles. This function can, es-
pecially in vehicles with markedly different
load states, be executed on a load-sensi-
tive basis (automatic load-sensitive brak-
ing-force metering).
The hydraulic modulator modifies the
brake pressure during the braking pro-
cess in such a way that the wheels are
prevented from locking. Depending on
the control variation, this job is performed
by several solenoid valves and an elec-
trically driven supply pump. In passen-
ger-car brake systems, the front axle is
individually controlled, i.e., each wheel is
braked according to the respective grip.
The rear wheels are controlled according
to the select-low principle so that both rear
wheels are braked together according to
the wheel which has the lower grip (see
also Antilock braking system and Driv-
ing-dynamics control).
1222 Chassis systems

Electromechanical parking brake
System overview
Conventional parking-brake systems are
muscular-energy brake systems and are
operated by purely mechanical means via
lockable hand levers or foot pedals or via
a crankgear. In electromechanical park-
ing-brake systems, also referred to simply
as electromechanical parking brakes or
automatic parking brakes, the control (op-
erating) force is generated by an electric
drive.
Operation and control are effected
electrically via a switch or via logic control
commands by other ECUs, which enable
automatic closing or opening of the park-
ing brake. The electromechanical parking
brake can only be operated when the ve-
hicle is stationary or at low speeds (usu-
ally 3 to 15 km/h). This must also be pos-
sible when the ignition and starting switch
is turned off. If electric parking-brake
systems are operated at higher speeds,
an emergency-braking operation is first
executed by the driving-dynamics control
system. The parking brake is closed when
the stationary vehicle status is attained
within this braking operation.
The application force in the parking
mechanism (see Parking brake) depends
ics control system takes over the task of
braking the vehicle at a speed in excess
of 10 km/h. This ensures an optimally
safe braking operation even in critical
road situations. The electromechanical
parking brake is locked only after the ve-
hicle speed has dropped below a specific
threshold. The systems communicate with
each other through an adequate data link
(usually CAN or FlexRay).
Electric parking-brake systems may
feature additional functions such as auto-
matic release when starting.
Electric parking-brake systems are en-
ergy-assisted systems and are equipped
Figure 7: Electric parking-brake system
a) System with servomotor on brake caliper,
b) System with cables.
a
Controls
Display and
warning devices
Electrical system
CAN data
Central electrics
ECU
Tilt sensor
connection

connection
on the slope of the gradient on which the
Electrical

Electrical

Speed sensor
vehicle was parked. For this purpose,
depending on the system, a tilt sensor
is installed in the ECU of the electrome-
chanical parking brake or corresponding Servomotor Servomotor
sensor signals from other ECUs are used left right
(e.g., airbag or chassis control). The re-
tensioning of the brake necessitated
b
by the cooling of the mechanical brake Controls
components is performed preventatively Display and
or according to a calculated temperature warning devices
model and after vehicle movement has
been detected. Electrical system
CAN data
A safety concept must ensure that un- Central electrics
intentional activation in both the release
and the closing directions due to electri-
cal faults is ruled out. Furthermore, inten- ECU
tional activation of the electromechanical Tensioning-force sensor
Tilt sensor
Handbrake

Handbrake

parking brake (emergency braking, only

Servomotor
SFB0807E

necessary if the control device of the ser-

Transmission
cable

cable

vice-brake system is broken) must not

give rise to critical driving situations. If the
operating unit of the electromechanical Brake caliper Brake caliper
parking brake is deliberately actuated on left right
a permanent basis, the driving-dynam-
 Brake systems for passenger cars and light commercial vehicles 1223

with an emergency release device. It must As dictated by the concept, the electro-
also be possible for the system to be acti- mechanical and hydraulic forces can be
vated even when the ignition and starting superimposed (superposition at the brake
switch is turned off, and the system may piston).
only be released when the ignition and
starting switch is turned on and the brake Electromechanical parking brake
pedal is simultaneously being pressed (or with cables
in the event of automatic release when the In the case of an electromechanical
brake pedal is pressed). parking brake with cables, the following
The driver is always alerted to a locked components are combined in a centrally
parking brake system by a red warning arranged assembly – above the rear axle,
lamp. Self-diagnosis detects malfunctions in the passenger compartment or in the
and faults, and indicates them via a warn- fender (Figure 7b): electric drive motor
ing lamp. A text message can also appear with gearing, required sensors (depend-
in a driver information display. The fault ing on the scope of functions, e.g., force,
memory can be read out with a diagnostic tilt, temperature and position sensors),
tester and cleared after the fault has been ECU, and cable mechanism (if necessary
corrected. with emergency release device).
Diagnosis testers and relevant software This system too is activated by way of
may be required for servicing work, e.g., an electrical switch, which forwards the
when replacing the brake pads. control commands to an ECU. The ECU
activates the electric servomotor(s) via
Electromechanical parking brake with a driver stage. The application force can
servomotor on the brake caliper vary, depending on the road gradient.
The electromechanical parking brake with The system is automatically retensioned
servomotor comprises the following com- when the vehicle is stopped either after
ponents (Figure 7a): operating unit, ECU, a cooling phase corresponding to a tem-
display and warning devices, tilt sensor perature model or after vehicle movement
(can be installed in the driving-dynamics has been detected.
control system), floating caliper with elec-
tric motor and multiple-stage gearing. A
system distribution as described in VDA
Recommendation 305-100 [9] is becom-
ing increasingly common. This entails
integrating the functionality of the park-
ing brake in the driving-dynamics control
system, thereby affording freedom in the
choice of different manufacturers of these
systems and the parking brake.
In the case of a brake caliper with an
electric servomotor, force is transmitted
for the parking-brake effect via a multi-
ple-stage gearing and a threaded spin-
dle. It is activated by way of an electrical
switch (operating unit), which forwards
the control commands to the ECU redun-
dantly and in accordance with the safety
concept. The ECU, taking into account
further boundary conditions (e.g., road
gradient), activates the electric servomo-
tors via separate driver stages and elec-
trical connecting leads.
A very high gear ratio means that very
high application forces can be generated.
These are in the region of 15 to 25 kN.
1224 Chassis systems
Electrohydraulic brake
Function
The electrohydraulic brake (EHB, “Sen-
sotronic Brake Control”, SBC) is an elec-
tronic brake-control system with hydraulic
actuator engineering. Like a conventional
hydraulic brake, its function is to reduce
vehicle speed, bring the vehicle to a halt,
or keep the vehicle stationary. As an ac-
tive braking system, it takes control of
brake operation, braking-force boosting
and braking-force control. Hydraulic stan-
dard wheel brakes are used as brakes.
Actuation unit
Mechanical operation of the brake pedal is
detected by the actuation unit by means of
electronic sensors with redundant backup
(Figure 8). The pedal-travel sensor con-
sists of two separate angle-position sen-
sors. Together with the brake-pressure
sensor for the pressure applied by the
driver, this produces a threefold system
for detecting driver input. The system can
continue to function normally, even if one
of the sensors fails.
The pedal-travel simulator produces an
appropriate force/travel curve and calcu-
lates the amount of brake-pedal damping.
The driver experiences the same “brake
feel” with electrohydraulic brakes as with
Figure 8: Interaction of electrohydraulic-brake function modules
Brake operation
p Braking force distribution
u
s
s
Pedal-
travel
simulator
Hydraulic up
modulator
Wheel-pressure modulators
Isolating
valves
p p
up
Front
a very well designed conventional braking
system.
A conventional brake booster is not
required here. Only the driver’s brake re-
quest is determined in the actuation unit
during normal operation; the brake pres-
sure is generated in the hydraulic modu-
lator. The brake master cylinder performs
its function in the event of a system failure.
The expansion reservoir supplies the hy-
draulic modulator with brake fluid.
Electronic control
The brake request is determined in the
remote-mounted ECU from the sensor
signals of the actuation unit. Braking char-
acteristics can be adapted to the driving
conditions (e.g., sharper response with
more dynamic driving styles). A “duller”
pedal characteristic can be used to alert
the driver to a reduction in braking effect,
when the brakes reach the limits of their
effectiveness before overheating induces
brake fading.
Further, the functions for the antilock
braking system, the traction control system,
and the driving-dynamics control are inte-
grated in the ECU. In addition, comfort and
convenience functions such as for example
hill hold control, automatic brake-system
prefilling when the foot is quickly removed
from the accelerator pedal, the chauf-
Brake functions Vehicle guidance systems
Brake boosting
Interface signals
CAN
ABS, TCS, ESC (gateway)
ECU
C
A
N pi
Intelligent interface up M
High-
pressure
accumulator
p p
Hydraulic energy supply
up up up
UFB0635-1E
Rear
 Brake systems for passenger cars and light commercial vehicles
feur brake (soft stop, jolt-free stopping by
means of automated brake-pressure re-
duction shortly before standstill), and the
brake-disk wiper are provided.
Thanks to complete electronic pressure
control, the electrohydraulic brake can be
easily networked with vehicle guidance
systems (e.g., Adaptive Cruise Control,
ACC).
Hydraulic modulator
Operating principle in normal operation
Figure 8 shows the electrohydraulic-brake
components as a block diagram. An elec-
tric motor drives a hydraulic pump. This
charges a high-pressure accumulator to
a pressure of between approximately 90
and 130 bar, monitored by an accumu-
lator pressure sensor. The four separate
wheel-pressure modulators are supplied
by the accumulator and set the required
pressure at the wheel-brake cylinders
separately for each wheel. The pressure
modulators themselves each consist
of two valves with proportional-control
characteristics and a pressure sensor.
Brake-pressure modulation and active
braking are silent and generate no brake-
pedal feedback.
In normal mode, the isolating valves
isolate the brakes from the actuation unit.
The system is in “brake-by-wire” mode. It
1225
electronically detects the driver’s braking
request and transmits it “by wire” to the
wheel pressure modulators. The interac-
tion of electric motor, valves, and pressure
sensors is regulated by the ECU. This has
two microcontrollers which monitor each
another. The essential feature of these
electronics is their extensive self-diag-
nosis, which monitors the plausibility of
every system state at all times. It means
that any faults can be displayed to the
driver before a critical condition arises. If
components fail, the system automatically
provides the optimal remaining partial
function to the driver.
An intelligent interface with the CAN
bus provides the link between the re-
mote-mounted ECU and the add-on of
the hydraulic modulator.
Braking in the event of system failure
The electrohydraulic brake is designed
so that in the event of serious faults (e.g.,
power-supply failure), it switches to a
state in which the driver can brake the
vehicle without using the active brake-
booster function. When de-energized, the
isolating valves establish a direct connec-
tion to the actuation unit and allow a direct
hydraulic connection from the actuation
unit to the wheel-brake cylinders (hydrau-
lic fallback level).
1226 Chassis systems

Integrated power brake Scope of functions

Design
In response to the increasing electrifi-
cation of the drivetrain and as a result
the lack of vacuum supply for the brake
booster, new types of braking systems
have been developed in recent years. The
integrated power brake (IPB, Figures 9
and 10) is vacuum-independent and
combines the following components of a
conventional braking system in a single
unit [11]:
– connection to the brake pedal,
– brake master cylinder,
– brake-light switch,
– brake booster,
– ESC hydraulic unit (Electronic Stability
Control, electronic stability program).
Further classic brake-system compo-
nents such as vacuum source or vacuum
pump, long hydraulic lines from the brake
master cylinder to the hydraulic unit of the
brake-control system, and electrical con-
nections are rendered superfluous. The
installation requirement in the vehicle is
reduced as a result.
The integrated power brake (IPB) con-
tains the following functions accordingly:
– brake boosting,
– wheel-individual brake-pressure mod-
ulation for the antilock braking system
(ABS), the traction control system (TCS),
and driving-dynamics control (ESC,
Electronic Stability Control, electronic
stability program),
– external deceleration requests, e.g.,
from Adaptive Cruise Control (ACC),
– highly dynamic brake-pressure build-up,
– monitoring of the hydraulic brake cir-
cuits (air and leakage monitoring),
– hydraulic fallback level for fault scenar-
ios in accordance with functional safety
(ISO 26262 [12]).
Thanks to its independence from the
vacuum supply, its high energy efficiency
owing to the direct use of electrical en-
ergy for brake-pressure build-up (without
a hydraulic high-pressure accumulator),
and its capacity to recover kinetic energy
as electrical energy, the integrated power
brake (IPB) is suitable for use in both
vehicles with electric drives (hybrid and
electric vehicles) and vehicles with inter-
nal-combustion engines. It can be used
with both diagonal (X-split) and front/rear
brake-circuit configurations (II-split).

Figure 9: Integrated power brake (IPB) Figure 10: Components of integrated

1 Brake pedal, power brake (IPB)
2 Adapter plate on the firewall, 1 Adapter for mounting on the firewall,
3 Integrated power brake (IPB), 2 Connection to brake pedal,
4 Battery, 5 Wheel brakes. 3 Hydraulic module, 4 Pedal-feel simulator,
SFB0812-1E

A Hydraulic lines, 5 Valve housing, 6 Brake master cylinder,

B Electrical power supply, 7 Electronic control unit (ECU),
C Communication line. 8 Brake-fluid reservoir.

Actuation and
modulation 2
network
Vehicle

8
1
1
3 7
A
C 2
Communication

6
Energy B
supply 4
3
SFB0813Y

5
Brakes 5 4
 Brake systems for passenger cars and light utility vehicles 1227

The integrated power brake (IPB) is able
to build up the necessary brake pressure
for driver-assistance functions on the one
hand very quietly and comfortably and
on the other hand with high dynamic re-
sponse.
The smaller number of brake-system
components simplifies the production of
vehicles for the vehicle manufacturer and
also reduces the complexity of the val-
ue-added chain.
Functional description
Determination of the driver's braking
request
The integrated power brake (IPB) is in-
stalled like a conventional brake booster
on the firewall and connected with the
brake pedal. The primary piston of the
brake master cylinder is displaced when
the brake pedal is pressed (Figure 12).
The driver's braking request is determined
by an integrated pedal-travel sensor.
the pedal feel is independent of the brake
pressures at the wheels, which is benefi-
cial to recuperation and to the configura-
tion of the mechanical fallback level.
At the same time a plunger-cylinder
system (hydraulic module) is connected
via valves with the wheel brakes. The
plunger of the hydraulic module is acti-
vated by an electric motor (Figure 12) pre-
cisely and in accordance with the driver's
braking request. It forces brake fluid from
the hydraulic module's working chamber
into the wheel brakes and as a result the
brake pressure requested by the driver is
generated at the wheels.
Figure 12: Brake master cylinder
of integrated power brake (IPB)
1 Input rod, 2 Pedal-travel sensor,
3 Primary piston, 4 Secondary piston,
5 Seals,
6 Hydraulic module with electric motor
and plunger.
5 4 3 2

By-wire mode 1
The “by-wire mode” is activated as soon
as the unit detects that the driver wishes
to brake (Figure 11a). The brake master
cylinder is decoupled by valves from the

SFB0815Y
wheel-brake cylinders and connected with
a pedal-feel simulator. Because the brake 6
pedal is decoupled from the wheel brakes

Figure 11: Active and passive operation of integrated power brake (IPB)
(Schematic diagram, separation valves are shown as “switches”).
a) Active “by-wire mode”,
b) Fallback level.
HZ Brake master cylinder, PFS Pedal-feel simulator,
HM Hydraulic module, BMV Brake-pressure modulation valves,
CSV Brake-circuit separation valve,
PSV Hydraulic-module plunger separation valve,
SSV Simulator separation valve.

a b
IPB IPB
HZ HZ
SSV SSV
PFS PFS
PSV CSV PSV CSV
HM Brake pedal HM Brake pedal

BMV BMV
SFB0814-2E

Wheel Wheel Wheel Wheel Wheel Wheel Wheel Wheel

1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
1228 Chassis systems
Brake boosting
Brake boosting is simultaneously achieved
by the pressure regulation of the hydraulic
module. Because of the decoupling of the
brake pedal and wheel brake pressure the
brake pressure and the generator torque
are masked in hybrid and electric vehicles.
In other words, the braking effect of the
wheel brakes can be reduced by the brak-
ing effect of the electric machine achieved
by recuperation. The masking occurs con-
tinuously during recuperation and without
any noticeable effects on the brake pedal.
In the case of brake-pressure requests
not initiated by the driver, such as for
example coming from an ACC system,
pressure is generated at the wheels in
the same way by means of the hydraulic
module.
Wheel-individual brake interventions
For wheel-individual pressure generation
or pressure modulation – similarly to an
ESC system (see ESC hydraulic unit) – in-
let and outlet valves (brake-pressure mod-
ulation valves, Figure 11) are integrated
in the integrated power brake (IPB). A
build-up of pressure at a wheel is effected
via the hydraulic module when the inlet
valve assigned to this wheel is opened.
A reduction of pressure is effected by the
opening of the outlet valve assigned to
this wheel whereby the brake fluid flows
directly back into the brake-fluid reservoir.
The wheel-individual functions such as
antilock braking system (ABS), traction
control system (TCS), and lateral-dy-
namic stabilization by driving-dynamics
control (electronic stability program).
Because the brake-fluid volume in the
hydraulic module is limited by the design,
the hydraulic module is recharged with
brake fluid within a matter of a few milli-
seconds during a long ABS control oper-
ation. The brake pressure in the individual
wheels is maintained during recharging
and consequently there is no impact on
the vehicle's braking effect.
Functional safety
In the case of safety-related vehicle com-
ponents such as the braking system, safe
operation and system behavior are of
central importance. The electromechan-
ical braking system (IPB) was therefore
developed in accordance with the current
functional-safety standards (ISO 26262).
Redundancy
Sensing of the driver's braking requests
is redundantly designed in the interests
of reliability. For the brake-master-cylin-
der piston travel the mechanism is simple
and the sensor system and electronics
are present in redundant form. The pis-
ton travel is also checked for plausibility
against the measure brake-master-cylin-
der pressure.
Fallback level
To ensure that the driver is able to slow
down the vehicle reliably in the event
of a fault, the integrated power brake
(IPB) has a direct, mechanical-hydraulic
feedthrough from the brake pedal to the
wheels as a fallback level (Figure 11b).
The process of decoupling the brake
master cylinder from the wheel brakes
(in by-wire mode) – in contrast to conven-
tional braking systems – reduces the di-
ameter of the brake master cylinder. In the
mechanical fallback level a higher brake
pressure and with it a greater deceleration
of the vehicle are thus made possible with
the same pedal force.
Monitoring for hydraulic changes
But, as a result of the smaller brake-mas-
ter-cylinder diameter, the brake-fluid vol-
ume in the brake master cylinder is also
reduced compared with a conventional
braking system. The state of the braking
system is therefore continuously moni-
tored for hydraulic changes (e.g., leaks,
ingress of air into the brake fluid due to
leakage or faulty filling). The driver is
warned before a critical system state can
ensue in the event of a fault.
Reliability of the electrical power supply
The availability of brake boosting is di-
rectly allied with the supply of the inte-
grated power brake (IPB) with electrical
power. It is therefore essential to ensure
that the vehicle electrical system is suffi-
ciently reliable.
 Brake systems for passenger cars and light utility vehicles 1229

Redundancy for automated driving
Second pressure-build-up unit
For automated-driving vehicles where the
driver is no longer responsible for control
of the vehicle, the integrated power brake
(IPB) can be enhanced by a second, in-
dependent pressure-build-up unit (RBU,
redundant brake unit) to generate brake
pressure. If the integrated power brake
(IPB) fails, this independent unit ensures
that the vehicle can be slowed down and
brought to a stop.
Integrated redundancy
Integrated redundancy in the IPB may
also be considered as an alternative to
a second, independent pressure-build-up
unit. Full redundancy is however not pos-
sible for all the system components. Seals
or transmission elements for converting
the rotary motion of the engine into a
translatory motion of the piston cannot be
redundantly designed automatically.
Market development
An integrated power brake (IPB) with inte-
grated redundancy would result in a more
complex design with increased dimen-
sions. Automated driving is therefore only
implemented with two independent pres-
sure-build-up units, the integrated power
brake (IPB) and the redundant brake unit
(RBU).
[5] DIN 74234: Hydraulic braking systems;
brake pipes, flares.
[6] SAE J 1401: Road Vehicle Hydraulic
Brake Hose Assemblies for Use with Non-
petroleum-Base Hydraulic Fluids.
[7] SAE J 1703: Motor Vehicle Brake Fluid.
[8] FMVSS 116: Federal Motor Vehicle
Standard No. 116: Motor Vehicle Brake
Fluids.
[9] VDA Recommendation 305-100: Rec-
ommendation for integration of electric
parking brakes control into the ESC sys-
tem (Electronic Stability Control) with re-
gard to the ESC (ESC assembly) and the
brake caliper (brake assembly).
[10] B. Breuer, K. H. Bill (Editors): Brem-
senhandbuch. 5th Edition, Verlag Springer
Vieweg, 2017.
[11] U. Bauer, T. Maucher, M. Brand: In-
tegrated Power Brake – modular set ex-
tension for highly automated driving. 8th
International Munich Chassis Symposium
2017 – chassis.tech plus. Verlag Springer
Vieweg, 2017.
https://rd.springer.com/book/10.1007/
978-3-658-18459-9?page=2#toc
[12] ISO 26262: Road vehicles – Func-
tional safety.

________________________________
References
[1] 71/320/EEC: Council Directive of 26
July 1971 on the approximation of the
laws of the Member States relating to the
braking devices of certain categories of
motor vehicles and their trailers.
[2] ECE R13: Regulation No. 13 of the
United Nations Economic Commission for
Europe (UN/ECE) – Uniform provisions
concerning the approval of vehicles of cat-
egories M, N and O with regard to braking.
[3] ECE R13-H: Regulation No. 13-H of
the United Nations Economic Commis-
sion for Europe (UN/ECE) – Uniform pro-
visions concerning the approval of pas-
senger cars with regard to braking.
[4] §41 StVZO (road traffic licensing reg-
ulations, Germany) – Brakes and wheel
chocks.
1230 Chassis systems

Brake systems for commercial vehicles

System overview
Brake systems for commercial vehicles
and trailers must satisfy the requirements
of various regulations such as, for example,
RREG 71/320 EEC and ECE R13 [2]. Essen-
tial functions, effects and test methods are
set out in these regulations. The entire sys-
tem is subdivided into the service-brake,
parking-brake, secondary-brake systems,
and continuous-action brake systems.
Service-brake system
Service-brake system, tractor vehicle
The service-brake system, designed as an
energy-assisted brake system in commer-
cial vehicles (Figures 1 and 2), can operate
with compressed air or also with a combi-
nation of compressed air and hydraulics.
In the event of a fault, e. g. brake-circuit
failure, it must still be possible with the op-
erational part of the system to achieve at
least the secondary braking effect – with
the identical control force at the normal
control device. It must be possible to meter
the effect, and the trailer must not be af-
fected by this malfunction, i. e. the trailer
control (trailer control valve) must have a
dual-circuit design. The secondary brak-
ing effect must achieve at least 50 % of the
braking effect of the service-brake system.
It is therefore customary to split the sys-
tem into two brake circuits already sepa-
rate on the supply side, even though this
configuration is only legally required in
motor buses.
The energy supply to the trailer must be
guaranteed even during the braking opera-
tion. The dual-line system became manda-
tory when RREG 71/320 came into force,
but had already been available prior to this
and was known by the name “Nato” brake.

Figure 1: Structure of a compressed-air brake system with trailer control

1 Air compressor, driven by engine, 2 Pressure regulator, 3 Four-circuit protection valve,
4.1 Air reservoir V1 for circuit 1, 4.2 Air reservoir V2 for circuit 2,
4.3 Air reservoir V3 for circuit 3 (trailer, pneumatic suspension),
5 Overflow valve with limited return flow, 6 Trailer control valve with throttle valve,
7 “Supply” coupling head (red), 8 “Brake” coupling head (yellow),
9 Parking-brake valve with test position, 10 Relay valve,
11.1 Combination brake cylinder, rear right, 11.2 Combination brake cylinder, rear left,
12 Load-dependent braking-force regulator (ALB), 13 Service-brake valve,
14.1 Brake cylinder, front right, 14.2 Brake cylinder, front left,
15 Secondary loads/ancillaries (e. g. pneumatic suspension, door-closing system).

4.1 5 4.3
V1 V3 7
1 2 3 6
)(

15
4.2
V2 8
9

14.1 13 11.1
SFB0798-1Y

10
12
14.2 11.2
 Brake systems for commercial vehicles 1231

The trailer is continually supplied with a de-
fined pressure via the supply line. This pres-
sure must be between 6.5 and 8.0 bar on
an intact tractor vehicle, irrespective of the
tractor vehicle’s operating pressure estab-
lished by the manufacturer. The trailer must
be exchangeable. The trailer’s service-
brake system is controlled by a second line,
the brake line. This line is also governed by
the regulations pertaining to trailer ex-
changeability. Thus the pressure in the
brake line must be 0 bar in driving mode,
brake line – an electrical signal-transmis-
sion feature for electrically controlling the
service-brake system in the trailer. This is
Figure 3: Compatibility diagram
Tractor vehicle and trailer RREG 71/320,
ECE R13.
TR Sum total of braking forces at
circumference of all trailer wheels,
PR Total static normal force of trailer,
TM Sum total of braking forces at circum­
ference of all tractor-vehicle wheels,
PM Total static normal force

SFB0802-2E
and 6.0 to 7.5 bar in fully-braked mode. of tractor vehicle,
Pm Pressure at “Brake” coupling head.
Service-brake system, trailer
The trailer has an independent service- Unladen Laden
brake system, which is only partly subject 0.8
to the demand for a secondary braking ef-
fect. According to the requirements in 0.7
0.65
RREG 71/320, the braking effects of the
0.6 0.575
service-brake systems in the tractor vehi-
TR /PR, TM /PM

cle and in the trailer must be within closely 0.5

set tolerances as a function of the control
pressure in the brake line to the trailer, i. e. 0.4
0.35
they must be approximately the same (de- 0.3
sign tolerance band RREG 71/320 and
ECE R13). 0.2
If the supply line or the brake line is
0.1
fractured, the trailer must be able to be 4.5 5.5 7.5
fully or partly braked or it must initiate an 0
automatic braking. Commercial vehicles 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 bar
with electronically controlled brake sys- 0.2
Pressure
tems have – in addition to the pneumatic

Figure 2: Compressed-air brake system of a 2-axle semitrailer with ABS

(simplified representation)
1 “Supply” coupling head (red), 2 Double release valve, 3 1-channel ABS pressure-control valve,
4 Combination brake cylinder, 5 Shuttle valve, 6 Air reservoir, 7 Load-sensitive braking-force regulator,
8 Drain valve, 9 Trailer brake valve, 10 “Brake” coupling head (yellow), 11 Test connection, 12 Line filter.

1 12 2
4 4

9
11
6 5
10 12 11 3 11
8
7
SFB0799Y

4 4
11 11
1232 Chassis systems
performed by a standardized electrical
plug-in connection in accordance with
ISO 7638 [3]; this plug-in connection may
have 5 or 7 pins.
Tractor vehicles and trailers must be
freely exchangeable. Compatibility condi-
tions have therefore been defined in An-
nex 2 RREG 71/320 and ECE R13. Ac-
cordingly, the ratio between retardation
and pressure at the “Brake” coupling head
in the range depicted in Figure 3 must be
in the range of 0.2 to 7.5 bar at the “Brake”
coupling head. The diagram only applies
to tractor vehicle and trailer. All other ve-
hicles and vehicle combinations are cov-
ered by other diagrams.
Parking-brake system
The parking-brake system is an indepen-
dent brake system which must hold the
vehicle stationary after it has been brought
to a stop, even when the driver is not in the
vehicle. The holding-stationary effect is
calculated on a downhill gradient with fully
laden vehicles. The downhill gradient for
Category M, N, O single vehicles (except
O1) is 18 %. If the vehicles are equipped
to tow a trailer, the holding-stationary ef-
fect must also be achieved with an un-
braked trailer. The downhill gradient is
then only 12 % (Figure 4).
Figure 4: Test condition for parking-brake
system
a) Single vehicle, 18 % downhill gradient.
b) Tractor vehicle and trailer,
12 % downhill gradient;
only the tractor vehicle is braked.
γ Gradient angle.
a the entire vehicle combination.
γ system. It comes into effect if a malfunc-
b same side) to be braked.
SFB0801-1Y
γ tion of the trailer have dual-circuit designs.
The parking-brake system in commercial
vehicles and motor buses is usually de-
signed as a spring-loaded brake system.
The springs in the spring-type brake cyl-
inders, when the wheel brakes are ad-
justed in accordance with the regulations,
generate the same force as the pneu-
matic brake cylinders in the service-brake
system when the nominal pressure
(brake-system calculated pressure) acts
on their nominal effective area. If certain
malfunctions occur, e. g. brake-circuit fail-
ure or energy-source failure, the spring-
loaded brakes may not brake automati-
cally and must therefore be protected and
designed accordingly.
Energy-assisted parking-brake sys-
tems (spring-loaded brake systems) must
be equipped with at least one emergency
release device. This may be a mechanical,
pneumatic or hydraulic device. The park-
ing-brake system must then only be de-
signed for graduated (metered) operation
if it has to be engaged to achieve the pre-
scribed secondary braking effect.
In the trailer, the parking-brake system
frequently operates as a muscular-energy
brake system. If the trailer control system
in the tractor vehicle is configured in such
a way that the service brake in the trailer
also responds when the parking brake is
operated in the tractor vehicle (trailer con-
trol valve with port 4.3), the parking-brake
valve must be provided with a test setting.
This makes it possible to release the ser-
vice brake in the trailer when the parking
brake in the tractor vehicle is operated.
This in turn makes it possible to check
whether only the tractor vehicle braked
with the parking-brake system can hold
Secondary-brake system
There is no independent secondary-brake
tion, e. g. brake-circuit failure or energy-
source failure, occurs in the service-brake
system. In this event, it must still be pos-
sible for at least two wheels (not on the
The brake system in the trailer too must
not be affected by this malfunction. For
this reason, the brake systems and activa-
 Brake systems for commercial vehicles
The supply volume must be designed
such that, in the event of an energy-
source failure, after eight full operations
of the service brake there is still enough
pressure available to achieve the sec-
ondary braking effect on the ninth full
operation. In the event of a failure of a
brake circuit on the supply side, it is es-
sential to ensure that, when the energy
source is intact, the pressure in the intact
brake circuits does not drop permanently
below the nominal pressure. This is
achieved by using special protective de-
vices, e. g. a four-circuit protection valve
or an electronic unit.
Continuous-operation brake system
The wheel brakes used are not designed
for continuous operation. Prolonged brak-
ing (e. g. on hill descents) can result in the
brakes being thermally overloaded. This
causes a reduction in braking effect (“fad-
ing”) or, in extreme cases, in complete
brake-system failure.
A wear-free brake system is referred to
as a continuous-operation (retarder)
brake system. In Germany, they are re-
quired in accordance with StVZO § 41 s.
15 [4] for motor buses with a gross weight
rating of more than 5.5 t and for other mo-
tor vehicles with a gross weight rating of
more than 9 t. A retarder must hold a fully
laden vehicle over a distance of 6 km and
a downhill gradient of 7 % at a speed of
30 km/h.
The service brake must be designed
accordingly for trailers. Operation of the
retarder in the tractor vehicle must not
cause the service brake in the trailer to be
operated (see also StVZO § 72 [5]).
1233
Components of
commercial-vehicle
brake systems
Air supply and air processing
Air supply and processing comprises the
energy source, pressure control, air pro-
cessing, and compressed-air distribution.
Compressor
A compressor is the source of energy.
It takes in air and compresses it to com-
pressed air, the working medium for the
brake systems and the ancillaries (e. g.
pneumatic suspension, door-closing
system).
The compressor is a plunger pump
where the crankshaft is driven directly by
the vehicle engine (Figure 5). It is fitted to
Figure 5: Compressor
a) Induction,
b) Compression and discharge,
c) Compression into the additional clearance.
1 Cylinder head, 2 Intermediate plate
(with inlet and outlet valves), 3 Cylinder,
4 Piston, 5 Connecting rod, 6 Crankcase,
7 Drive 8 Crankshaft, 9 ESS valve (Energy-
Saving System), 10 Additional clearance.
a 1
9
2 10
3
4
5
6
7
c
SFB0795Y
1234 Chassis systems
the vehicle engine by means of a flange.
Its component parts are:
– The crankcase, which forms a monob-
loc unit with the cylinder. It contains the
crankshaft with connecting rod and
piston.
– The cylinder head with intake and pres-
sure connections, as well as connec-
tions for water cooling.
– The intermediate plate with inlet and
outlet valves.
To reduce losses in the idle mode (open-
ing and flow resistances in valves and
lines), an energy-saving system (ESS) is
used; this activates a clearance and thus
reduces compression work. This reduces
fuel consumption.
During its return stroke, the piston
draws in air after the inlet valve opens au-
tomatically due to vacuum. The inlet valve
closes at the start of the piston’s return
stroke. In the fore stroke, the piston com-
presses the air. When a certain pressure
is reached, the outlet valve opens and
compressed air is supplied to the brake
system.
Nowadays, compressors achieve a stroke
displacement of up to 720 cm3, a pressure
Figure 6: Pressure regulator
1 From compressor,
2 To the compressed-air reservoirs,
3 Venting.
3 time, a regeneration-air tank is filled with
1 2
UFB0324Y
3
level of up to 12.5 bar, and a maximum
speed of 3,000 rpm. Their features include
high efficiency, low oil consumption, and a
long service life.
Pressure regulator
The pressure regulator controls the com-
pressed air supplied by the compressor in
such a way that the operating pressure
lies within the activation and cutoff pres-
sure (Figure 6).
As long as the pressure in the com-
pressed-air reservoirs lies below the cut-
off pressure, connections 1 and 2 are con-
nected and compressed air passes the
pressure regulator. Once the cutoff pres-
sure is reached, the pressure regulator
switches to idle mode. Here, the venting
piston is activated and connection 1 is
connected to the atmosphere (venting).
Air drier
The air drier cleans the compressed air
and dries it to prevent corrosion and
freezing in the brake system during winter
operation.
Basically, an air drier consists of a des-
iccant box and a housing. The housing
incorporates the air passage, a bleeder
valve, and a control element for granulate
regeneration (Figure 7). The granulate is
regenerated by activating a regeneration-
air tank.
When the bleeder valve is closed, com-
pressed air from the compressor flows
through the desiccant box and from there
to the supply-air reservoirs. At the same
dry compressed air. As compressed air
flows through the desiccant box, water is
removed by means of condensation and
adsorption.
The granulate in the desiccant box has
a limited water absorption capacity and
must therefore be regenerated at regular
intervals. In the reverse process, dry com-
pressed air from the regeneration-air res-
ervoir is reduced to atmospheric pressure
via the regeneration throttle upstream of
the air drier, flows back through the moist
granulate from which it draws off the mois-
ture, and flows as moist air via the open
bleeder valve to the atmosphere.
The pressure regulator and air drier can
be combined into one unit.
 Brake systems for commercial vehicles 1235

Four-circuit protection valve
The four-circuit protection valve distrib-
utes the compressed air to the various
brake and ancillary circuits, isolates the
circuits from one another, and ensures the
water supply for the remaining circuits in
the event of failure of a circuit (Figure 8).
The function of the four-circuit protection
valve is provided by overflow valves spe-
cially developed for this application. In con-
trast to a normal overflow valve, the design
of this type of overflow valve features two
different effective areas on the intake-flow
side. The incoming pressure from the pres-
sure regulator acts on one effective area,
while the pressure available in the pneu-
Figure 7: Air drier with
integrated pressure regulator
1 Desiccant box, 2 Compression spring,
3 Desiccant, 4 Cup (control valve),
5 Compression spring, 6 Pin,
7 Diaphragm, 8 Compression spring,
9 Heating element, 10 Bleeder valve,
11 Drain connection, 12 Throttle,
13 Non-return valve, 14 Preliminary filter,
15 Secondary filter.
matic circuit acts on the other. The opening
pressure of the overflow valves is thus de-
pendent on the (residual) pressure of the
assigned pneumatic circuit.
The overflow valves can be arranged
differently. Often service-brake circuits 1
and 2 and ancillary circuits 3 and 4 are
connected in pairs in succession. This en-
sures that at least one of the two service-
brake circuits is filled as a matter of priority.
Figure 8: Four-circuit protection valve
a) Filling a compressed-air reservoir,
b) Filling all compressed-air reservoirs.
1 Housing,
2 Compression spring,
3 Diaphragm piston,
4 Valve seat,
5 Non-return valve,
6 Fixed throttle.
I – IV overflow valves
Ports:
1 Energy input,
21 – 24 Energy output to circuits 1 – 4.
a 1

Ports: 1
1 From compressor, 2
21 To air reservoir, I II
22 To regeneration-air tank, 3
3 Vent. 4

21
5 22

1
2
3 III IV
23 24
6

b 1

4
5 15 I II
14
6
7 21 22
21
3
8
1

III IV
UFB0613-1Y

UFB0617-1Y

23 24
22
9 10 3 11 12 13
1236 Chassis systems
The ancillary circuits for this type of valve
are additionally protected by two non-
return valves. These non-return valves
can be omitted from four-circuit protec-
tion valves with central intake flow. These
overflow valves may also be provided with
variable flow restrictors. These enable an
empty system to be filled with small quan-
tities of air.
If a malfunction occurs for example in
circuit 1 (circuit failure due to a leak), the
pressure drops initially only in circuit 1 to
0 bar and in circuit 2 to the closing pres-
sure. The pressure in circuits 3 and 4 is
initially maintained by the effect of the
non-return valves, but will also drop
through consumption to the closing pres-
sure. The intact circuits continue to be
supplied under subsequent delivery by
the compressor, because the residual
pressure in circuits 2, 3 and 4 acts on the
secondary effective area of the corre-
sponding overflow valves. The intact cir-
cuits are filled again until the opening
pressure of the defective circuit (circuit 1)
acts on the primary effective area of the
corresponding overflow valve, opening
this valve. A further pressure increase is
not possible, because from this moment
the delivered compressed air is lost
through the defective circuit. The opening
pressure via the primary effective area is
adjusted in such a way that it is equal to or
above at least the nominal pressure (cal-
culated pressure) of the brake system.
This ensures both a sufficient supply of
compressed air for the intact service-
brake circuit and the secondary braking
effect. The supply to the ancillaries such
as, for example, trailer, parking-brake sys-
tem and pneumatic suspension is also
maintained.
Electronic air-processing unit
Nowadays, the pressure control, air pro-
cessing, and compressed-air distribution
are combined in one electronic unit, the
air-processing unit. The electronic air-
processing unit (EAC, Electronic Air Con-
trol) is a functional agglomeration of the
pressure regulator, air drier and multiple-
circuit protection valve into one mecha-
tronic device. In addition, the control sys-
tem of the parking brake is integrated in
part. In all, integrating many functions in a
mechatronic unit offers significant bene-
fits with regard to system expenditure,
functionality, and energy saving.
Energy storage
The energy required for the braking op-
eration and for the function of the ancillar-
ies is provided and stored in sufficient
quantities in compressed-air reservoirs
approved for use in road vehicles. The vol-
ume must be designed such that, without
subsequent delivery, after eight full brak-
ings the secondary braking effect pre-
scribed for this vehicle is still achieved at
least by the ninth full braking.
Despite the use of an air drier, the
compressed-air reservoirs are equipped
with manual or automatically acting drain
devices. Compressed-air reservoirs are
subject to the requirements of § 41a s. 8
[4] in conjunction with § 72 StVZO [5], and
must be approved for use and perma-
nently identified.
 Brake systems for commercial vehicles 1237

The supply systems for the brake systems Figure 9: Service-brake valve
must be fitted with warning devices. The 1 Push rod,
following requirements apply: 2 and 3 Compression springs,
– Red warning light, 4 Reaction piston,
– visible to the driver at all times 5 and 9 Inlet-valve seat,
6 and 8 Outlet-valve seat,
– comes on no later than on brake appli- 7 and 10 Valve plates,
cation or if the pressure in the supply 11 Valve springs,
system for the service brake has 12 Return spring,
dropped to 65 % nominal pressure. 13 Control plunger,
80 % nominal pressure applies to the 14 Spring seat,
15 Connecting rod.
supply system for the parking-brake Ports:
system (spring-loaded brake). 3 Vent,
11 Energy input, circuit 1,
Service-brake valve 12 Energy input, circuit 2,
Service-brake valves (Figure 9) have a 21 Brake pressure, circuit 1,
dual-circuit design and control the ser- 22 Brake pressure, circuit 2.
vice-brake circuits according to the con-
trol force (force-controlled valves).
1
Circuit 1 is actuated by the control de-
2
vice, the push rod and the compression
3
springs (travel-compensating springs).
The reaction piston is forced downwards, 4
first closing the outlet valve and then 6
15
opening the inlet valve. Compressed air is 21 5
admitted into brake circuit 1 and the pres- 11
sure increases. The brake pressure acts 7
in the upward direction against the reac- 11
tion piston, forcing it against the compres- 13
sion springs as long as the partial braking 14
range is not exceeded. The brake end po- 8
sition is reached, with an equilibrium of 9
22
forces existing at the reaction piston. 12
10
Circuit 2 is controlled by the brake pres- 11
sure in circuit 1. This acts, instead of the 12
control device from above, on the reaction
piston of circuit 2. At approximately the
same time, the brake end position is 3
UFB0518-1Y

reached in circuit 2 as well. In the full-

braking position or in the event of a failure
of circuit 1, both reaction pistons are me-
chanically moved to their full extent by
means of the control device. The outlet
valves are closed, and the inlet valves re-
main open. Circuits 1 and 2 are pneumat-
ically fully and safely isolated from each
other.
Special designs facilitate different
controlled brake pressures for circuits 1
and 2. These are required if a dual-circuit
booster cylinder is actuated by the ser-
vice-brake valve, or if circuit 2 is subject to
load-sensitive control. This is made pos-
sible by installing an appropriate spring
assembly or a reaction piston with several
effective areas.
1238 Chassis systems

Parking-brake valve highly sensitive graduable effect, because

Parking-brake valves (Figure 10) control
the pressure in the spring-type brake cyl-
inders as a function of the lever travel
(travel-controlled valves). The lever must
be permanently and securely lockable in
the brake-applied position. Parking-brake
valves must only operate under graduated
(metered) application when the effect of
the parking brake is required to achieve
the secondary braking effect. Parking-
brake valves must be provided with a test
setting when the service-brake system is
activated in the trailer on actuation of the
parking brake.
Different variants of parking-brake
valve exist, depending on their applica-
tion: non-graduated, graduated or gradu-
ated with steep-droop characteristic
curve. The latter variant provides for a
the operating range of spring-type brake
cylinders, considered over the lever angle
of the parking-brake valve of approxi-
mately 80°, is optimally used. The operat-
ing range of spring-type brake cylinders is
between approximately 5 bar (start of
braking) and approximately 2 bar (end of
braking, see diagrams in Figure 11).
In pneumatic high-pressure brake sys-
tems (operating pressure greater than
10 bar), the parking-brake valve can be
fitted with a pressure limiter so that stan-
dard spring-type brake cylinders can be
used. The facility in parking-brake valves
for attaining the capability of metering the
controlled pressure is similar to the facility
in service-brake valves, but operates in
the opposite direction, because the
spring-type brake cylinders are ventilated

Figure 10: Parking-brake valve Figure 11: Working range of

(driving mode)
1 Actuating lever, 2 Detent element,
3 Eccentric element, 4 Return spring,
5 Outlet valve seat, 6 Inlet-valve seat,
7 Valve plate, 8 Reaction piston,
9 Reaction spring, 10 Compression spring.
Ports:
1 Energy input, circuit 3,
2 Control pressure to parking brake,
spring-type brake cylinder
a) Normally metered parking-brake valve,
b) Metered parking-brake valve
with steep-droop characteristic curve.
1 Pressure characteristic.
a Free travel (valve lift), b Actuation range,
c Start of braking, d End of braking.
a bar
Pressure in spring-type actuator

3 Vent.

6
c
1
4

d
2
a
1 b
0
2 0° 20° 40° 60° 80°
Lever deflection
3 b bar
Pressure in spring-type actuator

4 6
10 c
5 4
2
6 1
7 d
1 2
8
b
SFB0800-2E
UFB0157-1Y

9 0
3 0° 20° 40° 60° 80°
Lever deflection
 Brake systems for commercial vehicles 1239

in driving mode and the brake-applied The parking brake can be applied and re-
mode is achieved by bleeding. leased using the operating unit, whereby
Parking-brake valves can have a dual- the last active state is retained even after
circuit design. The system is supplied in the supply voltage is shut off. Since the
this case from circuit 3 and – the pneu- operating unit must have a graduable de-
matic auxiliary release device of the sign, the parking brake can also be oper-
spring-type actuators – from circuit 4. An ated in stages and consequently function
additionally required rotary-knob, shuttle as a secondary brake.
or check valve can be omitted. As well as manual activation by operat-
In the version with steep-droop charac- ing unit, the EPB also provides for a series
teristic curve (Figure 11), the start of brak- of comfort and convenience functions,
ing is attained earlier and the actuation e.g., automatic application when the ve-
range is significantly greater. This is par- hicle is at a standstill (Autopark) and auto-
ticularly advantageous when the parking matic release when starting (Autore-
brake is used as a secondary brake. lease).
As an alternative to the pneumatic park-
ing-brake valve, there are electronically Automatic load-sensitive
controlled parking-brake systems (Elec- braking-force regulator
tronic Parking Brake, EPB). These consist A facility frequently used in the service-
of an EPB module (which can optionally brake system of commercial vehicles with
also be integrated in the air-processing pneumatically controlled service-brake
unit) and an operating unit. The EPB mod- systems is automatic load-sensitive brak-
ule contains a bistable valve that can be ing-force control (ALB). Valves that handle
controlled via integrated solenoid valves the braking-force distribution enable ad-
and further solenoid valves for executing justment of the braking forces to the low
the trailer test function. axle loads in the partially laden and un-
laden state and thus a correction of the
Figure 12: Braking-force regulator braking-force distribution on the axles of
with relay valve an individual vehicle or a certain braking
1 Vent, 2 Rake, 3 Transfer diaphragm, level in road trains or semitrailers.
4 Energy input from air reservoir, The braking-force regulator (Figure
5 Vent, 6 Uncontrolled pressure from service-
brake valve, 7 Control valve,
12) is connected between service-brake
8 Relay piston, 9 Controlled brake pressure valve and brake cylinder. Depending on
to brake cylinders, 10 Rotary cam. vehicle payload, it regulates the applied
braking pressure. The device has a trans-
fer diaphragm with variable effective area.
The diaphragm is held in two radially ar-
1 ranged, interlocking rakes. Depending on
the vertical position of the control-valve
6 seat, there is a large reaction area (valve
2 position at bottom) or a small reaction
area (valve position at top). Consequently,
7
the brake cylinders are supplied via an
3 integrated relay valve with a reduced
8 pressure which is lower than (unladen),
or which is the same as (fully laden) the
4
9 pressure coming from the service-brake
valve. The control-valve can be moved
into the load-sensitive position by means
10 of an eccentric element that is connected
via linkage to the vehicle axle or by means
of a wedge (in the case of vehicles with
UFB0329-2Y

pneumatic suspension).
5 The pressure limiter which is integrated
into the device at the top allows a small
1240 Chassis systems
partial pressure (approx. 0.5 bar) to flow
in to the top of the diaphragm. Thus, up
to this pressure there is no reduction in
brake-cylinder pressure. This results in
the synchronous application of the brakes
on all vehicle axles.
As an alternative to the pneumatic ALB
valve, pneumatically controlled brake sys-
tems are increasingly making use of the
EBD function (Electronic Brakeforce Dis-
tribution) of ABS, with which braking-force
distribution is optimized as a function of
the wheel slip (see Wheel-slip control
systems).
The electronically controlled brake
(EBS) has become the predominant sys-
tem used in heavy European commercial
vehicles. This system performs braking-
force distribution electronically as a func-
tion of the laden state and other param-
eters (see Electronically controlled brake
system)
Combination brake cylinder
The combined cylinder in the commercial
vehicle consists of a diaphragm cylinder
part for the service brake and a spring-
type actuator part for the parking brake
(Figure 13). They are arranged one behind
the other and exert force on a joint push
rod. A distinction can be made between
combined cylinders for S-cam brakes,
wedge-actuated brakes, and disk brakes
based on the type of wheel brake.
The two cylinders can be actuated inde-
pendently of one another. Simultaneous
actuation results in the addition of their
forces. This can be prevented by installing
a special relay valve in order to automati-
cally prevent mechanical overloading of
other downstream components (e. g.
brake drums).
A central release screw allows for a
tensioning of the spring of the spring-type
brake cylinder without compressed air
having to be applied (mechanical emer-
gency release device). This is necessary
to assist fitting or, in the event of failure of
the compressed air, to be able to maneu-
ver the vehicle.
Figure 13: Combination brake cylinder
for disk brake (driving mode)
1 Pressure pin, 2 Piston rod,
3 Bellows with seal to disk brake,
4 Compression spring (diaphragm cylinder),
5 Piston (diaphragm cylinder),
6 Housing with fastening bolts,
7 Diaphragm, 8 Intermediate flange,
9 Cylinder housing
(spring-type brake actuator),
10 Piston (spring-type brake actuator),
11 Bleeder valve
(spring-type brake actuator chamber),
12 Compression spring
(spring-type brake actuator),
13 Release device
(spring-type brake cylinder).
Air ports: 11 Service brake, 12 Parking brake.
6 3 4 5 11 12 11 13
UFB0794-1Y
1 2 7 8 9 10 12
When the service brakes are operated,
compressed air flows into the diaphragm
cylinder and presses the plunger disk and
the push rod against the lever in the disk
brake. A drop in air pressure releases the
brake.
When compressed air flows into the
spring-type actuator part, the piston
presses the springs together and the
brake is released. If the chamber is
vented, the spring-type brake cylinder ex-
erts a force via the piston rod on the dia-
phragm part and presses the push rod
into the mechanism of the disk brake via
the piston disk.
 Brake systems for commercial vehicles 1241

Figure 14: Trailer control valve with decoupling function (driving mode)
1 and 2 Compression spring, 3 Control plunger, 4 Spring assembly, 5 Outlet-valve seat,
6 Disk, 7 Inlet-valve seat, 8 Compression spring, 9 Throttle pin, 10 Housing,
11 and 12 Control plunger,
13 Adjusting screw,
14 Compression spring,
15 Valve disk,
1 10 11
16 Reaction piston,
17 Collar, VI
18 Control plunger. 2 4.1
I 12
3 13
I – VIII Chambers.
4 14
Ports: VII 2.2
1.1 Energy input from circuit 3, 5 II
2.1 Energy output to “Supply” 6 15
16
coupling head (red), 1.1 2.1
2.2 Energy output to “Brake” III
coupling head (yellow), 17
4.1 Control port IV
uncontrolled pressure circuit 1, 9 VIII 7 8 4.3
4.2 Control port 18
V
uncontrolled pressure circuit 2, 4.2

UFB0525-2Y
4.3 Control port parking brake,
3 Central vent.
3

Trailer control valve
The trailer control valve installed in the
tractor controls the trailer’s service brake.
This multi-circuit relay valve is triggered by
both service-brake circuits and by the
parking brake (Figure 14). In the driving
mode, supply chamber III and chamber IV
of the parking-brake circuit are under the
same pressure. The brake line to the
trailer is connected to the atmosphere via
the central venting. A pressure increase in
chamber I of brake circuit 1 and in cham-
ber V of brake circuit 2 leads to the corre-
sponding pressure increase in chamber II
for the brake line to the trailer. A pressure
drop in both brake circuits also leads to
the same pressure drop in the brake line.
Operation of the parking-brake system
leads to venting of the parking-brake cir-
cuit (chamber IV). This increases the pres-
sure in chamber II for the brake line to the
trailer. When air enters chamber IV, the
brake line is vented again.
If the brake line to the trailer is pulled
off, it is prescribed that the pressure in
the supply line to the trailer must have
fallen to a pressure of 1.5 bar in less than
two seconds (RREG 71/320). To achieve
this, the compressed-air supply to the
supply line is throttled by means of an
integrated valve.
1242 Chassis systems

Electronically controlled Design and operating principle

brake system
Requirements and functions
With the further development of the dual-
line compressed-air brake system, an
electronic (or electronically controlled)
brake system (EBS) was created in the
mid-1990s. On account of the modular
design, it is possible to cover different
vehicle types with just a few components.
Vehicle-specific differences and factors
can be covered to a large extent by pro-
gramming the central ECU accordingly.
The control arrangement is determined
by the number of axles and their arrange-
ment and the required scope of func-
tions, and ranges from 4S /4M to 8S / 6M
(S wheel-speed sensor, M pressure-con-
trol module).
The electronic brake system (Figure 15),
like a conventional compressed-air brake
with antilock braking system (ABS), com-
prises a compressed-air supply system,
but the pressure-regulator, air-drier and
multiple-circuit protection-valve functions
can be combined in an electronic unit
(EAC, Electronic Air Control). It is thus
possible to adapt certain functions – such
as e. g. fill sequences or regeneration – bet-
ter to the required conditions and to guar-
antee even greater functional reliability.
In the electronic brake system too, en-
ergy is stored in compressed-air reser-
voirs and from there made available to the
pressure-control modules and to the ser-
vice-brake valve. The service-brake valve
consists of an electric pedal-travel sensor
and a pneumatic section which is func-
tionally identical to the previous design.
The pedal-travel sensor consists of a re-
dundant travel sensor (e.g. two redun-
dantly arranged electrical potentiometers
or a redundant inductive travel sensor)
which is deflected via the control device
and delivers the redundant output signal
to the central ECU. From this the ECU cal-

Figure 15: Service-brake system of an electronically controlled braking system

a) Tractor vehicle, b) Trailer.
1 Four-circuit protection valve, 2 Air reservoir, 3 Service-brake valve with braking-level sensor,
4 Single-channel pressure-control module, 5 Brake cylinder, 6 Wheel-speed sensor,
7 Brake-lining wear sensor, 8 EBS ECU in tractor vehicle,
9 Two-channel pressure-control module, 10 Pressure sensor, 11 Air-spring bellows,
12 Trailer control valve, 13 “Supply” coupling head (red),
14 “Brake” coupling head (yellow), 15 ISO 7638 plug-in connection (7-pin), 16 Line filter,
17 Trailer brake valve with release device, 18 EBS ECU in trailer.

a b
2
13 16 17 2
2 3
UFB0567Y

1
12 14
2 8
U
P 18
5 5
5 15
7 S
U 6 7 S
U 6 5 7 S
U 6 6
4 9 9

4 10 U 7 6
7 US 6 P U
S 10 UP 7 US 6 6
5 11 11
5 5 5
 Brake systems for commercial vehicles
culates for each wheel an individual brake
pressure and in turn activates the pres-
sure-control modules on the individual
axles so that the required brake pressure
is applied to the brake cylinders down-
stream of the pressure-control modules.
The applied brake pressure is regulated
with the aid of integrated pressure sen-
sors in the pressure-control modules. A
pneumatic brake-pressure generation is
performed in parallel in the pneumatic part
of the service-brake valve which on the
one hand determines the brake feel and on
the other hand acts as a fallback level in
the event of an electrical fault.
The brake-pressure modules are avail-
able as one-channel or two-channel
designs. If the vehicle is set up to tow a
trailer, a trailer control module is also pro-
vided as a substitute for the trailer control
valve. This trailer control module is like-
wise activated in the braking operation by
the central ECU and makes an adapted
control pressure available at the “Brake”
coupling head (yellow). This makes it
possible to carry a conventionally braked
trailer. If a trailer is carried with an inde-
pendent electronic brake system, this is
controlled by an electrical connection via
the plug-in connection as per ISO 7638
(ABS connector). The trailer must never-
theless also be pneumatically coupled,
because this is the only way that the trailer
can be supplied with pressure and in the
event of a system failure pneumatically
controlled. By controlling the electronic
brake system in the trailer, it is possible to
provide optimum matching with regard to
braking performance between the tractor
vehicle and the trailer. Simultaneous and
matched braking performance facilitate
optimized coupling-forcing matching.
Further functions, such as antilock
braking system (ABS), traction control
system (TCS) and driving-dynamics con-
trol system (Electronic Stability Program),
1243
are integrated into the electronic brake
system’s scope of functions. The turning
behavior of the wheels is monitored by
the wheel-speed sensors and the antilock
braking system. Depending on the design,
the information is made available to the
central ECU or to the pressure-control
module, where it is processed. In the
event of incipient wheel locking, depend-
ing on the system arrangement and de-
sign, a control intervention is effected via
the pressure-control modules or by down-
stream pressure-control valves in accor-
dance with the control variants known to
the ABS system (individual control, modi-
fied individual control, or select-low con-
trol). Intervention by the traction control
system when the wheels spin takes the
form of an engine and brake interven-
tion. Further sensors are needed for the
functions of the driving-dynamics control
system. The steering-wheel angle is re-
corded by a steering-angle sensor. A yaw-
velocity sensor, also known simply as a
yaw sensor, records the rotational speed
about the vehicle vertical axis. A lateral-
acceleration sensor also records the
lateral acceleration. When the data have
been evaluated, swerving or jackknifing
is detected and stabilized by the specific
introduction of brake pressure into the
relevant brake cylinders and intervention
in other systems (see Driving-dynamics
control for commercial vehicles).
If an electrical fault occurs, the vehicle
can be braked by means of one or two
redundant pneumatic circuits with at least
the demanded secondary braking effect,
and the trailer brake system controlled.
Optimum cooperation between all the
systems can be achieved through data
communication with other systems in the
vehicle and the trailer. Optimized decel-
eration and acceleration processes and
additional functions can be realized in this
way.
1244 Chassis systems
Advantages of electronic brake systems
in a commercial vehicle are:
– Fast and simultaneous brake-pressure
buildup in all the brake cylinders,
– good metering capability, thus optimum
braking comfort,
– optimum matching between tractor and
trailer through control of coupling
forces,
– exact braking-force distribution,
– uniform brake-lining wear,
– ABS, TCS and ESC functions are inte-
grated (brake and engine interven-
tions), traction control for offroad appli-
cations can be easily realized,
– driving-dynamics control via engine
and brake interventions when over-
steering or understeering is detected, in
response to the risk of swerving (articu-
lated road train, articulated bus), and
intervention in response to the risk of
overturning,
– ease of servicing thanks to extensive
diagnosis functions.
Figure 16: Service-brake valve
with two pneumatic control circuits
1 Braking-level sensor,
2 Service-brake valve,
3 Supply connection,
4 Electrical potentiometer connections,
5 Electrical ground connection.
Pneumatic ports:
11 Energy input, circuit 1,
12 Energy input, circuit 2,
21 Back-up control pressure, circuit 1,
22 Back-up control pressure, circuit 2.
3
4
1 5
4
11 21
2
22
UFB0724-2Y
12
Components of the electronic
brake system
Electronic control unit (ECU)
The control point of an electronic brake
system consists of a central ECU in which
all the system functions run. Aside from
the cab-mounted variants, frame-mounted
ECUs are increasingly gaining accep-
tance. The benefit of the latter is that the
sensors for yaw rate and lateral accelera-
tion can be integrated and consequently
there is no need for a separate sensor to
be fitted.
Service-brake valve
A service-brake valve for the electronic
brake system is similar in design to con-
ventional, purely pneumatic service-brake
valves. However, in the service-brake
valve the electronic setpoint values for
brake-pressure control are also recorded
(Figure 16). It thus fulfills two functions: A
redundant sensor detects the driver’s
brake request by measuring the operating
travel of the valve tappet. The measured
value is transmitted to the central ECU
and converted there into a braking re-
quest. In the same way as a conventional
service-brake valve, the pneumatic con-
trol pressure is applied according to the
actuation travel. These control pressures
are required for “backup” control in the
event of a fault.

Pressure-control modules
The pressure-control modules (Electro-
Pneumatic Modulator, EPM, Figure 17)
are the interface between the electronic
brake system and the pneumatically actu-
ated wheel brakes. They convert the re-
quired braking pressures transmitted via
the CAN bus into pneumatic pressures.
This conversion operation is usually per-
formed with an inlet and outlet solenoid
combination. A pressure sensor mea-
sures the controlled brake pressure and
thus facilitates brake-pressure control in
the closed control loop. The electrically
activated “backup” valve shuts off the
pneumatic control pressures of the ser-
vice-brake valve in order to permit interfer-
ence-free electrical pressure control.
Figure 17: Single-channel
pressure-control module
1 ECU, 2 Speed sensor,
3 Brake-lining sensor,
4 CAN, 5 “Backup” valve,
6 Inlet valve, 7 Outlet valve,
8 Pressure sensor, 9 Filter,
10 Relay valve, 11 Muffler.
Connectors:
1B Connector, speed sensor 1,
2B Connector, brake-lining sensor,
3A Connector, supply and CAN bus,
4A Connector, speed sensor 2.
Ports:
1 Energy input,
2 Brake pressure to brake cylinder,
3 Vent,
4 Back-up control input.
1B 2B 3A
1 2 4 1 4 1
3 2 3 2
2 3 4 2
1 [3] ISO 7638: Road vehicles – Connectors
6 7
5 [4] StVZO (road traffic licensing regula-
4 2
1 (Transition provisions).
9 10
11
3
Brake systems for commercial vehicles 1245
Mounting the pressure-control modules
close to the wheels means that the electri-
cal wires for connecting the wheel-speed
sensors and the brake-lining wear sen-
sors can be kept short. The information is
prepared in the pressure-control module
and transmitted via the CAN bus to the
central ECU. This reduces the outlay on
cabling in the vehicle.
Trailer control module
The electronic trailer control module
(Trailer Control Module, TCM) enables
modulation of the trailer control pressure
according to the functional requirements
of the electronic brake system. The limits
of the electrical control ranges are defined
by legal requirements. The electronically
specified setpoint value is converted into
a physical braking pressure by means of
a solenoid arrangement similar to that in
the pressure-control module. The “backup”
pressure is shut off either by a “backup”
solenoid or by pneumatic retention, de-
pending on the type of design adopted.
Under all normal conditions, the trailer
control module must be activated by two
independent control signals. This may be
two pneumatic signals from two control
circuits, or one pneumatic and one electri-
cal control signal.
________________________________
References for Brake systems for
­commercial vehicles
[1] Directive 71/320/EEC: Council Direc-
tive of 26 July 1971 on the approximation
of the laws of the Member States relating
to the brake systems of certain categories
4A of motor vehicles and their trailers.
1 2 [2] ECE-R13: Uniform provisions con-
cerning the approval of category M, N and
O vehicles with regard to brakes.
for the electrical connection of towing and
towed vehicles.
8 tions, Germany) §41: Bremsen und Unter-
U
P legkeile (Brakes and wheel chocks).
[5] StVZO §72: Übergangsbestimmungen
2 [6] E. Hoepke, S. Breuer (Editors): Nutz-
UFB0725-2Y
fahrzeugtechnik. 8th Ed., Verlag Springer
Vieweg, 2016.
1246 Chassis systems
Continuous-operation
brake systems
Commercial vehicles essentially use two
types of continuous-operation brake sys-
tems, deployed separately or in combina-
tion: the exhaust-brake system and the
retarder.
Exhaust-brake systems
The resistance which an engine brings to
the speed imposed from the outside with-
out a fuel supply is termed the engine or
exhaust brake, or drag power. The drag
power of standard engines is 5 to 7 kW
per liter displacement. With a pure ex-
haust brake the regulation according to
§41 or the road traffic licensing regula-
tions in Germany (StVZO), s.. 15 cannot
be observed. Further measures can be
used to increase the effect of the exhaust
brake.
Exhaust-brake system with exhaust flap
In the exhaust brake with exhaust flap, a
valve with a flap closes the exhaust train.
The fuel supply is interrupted at the same
time. As a result, back pressure is gener-
ated in the exhaust-gas system and must
be overcome by each piston during its ex-
haust stroke (Figure 18). The braking
Figure 18: Exhaust brake with exhaust
flap and additional pressure-control valve
1 Exhaust-flap actuation (compressed air),
2 Exhaust flap,
3 Bypass,
4 Pressure-control valve,
5 Exhaust,
6 Intake,
7 Piston (4th power stroke, exhaust cycle).
1
6
2 5
3 2
4
UFB0314-1Y
7 6
power can be regulated by means of a
pressure-control valve in the exhaust train.
Additionally, this valve ensures that at high
revs an excessively high pressure does
not result in valve or valve-gear damage.
The exhaust brake is the most common
variant used in trucks and buses, deliver-
ing a braking power of 14 to 20 kW per liter
displacement.
Exhaust-brake system with constant
throttle
The exhaust brake with constant throttle is
also known as a decompression brake. In
this system, the work performed by the en-
gine in the compression phase is not uti-
lized. The exhaust valves or an additional
valve (constant throttle, Figure 19) is/are
specifically opened at the end of the com-
pression cycle, thereby relieving the pres-
sure built up in the compression phase.
Thus, no further work can be delivered to
the crankshaft in the expansion phase.
Engine brake system with exhaust flap
and constant throttle
Braking power can be further improved by
a combination of exhaust flap and con-
stant throttle (Figure 19). This combina-
tion can deliver braking power of 30 to
40 kW per liter displacement.
Figure 19: Exhaust brake with exhaust
flap and constant throttle
1 Compressed air,
2 Exhaust flap,
3 Exhaust,
4 Constant throttle,
5 Intake,
6 Piston (2nd power stroke,
compression cycle).
1
5
3 4
UFB0316Y
 Brake systems for commercial vehicles 1247

Retarder A retarder can be activated hydraulically

Retarders are wear-free continuous-oper-
ation brakes. There are two types that dif-
fer in how they operate: hydrodynamic
and electrodynamic retarders. Both sys-
tems, and the exhaust-brake systems,
relieve the load on the service brake sys-
tem and thereby increase the economic
efficiency of the vehicle. The use of a hy-
drodynamic retarder can increase the
service life of the service brake by a factor
of 4 to 5.
In modern vehicles, retarders are incor-
porated into the brake-management sys-
tem. The exhaust brake and the retarder
are often combined as a continuous-oper-
ation brake in a vehicle. The brakes must
then be activated by means of the elec-
tronic brake-management system.
or pneumatically, whereby the braking
torque can be achieved in discrete braking
stages and also steplessly. Oil is primarily
used as the working medium in a retarder.
Current hydraulic retarders can deliver
braking power up to 600 kW for brief peri-
ods. However, the continuous braking
power of a retarder is dependent on the
cooling capacity of the vehicle’s cooling
system. Modern vehicles can dissipate a
continuous braking power from a retarder
of 300 to 350 kW via the cooling system.
Sensors are used to record overheating of
the retarder or the cooling system, and if
necessary the braking power is reduced
under controlled conditions until the brak-
ing power equals the dissipatable quantity
of heat.

Hydrodynamic retarder Primary retarder

Hydrodynamic retarders, also known sim- In the case of a primary retarder located
ply as hydraulic retarders, can be subdi- in the drivetrain between the engine and
vided into the categories of primary re- transmission after the converter, force is
tarders and secondary retarders.
The primary retarder is located be- Figure 20: Functioning principle
tween the engine and the transmission, of a retarder as illustrated
the secondary retarder between the by a ZF intarder by way of example
transmission and the powered axle. Both 1 High-speed stage,
2 Output flange,
primary and secondary retarders oper- 3 Stator, 4 Rotor.
ate in the same way. When the retarder is
activated, oil is pumped into the working
area. The driven rotor accelerates this oil
1 2
and transfers it at the outside diameter to
the stator (Figure 20). There the oil
strikes the static stator blades and is de-
celerated. The oil flows at the inside di-
ameter to the rotor. The rotor’s rotary
motion is inhibited, and the vehicle is de-
celerated.
The kinetic energy is primarily con-
verted into heat. For this reason, some of
the oil must be permanently cooled by a
heat exchanger.

The braking torque can be input using a

hand lever or the brake pedal (in the case
of a retarder integrated into the EBS elec-
tronically controlled brake system). A re-
tarder’s braking torque is dependent on
the degree of fill in the working area be-
tween the rotor and the stator. The de-
SFB0804Y

gree of fill is regulated by an ECU via a

control pressure which is adjusted by 3 4
proportioning valves.
1248 Chassis systems

transmitted through the powered axles and municipal vehicles. Their compact de-
and the transmission in such a way that sign is another advantage. A disadvan-
the total overrun torque is directed through tage of primary retarders is that the brak-
the transmission. The braking effect of the ing force is interrupted during a gear
primary retarder is dependent on the en- change. The braking force must be re-
gine speed and the selected gear, but is duced during gear changing.
not dependent on the vehicle’s output
speed and driving speed. This lack of de- Secondary retarder
pendence on the output speed is one of In the case of a secondary retarder (Figure
the major advantages of primary retard- 22), which is located after the engine,
ers. These are highly effective at speeds clutch and transmission, force is transmit-
below 25 to 30 km/h (Figure 21). This is ted directly via the output shaft. Unlike a
the reason why primary retarders are pri- primary retarder, there is no interruption of
marily used in vehicles which are driven at the braking force during a gear change with
lower average speeds such as city buses a secondary retarder. The braking effect is
dependent on the ratio of the output shaft
Figure 21: Operating ranges and on the driving speed. It is not depen-
SFB0805-3E

of primary and secondary retarders dent on the selected gear. The braking
1 Primary retarder, 2 Secondary retarder. torque of a secondary retarder is very
kN
much dependent on the rotor speed. For
14th gear this reason, the rotor speed is often in-
Braking force at wheel

2 1
−20 12th gear creased by means of a high-speed stage.
10th gear The secondary retarder demonstrates
−40 great efficiency at speeds over 40 km/h
8th gear Advantage (Figure 21); at speeds below 30 km/h the
−60 Secondary retarder
Advantage braking torque falls off dramatically. Be-
−80 Primary retarder cause of its design, the secondary re-
6th gear tarder can also be subsequently adapted
−100 to a transmission. The extra weight of a
0 20 40 60 80 100 km/h
Speed
secondary retarder with accompanying
heat exchanger and oil fill is often cited as
a disadvantage, since the additional mass
Figure 22: Hydrodynamic secondary reduces the vehicle payload.
retarder up to 600 kW braking power (ZF) Secondary retarders are primarily used
1 High-speed gear, 2 Output flange, in long-distance vehicles which are driven
3 Intake passage, 4 Control housing, at high average speeds, such as trucks
5 Coolant inlet, 6 Heat exchanger,
7 Electronics, 8 Pinion shaft, 9 Stator, and tour buses.
10 Rotor, 11 Discharge passage,
12 Pump, 13 Coolant outlet. Electrodynamic retarder
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 (eddy-current brake)
The electrodynamic retarder (Figure 23)
contains two non-magnetizable steel disks
(rotors) which are connected with torsional
strength to the input and output shafts
(here: propshaft), and a stator which is
equipped with 8 or 16 coils and fastened
by means of a star-shaped bracket to the
vehicle frame. As soon as electric current
(from the alternator or battery) flows
through the coils, magnetic fields are gen-
erated which are closed by the rotors.
These magnetic fields induce eddy cur-
SFB0806Y

rents in the rotors as they turn. These eddy

8 9 10 11 12 13
currents in turn generate magnetic fields
in the rotors which counteract the exciting
 Brake systems for commercial vehicles 1249

magnetic fields and thus build up a brak-
ing effect. The braking torque is deter-
mined by the strength of the excitation
field, the rotational speed, and the air gap
between the stator and the rotors. The
braking torque decreases as the air gap
increases; this air gap can be adjusted by
means of spacers. Shift stages with differ-
ent braking torques (Figure 24) are ob-
tained by interconnecting the field coils in
different configurations. The heat gener-
ated is dissipated by convection and ra-
diation to atmosphere via the internally
ventilated rotor disks.
As the rotors are increasingly heated,
the braking power of the electrodynamic
retarder decreases significantly (Figure
25). The retarder’s braking power is re-
duced by thermal protection in order to
prevent the retarder from being de-
stroyed by excessive temperature during
braking operation.
Figure 23: Electrodynamic retarder
Like the primary retarder, the electrody-
namic retarder is distinguished by high
braking power at low engine speeds and
relative design simplicity. On the down-
side, however, it can weigh up to 350 kg,
depending on its size.
________________________________
References for continuous-operation
brake systems
[1] E. Hoepke, S. Breuer (Editors):
Nutzfahrzeugtechnik, 8th Edition,
Verlag Springer Vieweg, 2016.
Figure 24: Braking-torque characteristic
of an electrodynamic retarder
4a Braking power when the cooling power
limit has been reached (switching stage 4).
Nm
Transmission stage
4
3,000
Braking torque

1 Star-shaped bracket,
2 Rotor, transmission side,
3 Spacers (for adjusting air gap), 2,000 3
4 Stator with coils, 5 Intermediate flange, 4a
6 Rotor, rear-axle side, 7 Transmission cover, 2
8 Transmission output shafts, 9 Clearance gap. 1,000
1 2 3 4 5 6 1

0
0 1,000 2,000 rpm UFB0322-1E

Speed

Figure 25: Influence of transmission ratio

and rotor temperature on the performance
of electrodynamic retarders
17 t commercial vehicle, laden.

m /s2
2nd gear
4th gear
1.2
6th gear
Deceleration

4th gear 6th gear

0.8 2nd gear

3
0.4 Brake cold
(rotor temperature 130°C)
Brake hot
(rotor temperature 600 to 680°C)
UFB0321-1Y

0
UFB0323E

0 20 40 60 80 km/h
7 8 9 9 Driving speed
1250 Chassis systems

Wheel brakes
Wheel brakes are friction brakes that con- Disk brakes
vert kinetic energy into heat energy during for passenger cars
braking. Disk and drum brakes are used
as wheel brakes. Hydraulic pressure (for Functioning principle
passenger cars) and pneumatic pressure Disk brakes generate the braking forces
and spring force (spring-loaded brake, on the surface of a brake disk that rotates
for heavy commercial vehicles) are con- with the wheel (Figure 2). The U-shaped
verted into an application force to press brake caliper with the brake pads is
the brake pads and linings against the mounted to non-rotating vehicle compo-
brake disks and drums respectively.
In passenger-car applications the ther- Figure 2: Disk brakes (diagram)
mal demands placed on wheel brakes a) Fixed-caliper brake,
can, in view of ever-increasing vehicle b) Floating-caliper brake.
weights and higher attainable driving 1 Brake pads,
2 Piston,
speeds, only be satisfied by disk brakes. 3 Brake disk,
Drum brakes are now only used in sub- 4 Brake-caliper housing,
compact-size cars on the rear axle. 5 Brake anchor plate.
In the commercial-vehicle sector disk
brakes have gained acceptance for on- a 4 2 1 2 b 4 1 2 5
road applications in Europe and increas-
ingly in North America as well. In markets
with less well developed road infrastruc-
tures and in applications with greater off-
road usage drum brakes still play a signif-
icant role since they react more robustly
to dirt and are easier to handle (mainte-
nance, repair, etc.).
UFB0281-2Y

3 3

Figure 1: Floating-caliper brake with parking-brake mechanism

1 Brake-caliper housing,
2 Dust-protection seal, 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
3 Sealing ring,
4 Coupling,
5 Piston,
6 Threaded spindle,
7 Bleeder valve,
8 Parking-brake
mechanism,
9 Cam plate,
10 Hydraulic port,
11 Shaft,
12 Parking-brake lever,
13 Spring,
14 Outer brake pad,
15 Piston-side brake pad.
SFB0791-1Y

14 15

nents (wheel carrier). The floating-cali-
per design with or without parking-brake
mechanism has proven successful.
Principle of the fixed-caliper brake
In a fixed-caliper brake, both halves of
the housing (flange and cover parts) are
joined by the housing connecting bolts.
Each half of the housing contains a piston
to press the brake pad against the brake
disk (Figure 2a). Ports in the housing
halves connect the two pistons hydrau-
lically.
Principle of the floating-caliper brake
In a floating-caliper brake, a piston presses
the piston-side (inner) brake pad against
the brake disk (Figure 2b). The generated
reaction force moves the brake-caliper
housing and thereby presses the outer
brake pad indirectly against the brake
disk. In this brake caliper the piston is
therefore only seated on the inner side.
Floating-caliper brake
for passenger cars
The brake caliper can be moved axially in
the brake anchor plate and is guided by
two sealed guide pins in the brake anchor
plate (Figure 1).
Braking with the service brake
The hydraulic pressure generated by the
brake master cylinder enters the cylinder
chamber behind the piston via the hy-
draulic connection. The piston is shifted
forwards and the brake pad on the piston
side is applied to the brake disk. The reac-
tion force that arises shifts the brake-cal-
iper housing mounted in a bolt guide
against the direction of piston movement.
This also means that the outer brake pad
is applied to the brake disk. The path of
the brake pads and of the piston covered
up to that point is referred to as clearance.
Another increase in pressure increases
the downforce of the brake pads.
Releasing the service brake
When the piston moves through the clear-
ance, the sealing ring, which is rectangle
in its initial position, is deformed. The de-
formed sealing ring pulls the piston back
by the clearance when the hydraulic pres-
sure drops (roll-back effect).
Wheel brakes 1251
Braking with the integrated parking brake
When the integrated parking brake is
operated, the force is transferred via the
handbrake cable to the parking-brake
lever. This is then twisted and the rotary
motion is transferred via the shaft to the
cam plate. As the balls run onto the cam
plate, the piston is shifted via the pres-
sure sleeve in the parking-brake mecha-
nism; the threaded spindle bolted in this
mechanism is shifted towards the brake
pad. After crossing the clearance, first the
brake pad on the piston side and then the
outer brake pad are pressed against the
brake disk.
Releasing the parking brake
After releasing the handbrake lever, the
parking-brake lever, the shaft and the
cam plate turn back to their initial posi-
tions. The pressure sleeve, the threaded
spindle and the piston are pressed back
into their initial position by the springs in
the parking-brake mechanism. The final
clearance is reached as the sealing ring
reassumes its shape.
Automatic self-adjusting mechanism
Wear on the brake pads and brake disks
increases the clearance and thus has to
be balanced out. This automatic clearance
compensation takes place during braking.
The inside diameter of the rectangular
piston sealing ring is slightly smaller than
the piston diameter. The sealing ring thus
surrounds the piston with a pre-tension.
During braking the piston moves towards
the brake disk and tensions the sealing
ring, which as a result of its static friction
can then slip on the piston only when
the piston travel between brake pad and
brake disk has in response to abrasion on
the brake pads has become greater than
the envisaged clearance. When the brake
is released the piston is pulled back only
by the envisaged clearance. In this way,
stepless readjustment to a constant clear-
ance is possible.
The clearance compensation of the
parking-brake mechanism also takes
place on application of the service brake.
The clearance of a brake caliper is ap-
prox. 0.15 mm and is thus in the range
of the maximum permissible static disk
run-out (axial movement per brake-disk
1252 Chassis systems

rotation on account of manufacturing tol- completely coated to improve corrosion

erances or bearing clearances). resistance. High-heat-resisting paints or
for example coatings containing zinc are
Brake disks used.
The energy converted during braking into The last few years have also seen the
heat is mainly absorbed by the brake disk introduction of built-up brake disks. These
and then dissipated to the ambient air. A brake disks have a separation between
fundamental distinction is made between the friction ring and the chamber area.
solid disks and ventilated brake disks The chamber area is usually made of
(Figure 3). a different material (aluminum or sheet
There are two different types of ven- steel) in order to achieve weight savings.
tilated brake disk: Internally and exter- These brake disks furthermore offer ben-
nally ventilated. On account of the higher efits with regard to warping (friction-ring
thermal load ventilated brake disks are deformation under thermal influence).
used on the front axle and in high-per- A distinction is made between screwed,
formance or heavy vehicles also on the cast, riveted, and combined positive and
rear axle. Perforated or grooved friction non-positive connections.
rings improve the cooling effect and also
improve wet starting response. Ventilated
brake disks with radial cooling slots are
used to further improve heat dissipation
(Figure 3).
Brake disks are usually manufactured
from gray cast iron. A higher proportion
of carbon improves the heat-absorption
capability and noise-damping perfor-
mance. Alloys containing chrome or mo-
lybdenum for example also increase wear
resistance. More thermally resistant brake
disks made of ceramic containing silicon
carbide reinforced with carbon fiber are
also used on sports cars and luxury-class
cars.
High corrosion requirements are im-
posed on brake disks due to their installa-
tion position directly on the wheel and the
high mileage. Brake disks are partially or

Figure 3: Schematic diagram of brake disks

a) Solid brake disk,
b) Internally ventilated
brake disk,
c) Externally ventilated
brake disk.
1 Friction ring, a b c
2 Chamber,
3 Cooling channel,
4 Radial cooling slots 3 3
(cooling fins).
1

2
UFB0692-3Y

4 4

Brake pads for disk brakes
Function and requirements
The decelerating force during the braking
operation is generated by sliding friction
between the brake pad and the brake disk.
The coefficient of friction denotes the ratio
between the tensioning force generated
by the brake caliper and the resulting de-
celerating frictional force between the pad
and the disk. For passenger cars it ranges
between 0.3 and 0.5 and is included in the
chassis-system configuration.
As part of a safety system this function
must be performed with absolute reliabil-
ity and ensue in a predictable way as
transparently as possible for the vehicle
driver. This therefore requires that the co-
efficient of friction of the brake pad against
the brake disk used always be identical
wherever possible under all the varying
– even extreme – operating conditions in
wide ranges. Furthermore, the wear on
the brake pads and the brake disk must
be appropriately low. The dust emissions
associated with wear should also be kept
as low as possible and the composition
of these emissions should pollute the
environment as little as possible. Brake
systems should also operate with as little
noise as possible.
Optimum tuning of the brake system to
the vehicle is quite significantly achieved
via the properties of the brake pad, the
design and manufacture of which, of all
the components in the system, opens up
the most wide-ranging possibilities.
Design
The brake pad (Figure 4) consists of a
number of parts whose properties must
all be meticulously matched to each
other to meet the complex functional re-
quirements. A back plate (carrier) usu-
ally made of steel serves to support the
braking force exerted by the friction lining
against the brake caliper and conversely
to transfer the piston force as uniformly
as possible to the lining friction surface.
To this end, the back plate must adhere
to exact dimensional tolerances so as to
avoid braking noises or unreliable func-
tioning. In addition, the material must
exhibit sufficient strength so as not to
permit any plastic deformation at the con-
tact faces or hooks. In many a design the
Wheel brakes 1253
back plate still supports the strength of the
brake caliper.
For the most part, anti-noise shims or
films are glued, riveted or even attached
with clips to the back of the brake pad
painted for corrosion-protection purposes.
They are for the most part essential for
avoiding noise emissions. It is important
here to ensure that the shims cannot be
appreciably displaced over the period of
operation. Otherwise, unwanted contact
between the anti-noise shim and brake or
wheel components may result under ad-
verse circumstances. Clips for positioning
and locating in the piston and caliper may
still be required for fitting in the brake.
Manufacture
The most cost-effective solution is, af-
ter cleaning off oxide coatings and oil
residues, to apply a coating of a highly
thermally and chemically stable adhe-
sive. Racing cars and a number of heavy,
high-performance premium vehicles also
use bonding variants which establish
positive locking between the pad and the
carrier, and thus are above all much more
thermally resistant but at the same time
significantly more expensive than an ad-
hesive bonding.
Finally, the friction lining is applied. The
friction lining is for the most part pressed
from a molding powder or granulate in a
heated press onto the back plate. At tem-
peratures between 130 °C and around
170 °C the binder component of the fric-
tion-lining mixture combines permanently
Figure 4: Structure of a brake pad
for disk brakes
1 Back plate,
2 Adhesive layer,
3 Intermediate layer,
4 Friction lining,
5 Anti-noise shim.
1 2 3 4
SFB0810Y
5
1254 Chassis systems

with the back-plate adhesive to form a Special regional requirements

component. In the process all the other Unlike in Europe – and in particular unlike
ingredients are also integrated into the in Germany – in many regions around the
binder matrix usually consisting of highly world drivers cannot drive very fast by ve-
chemically and thermally resistant phe- hicle since speed limits are enforced even
nolic resin. This so-called hot-pressing on expressways and freeways. Resulting
process with dry mixtures has become lower friction-coefficient requirements, but
established in the mass market as the higher requirements with regard to wear
best combination of reliability, range of and dust formation led for example in Asia
adjustments of physical properties, prod- and the USA to the development of differ-
uct variance, and costs. ent friction materials from those in Europe.
From Japan come the so-called NAO ma-
Composition of brake pads terials (Non Asbestos Organics), which
The recipe for the molding compound of a are characterized by very low brake-disk
typical European brake pad consists of up corrosion and consequently also by low
to more than twenty different ingredients. dust formation. However, at present these
These can be grouped into the categories recipes cannot deliver friction coefficients
of binders, metals, graphite and coke, fill- that are as high as those produced by the
ers, organic fibers, abrasives, and lubri- recipes customary in Europe. In contrast
cants. Table 1 shows by way of example to European recipes, they typically con-
some of the raw materials normally used tain no steel wool or iron powder. They
in brake pads. Aside from their concentra- are therefore also referred to as non-steel
tion in the recipe, their effect in the brake pads or more promotionally effectively
pad is also determined by their individual as ceramics. In contrast, the materials
composition, microstructure, and particle customary in Europe are called low-steel
size. Reliable braking performance with or low-met pads. The combination of the
low wear is obtained only by choosing good friction loss of European recipes
ideal ingredients and carefully optimizing with the low dust generation of NAO rec-
the concentrations of the metal, abra-
sive, and lubricant proportions. Physi-
cal-mechanical properties for sufficient Table 1: Raw-material groups with typical
strength and particularly also for com- concentration ranges of brake-pad recipes
fortable, noise-free braking are adjusted for use in Europe
by means of tribologically neutral fillers Raw-material Raw material Volume %
in broad concentration ranges. Only with group
this complexity of recipes can the high,
sometimes contradictory requirements re- Metals Steel wool 10…15
Aluminum wool
garding friction loss, reliability, wear, and Copper wool
braking comfort be optimally reconciled Zinc powder
for the majority of drivers. Binders Phenolic resin 15…20
Between the friction lining and the Caoutchouc
adhesive a roughly 2…3 mm thick inter-
Fillers Silicates, e.g. 20…50
mediate layer similar mechanically and Mica powder
chemically to the friction lining can be Talcum
used for example to improve the pad con- Chalk
nection or damp braking noises. Abrasives Aluminum oxide 2…5
Finally, a brake pad must be clearly Silicon carbide
marked to denote its country of use in
Lubricants Molybdenum 2…10
order for example to display the regula- sulfide
tory approval for use in public traffic. The Tin sulfide
markings are usually printed or stamped
Organic fibers Aramide fiber 2…5
on the backs of the brake pads. Cellulose fiber
Graphite and Graphite and 10…25
coke coke

ipes constitute a current conflict of goals
for the development of friction materials.
Up to half the weight of semi-met pads
is made up of iron materials. They repre-
sent a good cost compromise with weak-
nesses in the high-load and high-tem-
perature ranges.
Figure 5: Disk brake with combination brake cylinder
1 Brake caliper, 2a Inner brake pad, 2b Outer brake pad, 3 Brake disk, 4 Plunger,
5 Bridge, 6 Eccentrically mounted brake lever, 7 Service-brake cylinder, 8 Spring-type actuator.
1 2b 3 2a 4 5
Wheel brakes 1255
Disk brakes for commercial
vehicles
Special disk brakes have been devel-
oped for commercial vehicles. These disk
brakes are actuated with compressed
air. Because the pressure here is much
smaller than that in a hydraulic brake, the
brake cylinders cannot be integrated into
the brake calipers. They must be flanged
into position (Figure 5).
Functioning principle
Operating concept of the service brake
When air enters the service brake cylin-
der, the eccentrically mounted brake le-
ver is actuated. The brake cylinder force
is boosted by the lever ratio and trans-
ferred via the bridge and plungers to the
inner brake pad. The reaction force that
arises at the brake caliper is transferred
by shifting the brake caliper to the outer
brake pad.
Operating concept of the parking brake
When the spring-type brake cylinder is
vented, the force of the pre-tensioning
springs is released. Via the spring-type
brake piston, this moves the piston and
the push rod of the service brake cylin-
der to operate the brake. In the case of
the parking brake, the pressure in the
spring-type brake actuator is completely
6 7 8
SFB0787Y
1256 Chassis systems
eliminated, thus releasing the force of the
pre-tensioning springs to achieve maxi-
mum braking effect.
Automatic self-adjusting mechanism
Disk brakes pneumatically or mechani-
cally actuated by the spring-type actuator
are fitted with automatic clearance com-
pensation.
Wear monitoring
Continuous wear monitoring may also be
provided. This is required in the case of
electronic brake systems for wear adapta-
tion and for service information systems.
Brake disks
Solid brake disks are used less frequently
on commercial vehicles because they can
only dissipate the heat slowly. Internally
ventilated brake disks have a larger sur-
face through which heat exchange can
take place. In this design two friction rings
are connected via bridges. The rotation
of the brake disk creates on the inside
a radial ventilation effect in the outward
direction.
Brake disks for commercial vehicles
are usually manufactured from gray cast
iron. The carbon content increased up to
the saturation limit provides good thermal
conductivity.
Drum brakes
Drum brakes are radial brakes with two
brake shoes. They generate their brak-
ing force on the inner friction surface of
a brake drum.
Drum-brake designs
There are two different designs of drum
brake, based on how the brake shoes are
guided:
– brake shoes with fixed pivot (Figures 6a
and 6b),
– brake shoes as sliding shoes (Figure 7).
Figure 6: Principle of simplex brake
a) Brake shoe with two single pivots,
b) Brake shoe with one double pivot.
1 Direction of rotation of brake drum
with vehicle moving forwards,
2 Self-augmentation, 3 Self-inhibition,
4 Torque,
5 Double-acting wheel-brake cylinder,
6 Leading brake shoe (primary shoe),
7 Trailing brake shoe (secondary shoe),
8 Fulcrum (pivot),
9 Brake drum, 10 Brake lining.
a 1
5
10 10
2 3
6 7
4 4
8 8
9
b 1
10 10
2 3
6 7
4 4
UFB0681-2Y
8
9

At the brake shoe that rotates in the di-
rection of the brake drum (primary shoe,
leading brake shoe, Figure 6), the friction
force during the braking operation creates
a turning force around the brake-shoe
fulcrum which in addition to the applica-
tion force presses the shoe against the
drum. This generates a self-augmenting
effect. In a simplex brake a turning force
is created around the fulcrum of the trail-
ing brake shoe (secondary shoe) which
diminishes the applied application force.
This therefore creates a self-inhibiting
effect.
Sliding-shoe guides are used in sim-
plex, duplex, duo-duplex, servo and duo-
servo brakes. Brake shoes with a fixed
pivot are subject to unequal levels of wear
in that they cannot center themselves like
sliding shoes.
Principle of the simplex brake
A double-acting wheel-brake cylinder ac-
tuates the brake shoes (Figures 6a and
6b). The fulcrums of the brake shoes are
pivots (two single pivots or one double
pivot). When the vehicle is moving for-
wards, self-augmentation affects the lead-
ing brake shoe and self-inhibition affects
the trailing brake shoe; the pattern is the
same when the vehicle is backing up.
Figure 7: Principle of duplex brake
1 Direction of rotation of brake drum with
vehicle moving forwards,
2 Self-augmentation, 3 Torque,
4 Wheel-brake cylinder, 5 Fulcrums,
6 Brake shoes, 7 Brake drum,
8 Brake lining.
1 on the primary lining. This lining is thicker
4 5
3
8 8
2 2
6 6
3 7
UFB0682-2Y
5 4
Wheel brakes 1257
Principle of the duplex brake
Each brake shoe is actuated by a sin-
gle-acting wheel-brake cylinder (Fig-
ure 7). The brake shoes designed as
sliding shoes are supported on the back
of the opposing wheel-brake cylinder. The
duplex brake is single-acting, i.e., it has
two leading self-augmenting brake shoes
when the vehicle is moving forwards.
There is no self-augmentation when the
vehicle is backing up.
Simplex drum brake
Functioning principle of passenger-car
brake
The principle of a drum brake is explained
using a hydraulically operated simplex
drum brake with integrated parking brake
and automatic self-adjusting mecha-
nism as an example (Figure 8). Other
drum brake designs (e.g., duplex brake,
duo-duplex brake) are rarely used today.
When driving extension springs pull the
two brake shoes away from the brake drum
so that a clearance is created between the
drum friction surface and the brake linings.
In the case of simplex brakes, a two-sided
hydraulic wheel-brake cylinder generates
the application force for the brake shoes
during braking by converting the hydraulic
pressure into mechanical force. Here, the
leading and the trailing brake shoes with
the brake pads press against the brake
drums. The other ends of the brake shoes
on the opposite side to the wheel-brake
cylinder are braced by a support bearing
that is attached to the brake anchor plate.
The leading brake shoe (primary shoe)
generates a higher proportion of braking
torque than the trailing brake shoe (sec-
ondary shoe). Wear is therefore greater
or longer in design to compensate.
1258 Chassis systems

Functioning principle of simplex brake During braking the diaphragm brake

with S-cam for commercial vehicles
In commercial vehicles with com-
pressed-air brake systems, the applica-
tion force is frequently generated by a ro-
tatable S-cam. S-cam rotation is effected
by the brake cylinder, the brake lever
(slack adjuster), and the brake-cam shaft
(Figure 9).
Functioning principle of wedge-actuated
brake
Wedge-actuated brakes are also used in
commercial vehicles. Here, the applica-
tion force for the brake shoes is generated
by a wedge actuated by the brake cylinder
(Figure 10).
cylinder is exposed to compressed air.
This displaces the wedge to the right.
The wedge slides between the pressure
rollers. These roll on the wedge and the
thrust members. The generated appli-
cation force is transferred via the thrust
members to the brake shoes. The exces-
sive clearance created by brake-lining
wear is compensated for by the adjusting
mechanism.
Automatic adjusters
Wheel brakes must be fitted with adjust-
ers to compensate for the increased clear-
ance caused by lining wear. The brakes
must be easily adjustable or have an au-

Figure 8: Simplex drum brake with integrated parking brake

1 Wheel-brake cylinder, 2 Brake lining, 3 Extension spring (for brake shoes),
4 Extension spring (for adjuster), 5 Trailing brake shoe,
6 Brake drum, 7 Parking-brake lever, 8 Brake cable,
9 Direction of drum rotation, 10 Thermocouple (adjuster),
11 Adjuster wheel (with elbow lever), 12 Leading brake shoe,
13 Brake anchor plate, 14 Extension spring (for brake shoes),
15 Brake-shoe pin bushing.

9
10
1 11
2 2
3
3
4 4
5
12
13
6

8 14

15
UFB0658-3Y

tomatic adjuster (§ 41 s. 1 StVZO [1], ECE
R13-H [2]).
On simplex drum brakes for passen-
ger cars, the adjuster is part of the push
rod or pressure sleeve situated under
initial spring tension between the brake
shoes. When the permissible clearance
is exceeded, the adjuster automatically
lengthens the push rod or pressure sleeve
(to different extents depending on the ad-
juster design) and thereby adjusts the
clearance between brake shoe and brake
drum. Automatic adjusters mostly operate
in conjunction with a thermocouple on a
temperature-sensitive basis in order to
prevent adjustment when the brake drum
is hot (expanded).
In commercial vehicles with S-cams,
the adjuster is part of the brake lever. For
this purpose it has manual adjustment or
is designed as an automatic linkage ad-
juster.
In wedge-actuated brakes, an automat-
ically acting adjuster is integrated into the
wedge mechanism.
Figure 9: Simplex drum brake with S-cam
1 Diaphragm-type cylinder,
2 S-cam,
3 Brake shoes,
4 Return spring,
5 Brake drum.
1 5 Wedge.
5
UFB0311-1Y
Wheel brakes 1259
Parking brake
A parking brake is integrated in the drum
brake. The brake cable is actuated either
via the handbrake lever inside the vehi-
cle or via an electric motor with spindle.
The handbrake lever is mounted at the
top of the trailing brake shoe. When the
parking brake is operated, the brake cable
pulls the handbrake lever downwards to
the right, causing the handbrake lever to
press the brake shoes via the push rod
against the brake drum.
In a commercial vehicle the drum brake
is actuated as a parking brake by venting
the spring-type brake cylinder.
________________________________
References
[1] §41 Straßenverkehrs-Zulassungsord-
nung (Road traffic licensing regulations,
Germany). Bremsen und Unterlegkeile
(Brakes and wheel chocks). [2] ECE
R13-H: Regulation No. 13-H of the United
Nations Economic Commission for Eu-
rope (UN/ECE) – Uniform provisions con-
cerning the approval of passenger cars
with regard to braking.
[3] B. Breuer, K. Bill (Editors): Bremsen-
handbuch: Grundlagen, Komponenten,
Systeme, Fahrdynamik. 5th Ed., Verlag
Springer Vieweg, 2017.
Figure 10: Wedge-actuated brake
1 Diaphragm brake cylinder,
2 Thrust member,
3 Adjusting mechanism,
4 Pressure rollers,
1 2 3
5 4
UFB0808Y
1260 Chassis control

Wheel-slip control systems

Function and requirements dent on the slip. The adhesion/slip curves
(Figure 2) illustrate this dependence. They
Slip progress identically for braking and pro-
When starting off, accelerating and brak- pulsion/traction.
ing, the efficiency required to transfer Wheel-slip control systems ensure the
forces to the road depends on the traction optimum transmission of forces between
available between the tires and the road tires and road to keep the vehicle direc-
surface. Slip occurs when the speed υR at tionally stable and more easily controlla-
which the wheel center moves in the lon- ble for the driver. For this purpose the lon-
gitudinal direction (vehicle speed) differs gitudinal slip of the individual wheels – i.e.,
from the speed υU at which circumference
rolls.Brake slip λB and drive slip λA are Figure 2: Adhesion/slip curve
calculated as follows: Curve shape for dry road surface, µHF ≈ 0.8.
1 Braking or tractive force,
υ −υ υ −υ
λB = ​ ______
U R ______
υ ​ , λA = ​  υ  ​ .
U R 2 Lateral force.
R U

When a wheel is locked, according to this Stable Unstable

Braking and tractive force,

definition brake slip λB = −1; when the

vehicle is stationary with spinning wheels max. 1
drive slip λA = 1 (see Slip, Fundamentals
of automotive engineering).
lateral force

Adhesion/slip curves 2
The tire must roll with slip so that it can
transmit force to the road. A tire without Free-rolling
slip would not deform on the wheel con- Locked

UFB0286-2E
min.
tact area and therefore could not trans- 0 20 40 60 80 %
mit either a longitudinal force or a lateral Slip λ
force. The transmittable forces are depen-

Figure 1: System diagram of a brake system with ABS

1 Wheel brakes,
2 Wheel-speed sensors,
3 Engine control unit,
4 Throttle valve,
5 Brake booster with
brake master cylinder,
6 Hydraulic unit with
add-on ECU.

5
2

6
UFA0072Y

1

the wheel speed referred to the velocity of
the wheel center in the longitudinal direc-
tion – is regulated by modulating the brak-
ing or drive torque. There is a fundamental
distinction between the antilock braking
function (ABS, antilock braking system)
and the traction control system (TCS).
The vast majority of acceleration and
braking operations involve only limited
amounts of slip, allowing response to re-
main within the stable range in the adhe-
sion/slip curves. Any rise in slip (brake slip
when braking and drive slip when accel-
erating) is accompanied initially by a cor-
responding increase in adhesion. Beyond
this point, any further increases in slip
take the curves through the maxima and
into the unstable range (Figure 2) where
any further increase in slip generally re-
sults in a reduction in adhesion. When
braking, this results in wheel lock within a
few tenths of a second. When accelerat-
ing, one or both of the driven wheels start
to spin more and more as the drive torque
exceeds the adhesion by an ever increas-
ing amount.
Effect of ABS and TCS
As brake slip increases the ABS function
becomes active and prevents the wheels
from locking; as drive slip increases
TCS prevents the wheels from spinning.
Thanks to ABS the vehicle retains its di-
rectional stability and steerability even un-
der emergency braking on a slippery road
surface. The dangerous phenomenon of
jackknifing is also prevented in commer-
cial-vehicle combinations. The TCS func-
tion optimizes the transmission of forces
of the drive wheels when accelerating
and thereby improves both traction and
stability.
Figure 1 shows an ABS system with
its components for a passenger car with
a hydraulic brake system. In contrast to
passenger cars, commercial vehicles
have pneumatic power-brake systems
(air brakes). Nevertheless, the functional
description of an ABS or TCS control pro-
cess for passenger cars also applies in
principle to commercial vehicles.
The functions of ABS and TCS have
in the meantime been integrated into the
driving-dynamics control.
Wheel-slip control systems 1261
Control systems
ABS control
Basic closed-loop control process
The wheel-speed sensor senses the state
of motion of the wheel (Figure 3). If one
of the wheels shows signs of incipient
lock, there is a sharp rise in peripheral
wheel deceleration and in wheel slip. If
these exceed defined critical levels, the
ABS controller sends commands to the
solenoid-valve unit (hydraulic unit) to
stop increasing or to reduce wheel brake
pressure until the danger of wheel lock
is averted. The braking pressure must
then rise again to ensure that the wheel
is not underbraked. During automatic
brake control, the stability or instability
of wheel motion must be detected con-
stantly, and kept within the slip range at
maximum braking force by a sequence
of pressure-rise, pressure-retention and
pressure-drop phases.
Typical control cycle
The control cycle depicted in Figure 4
shows automatic brake control in the case
of a high friction coefficient. The change
in wheel speed (braking deceleration)
is calculated in the ECU. After the value
Figure 3: ABS control loop
of a passenger-car system
1 Brake pedal, 2 Brake booster,
3 Brake master cylinder with fluid reservoir,
4 Wheel-brake cylinder,
5 Wheel-speed sensor,
6 Indicator lamp.
ABS ECU
Calculate (actual slip)
Controlled variable
6
Regulate (required slip) Monitor
Hydraulic modulator Act on braking
with solenoid valves
5 pressure
4 Manipulated Build up braking
Controlled system
variable pressure
3 Pedal
Disturbance values
force
(e.g. road condition) 2 1
UFB0689-1E
1262 Chassis control
falls below the (–a) threshold, the hy-
draulic-unit valve unit is switched to pres-
sure-holding mode. If the wheel speed
then also drops below the slip-switching
threshold λ1, the valve unit is switched
to pressure drop; this continues as long
as the (–a) signal is applied. During the
following pressure-holding phase, periph-
eral wheel acceleration increases until the
(+a) threshold is exceeded; the braking
pressure is then kept at a constant level.
After the relatively high (+A) threshold
has been exceeded, the braking pressure
is increased, so that the wheel is not ac-
celerating excessively as it enters the sta-
ble range of the adhesion/slip curve. After
the (+a) signal has dropped off, the brak-
ing pressure is slowly raised until, when
the wheel acceleration again falls below
the (–a) threshold, the second control cy-
cle is initiated, this time with an immediate
pressure drop.
In the first control cycle, a short pres-
sure-holding phase was initially neces-
sary to filter out any faults. In the case
Figure 4: ABS control cycle
for high friction coefficients
υRef Reference speed,
υU Wheel circumferential speed,
υF Vehicle speed,
a,A Wheel-deceleration thresholds.
Slip-switching threshold λ1
υRef
υR
Speed υ
Peripheral wheel
+A
acceleration
+a
0
−a
Brake pressure p
in wheel-brake
cylinder
Time t
of high wheel moments of inertia, low
friction coefficient and slow pressure rise
in the wheel-brake cylinder (cautious ini-
tial braking, e.g., on black ice), the wheel
might lock without any response from the
deceleration switching threshold. In this
case, therefore, the wheel slip is also in-
cluded as a parameter in the brake-con-
trol system.
Under certain road-surface conditions,
passenger cars with all-wheel drive and
with differential locks engaged pose prob-
lems when the ABS system is in opera-
tion; this calls for special measures to take
into account the reference speed during
the control process, lower the wheel-de-
celeration thresholds, and reduce the en-
gine-drag torque.
Control cycle with yaw-moment
build-up delay
When the brakes are applied on a road
surface with uneven grip (µ split: left-hand
wheels on dry asphalt, right-hand wheels
on ice), vastly different braking forces at
the front wheels result and induce a turn-
ing force (yaw moment) about the vehi-
cle’s vertical axis (Figure 5).
On smaller cars, ABS must be sup-
plemented by an additional yaw-moment
build-up delay device to ensure that con-
trol is maintained during panic braking on
asymmetrical road surfaces. Yaw-moment
build-up delay holds back the pressure
υF rise in the wheel-brake cylinder on the
Figure 5: Yaw-moment build-up induced
by large differences in friction coefficients
Myaw Yaw moment, FB Braking force,
µHF Coefficient of friction.
1 “High wheel”, 2 “Low wheel”.
µHF2 = 0.1
2
FB2
Myaw
FB1
UFB0289-1E
UFB0290-2E
1
µHF1 = 0.8
 Wheel-slip control systems 1263

front wheel with the higher coefficient of
friction at the road surface (“high wheel”).
The yaw-moment build-up delay con-
cept is demonstrated in Figure 6: Curve 1
represents the brake-master-cylinder pres-
sure pMC. Without yaw-moment build-up
delay, the braking pressure at the wheel
running on asphalt quickly reaches phigh
(Curve 2), while the braking pressure at
the wheel running on ice rises only to plow
(Curve 5); each wheel brakes with the
maximum transferable braking force (see
Individual control).
The yaw-moment build-up delay 1
system (Curve 3) is designed for use on
vehicles with less critical handling char-
acteristics, while yaw-moment build-up
delay 2 is designed for cars which display
an especially marked tendency toward
yaw-induced instability (Curve 4). In all
cases in which yaw-moment build-up de-
lay comes into effect, the high wheel is
under-braked at first. This means that the
yaw-moment build-up delay must always
be very carefully adapted to the vehicle
in question in order to limit increases in
stopping distances.
Figure 6: Curves for braking-pressure/
steering-angle characteristic with
yaw-moment build-up delay
1 Brake-master-cylinder pressure pMC,
2 Brake pressure phigh w/o YMBD,
3 Brake pressure phigh w/ YMBD 1,
4 Brake pressure phigh w/ YMBD 2,
5 Brake pressure plow at “low wheel”,
6 Req. steering angle α w/o YMBD,
7 Req. steering angle α w/ YMBD.
Brake pressure p
Curve 6 in Figure 6 shows that for an ABS
system without yaw-moment build-up de-
lay a significantly higher steering angle is
required when countersteering.
ABS control methods
The axle-based ABS control methods differ
essentially in the number of control channels
and the behavior when braking at µ split.
Individual control
Individual control, whereby each wheel
is individually slip-controlled, produces
the shortest braking distances. The
drawback, however, is the yaw moment
occurring under µ-split conditions, which
must be compensated for by appropriate
countersteering. This method is used ex-
clusively on the rear axle since the steer-
ing and yaw moments occurring at the
front axle would not be controllable for the
driver when braking at µ split.
Select-low control
Select-low control (SL) is used to avoid
yaw and steering moments entirely. Here,
single-channel wheel-slip control is ef-
fected at the wheel with the lowest fric-
tion coefficient (select low), as a result of
which both wheels on one axle receive the
same brake pressure. Therefore only one
single pressure-control channel per axle
is required. Under µ-split conditions this
produces optimum steerability and direc-
tional stability at the expense of braking
distance. In the case of homogenous fric-
tion coefficients, braking distance, steer-
ability, and directional stability are similar
to those of the other methods.

1 Individual control, modified

“Individual control, modified” (IRM) has
2 proven to be a good compromise between
3 steerability, stability, and braking distance.
4 This two-channel control method neces-
5 sitates a pressure-control channel at
each wheel on the axle. By appropriately
Steering angle α

limiting the brake-pressure difference

between the right and left sides, the yaw
6 and steering moments are restricted to a
controllable extent. This results in a brak-
7 ing distance which is only a little longer
UFB0291-1E

than that for individual control, but it does

Time t ensure that vehicles with critical handling
characteristics remain controllable.
1264 Chassis control

TCS control to high engine-drag torques (e.g., when

The traction control system has two fun-
damental tasks:
– optimizing traction by utilizing the avail-
able friction coefficient in the best pos-
sible way,
– ensuring vehicle stability (directional
stability) by preventing the drive wheels
from spinning.
To optimize traction all the driven wheels
must utilize their individual friction coeffi-
cients to the maximum to the best possi-
ble extent. To this end, the wheel speeds
are synchronized by active braking of
the spinning wheels (brake controller or
electronic differential-lock function). In this
way, the braking torque exerted on the
spinning wheel is available through trans-
mission by the differential to the non-spin-
ning wheel as drive torque.
To ensure directional stability, the wheel
slip is controlled with the aid of the drive
torque by the engine controller in such
a way as to achieve the best possible
compromise between traction and lateral
stability.
Using the brake-control function de-
scribed above, the driving wheels can
also be synchronized so that a mechan-
ical differential lock, if fitted, can be acti-
vated automatically, e.g., with the aid of a
pneumatic cylinder. The ABS/TCS ECU
calculates the correct point and conditions
for releasing the differential lock.
In contrast to mechanical differential
locks, the tires do not scrub on tight cor-
ners. A fundamental observation about
this type of system (when it assumes an
electronic brake-control function) is that it
is not intended for continuous use on dif-
ficult offroad terrain. Since the brake-con-
trol function is achieved by braking the rel-
evant wheel, brake heating is an inevitable
consequence.
For multi-axle vehicles with complex
drive configurations and a number of
differentials (e.g., 6 × 4 or 8 × 6 with three
or five differentials) the TCS function can
control up to six wheels individually.
downshifting), which results in unstable
handling. In this case, engine drag-torque
control increases the wheel speeds by
increasing the drive torque and thereby
prevents the impending instability. The
actively exerted drive torque is limited for
safety reasons.
Electronic load-dependent brak-
ing-force regulation
Load differences and the dynamic ax-
le-load shift that occurs during sharp brak-
ing call for an adaptation of the braking
forces. This was originally performed by
ALB valves (automatic load-dependent
braking-force regulator), which reduce the
brake pressure usually on the rear axle
depending on the axle load. In current
ABS systems this function is assumed by
electronic load-dependent braking-force
regulation. Here, under minimal decel-
eration conditions, the differential slip
between the front and rear axles is mini-
mized, whereby the brake pressure on the
rear axle is electronically reduced. This
results, assuming the same friction con-
ditions on both axles, in identical braking
and consequently optimum braking under
driving-dynamics considerations. This
function dispenses with the need for the
additional ALB valve.

Engine drag-torque control

Particularly at low load with a low friction
coefficient or very powerful engines the
wheels on the powered axle can lock due

ABS/TCS systems
for passenger cars
The requirements imposed on an ABS
system are described in the regulations
ECE-R13 [1]. This regulation defines ABS
as a component of a service-brake system
(Figure 1) which automatically controls
wheel slip in the direction of wheel rota-
tion on one or more wheels when braked.
ECE-R13 Annex 13 defines three cat-
egories. The present generation of ABS
meets the highest level of requirements
(Category 1).
Components
An ABS or ABS/TCS system consists of
the following components: wheel-speed
sensors, electronic control unit (ECU),
and hydraulic unit (for passenger cars) or
pressure-control valves (for commercial
vehicles).
Wheel-speed sensors
The most important input variables for
controlling wheel slip are the wheel
speeds, which are recorded by wheel-
speed sensors. These sensors scan a
rotating sensor ring and generate an elec-
trical signal with a frequency proportional
to the rotational speed (see rpm sensors).
Figure 7: Hydraulic system of an antilock braking system.
1 Brake master cylinder, 2 Wheel-brake cylinder, 3 Hydraulic unit, 4 Inlet valve,
5 Outlet valve, 6 Return pump, 7 Accumulator, 8 Pump motor.
R Right, L Left,
F Front, R Rear,
1
6 8
M
5
2 LR RF
Wheel-slip control systems 1265
There are basically two different types of
rpm sensor: active and passive. The ac-
tive rpm sensors used predominantly in
passenger cars operate according to the
Hall principle and can record, aside from
the road-speed signal, further information
such as the temperature and transmit it
to the ECU.
Hydraulic unit of an ABS system
The main hydraulic components of the
hydraulic unit – also called the hydraulic
modulator – are the following (Figure 7):
– one return pump per brake circuit,
– accumulator chamber,
– damping functions, previously per-
formed by an accumulator chamber
and a flow restrictor, are now per-
formed both hydraulically and by con-
trol systems, i.e., software,
– 2/2-way solenoid valves with two
hydraulic positions and two hydraulic
connections.
There is one pair of solenoid valves
for each wheel (except in the case of
3-channel configurations with front/rear
brake-circuit split, see ABS system vari-
ants) – one of which is open when de-en-
ergized for pressure rise (inlet valve, IV)
and one which is closed when de-en-
UFB0749E
LF RR
1266 Chassis control
ergized for pressure drop (outlet valve,
OV). In order to achieve rapid pressure
relief of the wheel brakes when the pedal
is released, the inlet valves each have a
non-return valve which is integrated into
the valve body (e.g., non-return valve
sleeves or unsprung non-return valves).
The assignment of pressure-rise and
pressure-drop functions to separate so-
lenoid valves with only one active (ener-
gized) setting has resulted in compact
valve designs, i.e., smaller size and
weight, as well as lower magnetic forces
compared to the previous 3/3-way sole-
noid valves. This allows optimized electri-
cal control with low electrical power loss in
the solenoid coils and the control unit. In
addition, the valve block (Figure 8) can be
made smaller. This results in quite signifi-
cant savings in weight and size.
The 2/2-way solenoid valves are avail-
able in a variety of designs and specifi-
cations, and, because of their compact
dimensions and excellent dynamics, they
allow fast electrical switching times suf-
ficient for pulse-width-modulated cyclic
operation. In other words, they have “pro-
portional-valve characteristics”.
ABS 8 from Bosch (Figure 8) bene-
fits from current-signal-modulated valve
control which substantially improves
function (e.g., adaptation to changes in
coefficient of friction) and ease of control
(e.g., smaller deceleration fluctuations
with the aid of pressure stages and an-
alog pressure control). This mechatronic
optimization has positive effects not only
on function but also on user-friendliness,
i.e., noise and pedal feedback.
Figure 8: Design of ABS 8 hydraulic unit from Bosch
1 ECU,
2 Coil group,
3 Hydraulic unit,
4 Pump motor.
4 3
ABS 8 is capable of specific adaptation to
individual vehicle-class requirements by
varying the components (e.g., using mo-
tors of different power ratings, varying ac-
cumulator chamber size, etc.). The power
of the return motor can vary within a range
of approx. 90 to 200 watts. The accumula-
tor-chamber size is also variable.
Hydraulic unit of an ABS/TCS system
On passenger cars with hydraulic brake
systems, an expanded ABS hydraulic unit
is required for TCS brake intervention.
Depending on the variant, the expan-
sion can comprise an intake valve and a
changeover valve (Figure 9). An additional
hydraulic presupply pump and a pressure
accumulator may be required. During a
necessary brake intervention, the intake
and changeover valves assigned to the
spinning wheel and the ABS return pump
are electrically actuated. The return pump
can draw brake fluid from the brake mas-
ter cylinder through the intake valve. The
changeover valve blocks the return flow to
the brake master cylinder. The pressure
generated by the return pump passes
through the inlet valve to the wheel-brake
cylinder of the spinning wheel, as a result
of which the wheel is braked and pre-
vented from spinning. Braking pressure
is built up, as dictated by the situation and
adapted by continuous monitoring of the
control process, by alternating and elec-
trically clocked actuation of the inlet and
outlet valves in the hydraulic unit.
On completion of the control phase,
electrical actuation is terminated and the
braking pressure applied for TCS control,
UFB0756-1Y
2 1

as following a normal braking operation,
is reduced via the intake and changeover
valves and the brake master cylinder.
Electronic control unit (ECU)
The ECU processes the signals supplied
by the wheel-speed sensors. After these
signals have been conditioned and filtered,
a vehicle reference speed is calculated
and this forms the basis for the wheel-slip
calculation. To form the reference speed
the individual rotational-speed signals
are, depending on the respective driving
situation and other criteria, corrected if
necessary with different weighting.
The associated solenoid valves are ac-
tivated depending on the individual wheel-
slip values and the target values.
Because of the safety relevance of the
slip-control functions, the ECUs contain
comprehensive safety and diagnostic
functions to monitor the complete system
on a permanent basis. Detected faults
lead to partial or full shutdown of the sys-
tem and are stored in a fault memory. This
can be interrogated in the garage-work-
shop with a diagnosis tester and deleted
after the faults have been cleared.
Figure 9: Schematic diagram of an ABS/TCS hydraulic circuit for passenger cars
with X brake-circuit configuration
1 Brake master cylinder, 2 Wheel-brake cylinder, 3 Hydraulic unit, 4 Intake valve,
5 Changeover valve, 6 Inlet valve, 7 Outlet valve, 8 Accumulator,
9 Return pump, 10 Pump motor.
R Right, L Left,
F Front, R Rear. 1
4 5
10
9
M
6
8
7
2 LR RF
Wheel-slip control systems 1267
ABS system variants
A variety of versions are available de-
pending on the brake-circuit configura-
tion, the vehicle’s drivetrain configuration,
functional requirements and cost consid-
erations. The most common brake-cir-
cuit configuration is the diagonal split (X
brake-circuit configuration), followed by
the front-rear split (II brake-circuit config-
uration) (see Brake-circuit configuration).
The HI and HH brake-circuit configura-
tions (e.g., in the DaimlerChrysler May-
bach) are specialized applications and
are rarely used in combination with ABS.
The ABS system variants are distin-
guished according to the number of con-
trol channels and wheel-speed sensors.
4-channel system with four sensors
These systems (Figure 10) allow individ-
ual control of the wheel brake pressure
at each wheel by the four hydraulic chan-
nels, with the brake circuits split front/rear
(for type-II brake-circuit configuration) or
diagonally (for type-X brake-circuit con-
figuration). Each wheel has its own wheel-
speed sensor to monitor wheel speed.
UFB0752E
LF RR
1268 Chassis control
3-channel system with three sensors
Instead of the familiar arrangement with
a separate speed sensor on each wheel,
the rear wheels with this variant share a
single sensor which is fitted in the differ-
ential. Due to the characteristics of the
differential, it allows the measurement
of wheel-speed differences with certain
restrictions. Due to the select-low control
characteristic for the rear wheels, i.e.,
parallel connection of the two rear-wheel
brakes, a single hydraulic channel is suffi-
cient for (parallel) control of the rear brak-
ing pressures.
Hydraulic 3-channel systems require
a type-II brake-circuit configuration (front
and rear split).
3-sensor systems can only be used on
vehicles with rear-wheel drive, i.e., pri-
marily small commercial vehicles and light
trucks. The number of vehicles fitted with
such systems is generally dropping off.
2-channel system with one or two sensors
Two-channel systems were produced be-
cause of the smaller number of compo-
nents required and the resulting potential
for cost savings. Their popularity was lim-
ited as their functionality does not match
that of “full-fledged” systems. These sys-
tems are now hardly ever used in cars.
Figure 10: ABS system variants
Control channel, Sensor, Sensor (alternative to differential sensor).
4-channel
4 sensors
front–rear diagonal
Variant 1 Variant 2
TCS engine-control intervention
in passenger cars
On passenger cars with diesel engines,
engine-control intervention is performed,
depending on the variant, by means of
electronic diesel control or the ETC (elec-
tronic throttle control) system (by reduced
delivery).
On passenger cars with gasoline en-
gines, torque reduction is usually per-
formed by means of a combination of sev-
eral functions. In this way, it is possible to
reduce the engine torque according to the
requirements by specifically suppressing
injection pulses, retarding the ignition tim-
ing or closing the throttle device (ETC).
The engine-management systems re-
ceive the TCS request via signal or CAN
data lines from the TCS control system.
Use of ABS on motorcycles
It has been possible to reduce the size and
weight of car ABS systems substantially in
recent years. As a result, volume-produc-
tion ABS systems are now a very attrac-
tive option for motorcycles. Consequently,
this class of vehicle will also be able to
benefit from the advantages of ABS as a
safety system.
The car system is modified for use on
motorcycles. Instead of the usual eight
2/2-way valves in the hydraulic unit for cars
(with X-configuration brake circuits), mo-
torcycles normally only require four valves.
The control algorithm also differs funda-
mentally from that of a car ABS system.
3-channel 2-channel
3 sensors 3 sensors
front–rear front–rear
Variant 3 Variant 4
UFB0288-2E
 Wheel-slip control systems 1269

Other system variants have arisen from ABS/TCS systems for

the demand for combined brake systems
(CBS), i.e., systems in which both the front
and rear brakes can be operated either
by a foot pedal or a hand-operated lever,
possibly in combination with a separate
means of actuating the front brakes. This
type of special case requires a 3-channel
hydraulic unit. However, the CBS variant is
very model-specific in design.
commercial vehicles
In an ABS or ABS/TCS system for com-
mercial vehicles, depending on the vehicle
configuration and the number of axles, four
or six wheel-speed sensors, up to three to
six pressure-control valves, and – in the
case of a TCS system – one TCS valve
are used (Figure 11 and Figure 12).
During a learning operation on initial
commissioning, the control unit adjusts to
the corresponding vehicle depending on
the connected components. This involves
detecting the number of axles, the ABS
control method, and any additional func-
tions that may be required, such as TCS.
If one axle is a lifting axle, it is auto-
matically excluded from the ABS control
process when lifted. When two axles are
close together, often only one of them
is fitted with wheel-speed sensors. The
brake pressure of two wheels arranged

Figure 11: Examples of ABS systems for commercial vehicles

a) Single-axle systems
A
(semitrailers), 
b) Two-axle (four-wheel systems),   
c) Triple-axle systems
(articulated bus). 

1 Wheel-speed sensor,
2 ECU, 
3 Pressure-control valve,
4 Service-brake valve,   
5 Brake cylinder, 
6 Sensor ring.
B 
     
 

 
     


C
UFB0334-2Y, UFB0333-2Y, UFB0332-1Y

  
   
    



    
    
 
1270 Chassis control
one after the other is then controlled
jointly by a single pressure-control valve.
In multi-axle vehicles where the axles are
further apart, such as articulated buses
for example, three-axle control is used out
of preference.
In light commercial vehicles with pneu-
matic-hydraulic converters, ABS inter-
venes in the pneumatic brake circuit via
pressure-control valves and defines the
hydraulic braking pressure.
When the vehicle is running on a
low-friction-coefficient road surface, the
operation of an additional retarding brake
(exhaust brake or retarder) can lead to
excessive slip at the driven wheels. This
would impair vehicle stability. ABS there-
fore also monitors brake slip here and
controls it to permissible levels by switch-
ing the retarder on and off.
In addition, there is an ABS system
independent of the tractor vehicle in the
trailer, which in turn consists of two or four
wheel-speed sensors and an mechatronic
pressure-control module with integrated
electronics.
Figure 12: Traction control system for commercial vehicles
1 Wheel-speed sensor with sensor ring, 2 Brake cylinder, 3 ABS pressure-control valve,
4 ABS warning lamp, 5 TCS lamp, 6 TCS switch, 7 Service-brake valve, 8 ABS/TCS ECU,
9 TCS valve, 10 Shuttle valve, 11 Spring-type brake cylinder, 12 Compressed-air reservoir, circuit 1,
13 Compressed-air reservoir, circuit 2.
7
1 2
3
4 8
5 10
6
3
1 2
12
Components
Wheel-speed sensors
Virtually exclusively passive speed sen-
sors in accordance with the inductive
measuring principle have hitherto been
used in the commercial-vehicle sector.
Owing to the principles involved, these
sensors can only sense speeds greater
than 0 km/h, which means that – unlike
active sensors, which can also detect a
stationary sensor wheel – stationary de-
tection is not possible.
Pressure-control valve
The pressure-control valves are located
between the service-brake valve and the
brake cylinders, and control the brake
pressure of one or more wheels (Fig-
ure 13). As pilot-controlled valves, they
consist of a combination of two solenoid
valves and in each case a downstream
pneumatic diaphragm valve, which are
designed as outlet and holding valves
(single-channel pressure-control valve).
The electronics control the solenoid
valves in the appropriate combination so
that the required function is performed
(“pressure holding” and “pressure drop”).
If no pilot-valve actuation takes place,
“pressure rise” is the result.
1 11
3
9
3
1 11
UFA0031-1Y
13
 Wheel-slip control systems 1271

When braking normally (i.e., without ABS TCS engine-control intervention

response = no incipient wheel locking), air in commercial vehicles
flows through the pressure-control valves Engine-control intervention is performed
unhindered in both directions when pres- – similarly to passenger cars with diesel
sure is applied to or vented from the brake engines – via electronic diesel control
cylinders. This ensures fault-free function- (e.g., by reduced delivery). The en-
ing of the service-brake system. gine-management system receives the
corresponding signal via a CAN data bus
TCS valve from the ABS/TCS ECU.
Usually a directly controlled TCS sole-
noid valve designed as a 2/2-way direc- ________________________________
tional-control valve in combination with References
a pneumatic shuttle valve is provided [1] ECE-R13: Uniform provisions con-
for the driver-independent pressure rise cerning the approval of category M, N and
for the TCS brake controller (Figure 12). O vehicles with regard to brakes.
In the event of a brake intervention the
supply pressure is applied via the electri-
cally actuated TCS solenoid valve and the
shuttle valve to the ABS pressure-control
valves, whereby the shuttle valve blocks
the connection to the service-brake valve
according to select-high. At the same
time, on the non-active side, the holding
magnet of the ABS pressure-control valve
is actuated to prevent the pressure rise in
the associated wheel-brake cylinder. The
brake pressure can now be controlled ac-
cording to the desired wheel speed with
the ABS pressure-control valve on the
active side.

Figure 13: Pressure-control valve

1 Connection for energy input, 2 Connection for energy output, 3 Venting, 4 Diaphragm,
5 Inlet, 6 Valve seat, 7 Solenoid valve for pressure-holding valve, 8 Valve seat, 9 Valve seat,
10 Diaphragm, 11 Outlet, 12 Solenoid valve for outlet valve, 13 Valve seat,
14 Service-brake valve, 15 ABS/TCS ECU, 16 Pressure-control valve, 17 Wheel brake.

14
1

4 2 16

5 9
6 10
11 17
7
12
15 13
8
UFA0032-1Y

3
1272 Chassis control
Driving-dynamics control system
Function
Human error is the cause of a large por-
tion of road accidents. Even under normal
driving conditions, a driver and his vehicle
can reach their physical operating limits
on account of, for example, an unex-
pected bend in the road, a suddenly ap-
pearing obstacle or an unanticipated
change in the condition of the road sur-
face. Increased speed can also result in
the driver not being able to control his ve-
hicle safely, since the lateral-acceleration
forces acting on the vehicle in such a situ-
ation reach levels which make excessive
demands on him.
If the tires’ coefficients of friction are
exceeded, the vehicle will suddenly be-
have differently from what the driver with
his driving experience expects. In such
situations of operating limits, the driver is
often no longer able to stabilize the vehi-
cle himself; as a rule, he will intensify the
instability through reactions arising from
fear and panic. As a result, a significant
discrepancy is built up between the longi-
tudinal motion of the vehicle and the lon-
gitudinal axis of the vehicle (float angle β).
Even by steering in the opposite direction,
a normal driver will barely be able to resta-
Figure 1: Transverse dynamics for a passenger car
with driving-dynamics control
1 Driver steers, lateral-force buildup,
2 Impending instability, ESC intervention, front right,
3 Car remains under control,
4 Renewed incipient instability due to excessive
countersteering by the driver, ESC intervention at front left,
complete stabilization.
MG Yaw moment, FR Wheel forces in transverse direction,
β Float angle (deviation in direction of travel
from the vehicle longitudinal axis),
Brake intervention by ESC.
1 β
MG β
FR
bilize his vehicle on his own at float angles
in excess of 8°.
Driving-dynamics control is known by
different names – the Electronic Sta-
bility Program (ESP®, brand name of
Daimler AG) or the neutral designation
Electronic Stability Control (ESC). The
system makes a substantial contribu-
tion to neutralizing such limit situations
by helping the driver to keep his/her ve-
hicle under control within the framework
of the physical limits. Sensors constantly
record the behavior of both the driver
and the vehicle. By comparing the actual
state with a target state appropriate for
the relevant s­ ituation, the system, in the
event of significant discrepancies, makes
interventions in the braking system and in
the drivetrain to stabilize the motion of the
vehicle (Figure 1).
The integrated functionality of the anti-
lock braking system (ABS) prevents the
wheels from locking when the brakes are
applied, while the similarly integrated
traction control system (TCS) inhibits ex-
cessive wheel spin during acceleration.
ESC as an overall system, however, em-
braces capabilities extending far beyond
those of either ABS or ABS and TCS com-
bined. The system ensures that the vehi-
β
4
3 β
2
UAF0021-3Y
 Driving-dynamics control system 1273

cle does not swerve outwards with its rear Requirements

end (oversteering) or does not push ex-
cessively outwards with its front end (un- Driving-dynamics control contributes to
dersteering), but instead follows the driv- increasing driving safety. It improves ve-
er’s steering input as far as is physically hicle behavior up to the physical operat-
possible. ing limits. The vehicle’s reaction remains
ESC is based on ABS and TCS com- foreseeable to the driver and can thus be
ponents. In this way, the individual wheels better controlled even in critical driving
can be actively braked with high dynamic situations.
response. The engine torque and thus the At the vehicle’s physical driving limits,
traction-slip values at the wheels can be vehicle and directional stability are en-
influenced by means of the engine-man- hanced in all operating states, such as full
agement system. The systems communi- braking, partial braking, coasting, acceler-
cate via, for example, the CAN bus. ating, overrunning and load changes, and
also for example in the case of extreme
steering maneuvers (fear and panic reac-
tions). The risk of skidding is drastically
reduced.
Table 1: Terms and quantities In a variety of different situations, fur-
ay Measured vehicle lateral acceleration ther improvements are obtained in the
Fx Tire force in longitudinal direction exploitation of traction potential when
Fy Tire force in lateral direction ABS and TCS come into action, and when
(lateral force) engine drag-torque control is active (auto-
FN Tire force in normal direction matic increase in engine speed to inhibit
(normal force) excessive engine braking torque). This
L Distance between front and rear axles leads to shorter braking distances and
MBrNom Nominal braking torque greater traction with enhanced stability
MDifNom Nominal differential torque
MEngNom
and higher levels of steering response.
Nominal engine torque
MMWhlNom Nominal sum torque
Incorrect system interventions could
�MRedNom Setpoint change of engine-torque have an impact on safety. A comprehen-
reduction sive safety concept ensures that all faults
�MZ Stabilizing yaw moment that are not essentially avoidable are de-
pWhl Wheel-cylinder pressure tected in time and the ESC system is shut
pAdm Admission pressure down fully or partially depending on the
r Radius of bend type of fault.
υch Characteristic vehicle speed Numerous studies (e. g. [1] and [2])
υDif Wheel-speed differential of drive have demonstrated that ESC drastically
wheels (on one axle) reduces the number of accidents caused
υDifNom Nominal wheel-speed differential of by skidding and the number of associated
drive wheels (on one axle)
υMWhl
fatalities. The upshot of this is that ESC
Mean wheel speed of driven axle
υMWhlNom Setpoint value of mean wheel speed
will become mandatory in vehicles in
υWhl Measured wheel speed North America by September 2011. In the
υx Vehicle linear velocity European Union (EU), all new passenger
υy Vehicle lateral velocity cars and light commercial vehicles have
α Tire slip angle had to be fitted with a driving-dynamics
β Float angle control system since November 2011 (in-
δ Steering-wheel angle tegral part of ECE-R 13-H [12]). Other
λ Tire slip new cars were subject to a transition pe-
λiNom Setpoint value of tire slip at wheel i riod which must be complied with by the
�λDifTolNom Setpoint change of permissible slip end of 2014. Other regions such as Japan
differential of driven axle(s) and Australia for example will also be in-
�λNom Setpoint slip change
µ
troducing or have already introduced such
Coefficient of friction
ψ̇ Yaw velocity
a control system.
ψ̇Nom Nominal yaw velocity
1274 Chassis control
Operating principle
Driving-dynamics control (ESC) is a sys-
tem which uses a vehicle’s brake system
and drivetrain to deliberately influence the
vehicle’s longitudinal and lateral motion in
critical situations. When the stability-con-
trol function assumes operation, it shifts
the priorities that govern the brake sys-
tem. The basic function of the wheel
brakes – to decelerate and/or stop the
vehicle – assumes secondary importance
as ESC intervenes to keep the vehicle
stable and on course. ESC can also ac-
celerate the drive wheels by means of
engine interventions to contribute to the
vehicle’s stability.
Both mechanisms act on the vehicle’s
intrinsic motion. During steady-state cir-
cular-course driving, there is a defined
connection between the driver’s steering
input and the resulting vehicle lateral ac-
celeration and thus the tire forces in the
lateral direction (self-steering effect). The
forces acting on a tire in the longitudinal
and lateral directions are dependent on
the tire slip. It follows from this that the
vehicle’s intrinsic motion can be influ-
enced by the tire slip. The specific braking
of individual wheels, e. g. of the rear wheel
on the inside of the bend in the case of
understeering or of the front wheel on the
outside of the bend in the case of over-
steering, helps the vehicle to remain on
the course determined by the steering
angle as precisely as possible.
Figure 2: Vehicle tracking during right-left cornering sequence
a) Vehicle without ESC,
b) Vehicle with ESC.
Brake intervention by ESC.
Phase 1: Driver steers, lateral-force buildup.
Phase 2: Incipient instability.
Phase 3: Countersteering:
vehicle without ESC loses control;
vehicle with ESC remains
under control.
Phase 4: Vehicle without ESC
is no longer under control;
Vehicle with ESC
fully stabilized by
ESC intervention
at front right.
Phase 1
Typical driving maneuver
To compare how a vehicle handles at its
operating limits with and without ESC, the
following example is given. The driving
maneuver reflects actual operating condi-
tions, and is based on simulation pro-
grams designed using data from vehicle
testing. The results have been confirmed
in subsequent road tests.
Rapid steering and countersteering
Figure 2 demonstrates the handling re-
sponse of a vehicle without ESC and of a
vehicle with ESC negotiating a series of
S-bends with rapid steering and counter-
steering inputs on a high-grip road surface
(coefficient of friction µ = 1), without the
driver braking and at an initial speed of
144 km/h. Figure 3 shows the curves for
dynamic-response parameters. Initially,
as they approach the S-bend, the condi-
tions for both vehicles, and their reactions,
are identical. Then come the first steering
inputs from the drivers (phase 1).
Vehicle without ESC
As can be seen, in the period following the
initial, abrupt steering input the vehicle
without ESC is already threatening to be-
come unstable (Figure 2a, Phase 2).
Whereas the steering input has quickly
generated substantial lateral forces at the
front wheels, there is a delay before the
rear wheels start to generate similar
forces. The vehicle reacts with a clockwise
a b
Phase 4
Phase 4
Phase 3
Phase 3
Phase 2
Phase 2
UAF0060-3E
Phase 1
 Driving-dynamics control system 1275

movement around its vertical axis (inward Structure of the

yaw). The vehicle barely responds to the overall system
driver’s attempt to countersteer (second
steering input, Phase 3), because it is no Objective of driving-dynamics control
longer under control. The yaw velocity and The control of the handling characteristics
the side-slip angle rise radically, and the at the vehicle’s physical driving limits is in-
vehicle breaks into a skid (phase 4). tended to keep the vehicle’s three degrees
of freedom in the plane of the road – linear
Vehicle with ESC velocity υx, lateral velocity υy and yaw ve-
The vehicle with ESC is stabilized after locity ψ˙ about the vertical axis – within the
the initial steering input by active braking controllable limits. Assuming appropriate
of the front left wheel to counter the threat operator inputs, driver demand is trans-
of instability (Figure 2b, Phase 2): This oc- lated into dynamic vehicular response that
curs without any intervention on the driv- is adapted to the characteristics of the road
er’s part. This action limits the inward yaw in an optimization process designed to en-
with the result that the yaw velocity is re- sure maximum safety.
duced and the float angle is not subject to
an uncontrolled increase. Following the System and control structure
change of steering direction, first the yaw The ESC system comprises the vehicle as
moment and then the yaw velocity reverse a controlled system, the sensors for deter-
their directions (between Phases 3 and 4). mining the controller input variables, the
In Phase 4, a second brief brake applica- actuators for influencing the braking, mo-
tion – this time at the right front wheel – tive and lateral forces, as well as the hier-
restores complete stability. The vehicle archically structured controller, compris-
remains on the course defined by the ing a higher-level transverse-dynamics
steering-wheel angle. controller and lower-level wheel control-
lers (Figure 4). The higher-level controller
determines the setpoint values for the
Figure 3: Dynamic-response curves lower-level controller in the form of mo-
during a right-left cornering sequence ments or slip, or their changes. Internal
1 Vehicle without ESC, 2 Vehicle with ESC. system variables that are not directly
Phases 1- 4 see Figure 2. measured, such as the float angle β for
example, are determined in the driving-
Lateral accele- Steering-wheel

+180 1+2 condition estimation (“observer”).

In order to determine the nominal be-
angle [°]

0 havior, the signals defining driver com-

mand are evaluated. These comprise the
−180 signals from the steering-wheel-angle
+10 sensor (driver’s steering input), the brake-
1 pressure sensor (desired deceleration in-
ration [m/s2]

0
put, obtained from the brake pressure
2 measured in the hydraulic unit) and the
−10 accelerator-pedal position (desired drive
+45
torque). The calculation of the nominal
1 behavior also takes into account the uti-
velocity [°/s]

0 lized friction-coefficient potential and the

vehicle speed. These are calculated in the
2 observer from the signals sent by the
Yaw

−45 wheel-speed sensors, the lateral-acceler-

+22 1 ation sensor, the yaw sensor, and the
0 brake-pressure sensor. Depending on the
angle [°]

control deviation, the yaw moment, which

UAF0061-3E
Float

Phase 1 2 34 2 is necessary to make the actual-state

−22
0 11 variables approach the desired-state vari-
Time [s]
ables, is then calculated.
1276 Chassis control

In order to generate the required yaw mo-
ment, it is necessary for the changes in
desired braking torque and slip at the
wheels to be determined by the trans-
verse-dynamics controller. These are then
set by means of the lower-level brake-slip
and traction controllers together with the
brake-hydraulics actuator and the engine-
management actuator.
Driving-condition estimation
To determine the stabilization interven-
tions, not only knowledge of the signals
from the sensors for wheel speeds υWhl,
admission pressure pAdm, yaw rate (yaw
velocity) ψ̇, lateral acceleration ay, steer-
ing-wheel angle δ and engine torque is
important, but also knowledge of a series
of further internal system variables which
can be measured indirectly with appropri-
ate effort. These include, for example, the
tire forces in the longitudinal, lateral and
normal directions (Fx, Fy and FN), the ve-
hicle linear velocity υx, the tire slip values
λi, the slip angle α on one axle, the float
angle β, the vehicle lateral velocity υy, and
the coefficient of friction μ. They are esti-
mated on a model-supported basis from
the sensor signals in the observer.
The vehicle linear velocity υx is of crucial
importance to all the wheel-slip-based
controllers and must therefore be calcu-
lated with great accuracy. This is done on
the basis of a vehicle model using the mea-
sured wheel speeds. Numerous influences
must be taken into account here. The ve-
hicle speed υx differs for example already
in normal driving situations on account of
brake or drive slip from the wheel speeds
υWhl. For all-wheel-drive vehicles, special
linking of the wheels must be taken into
account in particular. During cornering, the

Figure 4: ESC overall control system

1 Wheel-speed sensors,
2 Brake-pressure sensor (integrated in hydraulic unit),
3 Steering-wheel-angle sensor,
4 Yaw sensor (yaw-rate sensor) with integrated lateral-acceleration sensor,
5 ESC hydraulic unit (hydraulic modulator) with mounted ECU,
6 Wheel brakes, 7 Engine ECU.

Estimation of road
condition (observer)
.
δ, υ x , a y, MBrake , ... Tire forces, υ x , λ, α, β , μ, ψ, ...
Driver command Driver command
(setpoint behavior) (actual behavior)
. .
ψNom β Nom ψβ

Transverse-dynamics controller
i i Δ MRedNom , Δ λ Nom , Δ λ DifTolNom
λ Nom MBrNom
Wheel controller ABS controller TCS controller

i
p Nom 6
6
1
1
5

4 υ Whl, pAdm ,
2 7 .
ψ, a y, δ,
3
MEng
1
UFA0007-3E

1
δR
α 6
6
 Driving-dynamics control system
wheels on the inside of the bend follow a
different course from the wheels on the
outside of the bend, and consequently ro-
tate at a different speed.
Vehicle handling changes during nor-
mal use in response to varying load, al-
tered tractive resistance (e. g. road gradi-
ent or surface, wind) or wear (e. g. of the
brake pads).
Under all these boundary conditions,
the vehicle linear velocity must be esti-
mated with a deviation of a few % in order
to ensure the enabling and intensity of
stabilization interventions to the neces-
sary extent.
Basic transverse-dynamics controller
The function of the transverse-dynamics
controller is to calculate the actual behav-
ior of the vehicle from, for example, the
yaw-velocity signal and the float angle es-
timated in the observer, and to bring the
driving behavior in the driving-dynamic
limit range into line with behavior in the
normal range as closely as possible (nom-
inal or setpoint behavior).
The connection that exists during
steady-state circular-course driving be-
tween the yaw velocity and the steering-
wheel angle δ, the vehicle linear velocity
υx and characteristic vehicle variables are
used to determine the nominal behavior.
The single-track vehicle model (see e. g.
[3]) is used to produce
υ 1
ψ̇ = ​ __x ​ δ  ​ _______ υ 2
​ vehicle, the wheel forces must be altered
l
(υ )
1 + ​ ___
​  x ​  ​
ch
as the basis for calculating the vehicle
nominal motion. In this formula, l denotes
the distance between the front and rear
axles. Geometric and physical parame-
ters of the vehicle model are summarized
in the “characteristic vehicle speed” υch.
The variable ψ̇ is then limited according
to the current friction-coefficient condi-
tions and to the special properties of the
vehicle dynamics and the driving situation
(e. g. braking or acceleration by the driver)
and to the particular conditions such as a
sloping road surface of different friction
coefficients under the vehicle (µ split). The
driver command is thus known as the
nominal yaw velocity ψ̇Nom.
1277
The transverse-dynamics controller com-
pares the measured yaw velocity with the
associated setpoint value and in the event
of significant deviations calculates the yaw
moment that is required to match the ac-
tual state variable to its setpoint state. At a
higher level, the float angle β is monitored
and, as the values rise, increasingly taken
into consideration in the calculation of the
stabilizing yaw moment �Mz. This control-
ler output variable is applied by means of
braking-torque and slip inputs to the indi-
vidual wheels which must be adjusted by
the lower-level wheel controllers.
Stabilization interventions are per-
formed at the wheels, the braking of which
generates a yaw moment in the required
direction of rotation and at which the limit
of the transmittable forces has not yet
been reached. For an oversteering vehi-
cle, the physical limit is first exceeded on
the rear axle. Stabilization interventions
are therefore performed via the front axle.
For an understeering vehicle, the situation
is reversed (see e. g. [6]).
The nominal slip values requested by
the transverse-dynamics controller λiNom
at individual wheels are set with the aid of
lower-level wheel controllers (see Fig-
ure 4). A distinction is made between the
following three application cases.
Wheel control in the coasting case
In order to exert as accurately as possible
the yaw moments required to stabilize the
under defined conditions by controlling
the wheel slip. The nominal slip requested
by the transverse-dynamics controller at a
wheel is adjusted in the unbraked case by
the lower-level brake-slip controller by
way of an active pressure build-up. The
current slip at the wheel must be known as
precisely as possible for this purpose. This
is calculated from the measured wheel-
speed signal and the vehicle linear veloc-
ity determined in the observer υx. The
nominal braking torque at the wheel is
formed from the deviation of the actual
wheel slip from its setpoint value using a
PID control law.
It is not only in the event of an active
pressure build-up by transverse-dynam-
ics control that a wheel can be subject to
1278 Chassis control
brake slip. Following downshifts and when
the accelerator is suddenly released, iner-
tia in the engine’s moving parts exerts a
degree of braking force at the drive
wheels. Once this force and the corre-
sponding reactive torque rise beyond a
certain level, the tires will lose their ability
to transfer the resulting loads to the road
and will tend to lock (e. g. because the
road is suddenly slippery). The brake slip
for the driven wheels can be limited in the
coasting case by engine drag-torque con-
trol. This acts like “gentle acceleration” by
the driver.
Wheel control in the braked case
In the braked case, different actions over-
lap at individual wheels, depending on the
driving situation:
– driver input via the brake pedal and the
steering wheel,
– effect of the ABS controller, which pre-
vents individual wheels from locking,
– interventions of the transverse-dynam-
ics controller which ensures vehicle
stability by specifically braking individ-
ual wheels if necessary.
These three requirements must be coor-
dinated in such a way that the driver’s
deceleration and steering inputs are im-
plemented as much as possible. If wheel
control is performed primarily with the
objective of maximum vehicle decelera-
tion, it can be performed on the basis of
wheel acceleration which can be robustly
determined with minimal sensor informa-
tion (instability control). In order to spe-
cifically adjust the longitudinal and lateral
tire forces to stabilize the vehicle, the
principle of slip control [4] must be ap-
plied because it also permits wheel con-
trol in the unstable range of the friction-
coefficient/slip characteristic. From the
available sensor information, however, it
must be possible to determine the abso-
lute wheel slip to a few %, depending on
the vehicle speed.
The function of the ABS controller is to
ensure vehicle stability and steerability in
all road conditions and in so doing exploit
as much as possible the friction between
wheels and road. It does this also in its
capacity as the lower-level controller to
the transverse-dynamics controller by
modulating the brake pressure at the
wheel in such a way that the maximum
possible longitudinal force can be ex-
erted while maintaining sufficient lateral
stability. However, more variables are
measured in ESC than in a pure ABS
configuration, which only contains the
wheel-speed sensors. Thus, individual
vehicle-motion information, such as for
example yaw rate or lateral acceleration,
is available through direct measurement
of greater accuracy than is the case with
model-supported estimation of the basis
of few measured values.
In certain situations, it is possible to in-
crease performance by adapting ABS
control by means of inputs from the trans-
verse-dynamics controller. When a vehi-
cle decelerates on unequal road surfaces
(μ split), very different braking forces oc-
cur at the wheels on the left and right
sides of the vehicle. This generates a yaw
moment about the vehicle vertical axis, to
which the driver must react by counter-
steering in order to stabilize the vehicle.
How quickly this yaw moment is built up –
and how fast the driver must consequently
react – depends on the vehicle’s moment
of inertia about the vertical axis. ABS fea-
tures yaw-moment build-up delay to hold
back the pressure rise at the front wheel
with the higher coefficient of friction at the
road surface (“High” wheel). This ABS fa-
cility can also use information from the
higher-level transverse-dynamics control-
ler (on the driver’s reaction and the vehicle
behavior) and thereby react even better to
the actual vehicle motion.
If, when braking in a bend, the vehicle
starts to turn under certain conditions, the
oversteer tendency can be counteracted
by means of electronic braking-force dis-
tribution through pressure reduction in
individual wheels. If this is not sufficient on
its own, the transverse-dynamics control-
ler helps by actively building up pressure
at the front wheel on the outside of the
bend (reduction of lateral force). If, on the
other hand, the vehicle understeers, the
braking torque is increased at the rear on
the inside (provided the wheel is not sub-
ject to ABS control) and decreased
slightly at the front on the outside.
 Driving-dynamics control system 1279

If the vehicle starts to oversteer during a
fully or partially braked lane change, the
pressure at the rear wheel on the inside of
the bend is specifically decreased (in-
crease in lateral force) and the pressure
at the front wheel on the outside of the
bend increased (decrease in lateral
force). If the vehicle understeers while
braking in the bend, the braking torque is
increased at the rear on the inside (pro-
vided the wheel is not yet in the ABS con-
trol range) and decreased slightly at the
front on the outside.
Wheel control in the drive case
The lower-level traction controller (TCS) is
activated as soon as the drive wheels
start to spin in the drive case. The mea-
sured wheel speed and the respective
drive slip can be influenced by changing
the torque balance at each drive wheel.
The TCS controller limits the drive torque
at each drive wheel to the drive torque that
can be transferred there to the road. In this
way, the driver command is implemented
after acceleration as well as is physically
possible and, at the same time, funda-
mental directional stability is ensured,
since the lateral forces at the wheel are
not too greatly reduced.
In a vehicle with a powered axle, the mean
wheel speed of the driven axle
1 ​ ​( υL + υR ​
υMWhl = ​ __
2 Whl Whl )
and the wheel-speed differential
υDif = υLWhl − υRWhl
between the measured wheel speed of
the left wheel υLWhl and the right wheel υRWhl
are used as controlled variables.
The structure of the entire TCS control-
ler is depicted in Figure 5. The reference
variables of the transverse-dynamics con-
troller are included in the setpoint-value
calculation for the mean wheel speed and
the wheel-speed differential, as well as
the setpoint slip values and the coasting
wheel speeds. In the calculation of the
setpoint values υDifNom (setpoint wheel-
speed differential of the drive wheels on
one axle) and υMWhlNom (setpoint value of
the mean wheel speed), the inputs for
changing the setpoint slip � λNom and the
permissible slip differential � λDifTolNom of
the drive axle(s) act in the form of an offset
on the basic values calculated in the TCS.
In addition, an understeer or oversteer
tendency identified by the transverse-­
dynamics controller directly influences,
through the setpoint change of the en-

Figure 5: Structure of TCS controller

Quantities, see Table 1.
Reference variables from the transverse-dynamics controller
Δ MRedNom Δ λ Nom , Δ λ DifTolNom

Computation of setpoint values

υMWhlNom υDifNom

Determination of operating state

υMWhl , υMWhlNom υ Dif , υDifNom

PID wheel-speed controller PI axle-differential lock controller

MMWhlNom MDifNom

Torque distribution to actuators

MBrNom MEngNom
UFA0071-2E

Braking-torque interventions Engine intervention

at the drive wheels
1280 Chassis control
gine-torque reduction �MRedNom, the de-
termination of the maximum permissible
drive torque.
The dynamic response of the drivetrain
depends on the highly differing operating
states. It is therefore necessary to deter-
mine the current operating status (e. g.
selected gear, clutch actuation) in order to
be able to adapt the controller parameters
to the controlled system’s dynamic re-
sponse and to nonlinearities.
Because the mean wheel speed is af-
fected by variable inertial forces originat-
ing from the drivetrain as a whole (engine,
transmission, drive wheels, and the prop-
shaft itself), a relatively large time con-
stant is employed to describe its corre-
spondingly leisurely rate of dynamic
response. The mean wheel speed is con-
trolled by means of a nonlinear PID con-
troller, whereby in particular the gain of
the I-component (dependent on the oper-
ating status) can vary over a wide range.
In the stationary case, the I-component is
a measure for the torque which can be
transferred to the road surface. The output
variables of this controller is the setpoint
sum torque MMWhlNom.
In contrast, the time constant for the
wheel-speed differential is relatively
small, reflecting the fact that the wheels’
own inertial forces are virtually the sole
determining factor for their dynamic re-
sponse. Furthermore, in contrast to the
mean wheel speed, it is influenced only
indirectly by the engine. The wheel-speed
differential υDif is controlled by a nonlinear
PI controller. Because brake interventions
at a drive wheel initially only become no-
ticeable through the torque balance of this
wheel, they change the distribution ratio of
axle differential and thereby emulate a dif-
ferential lock. The controller parameters of
this axle-differential-lock controller are
only dependent on the engaged gear and
engine influences to a minimal extent. If
the differential speed on the driven axle
deviates more than currently permissible
(dead zone) from its setpoint value υDifNom,
calculation of a setpoint differential torque
MDifNom starts. The dead zone is widened
if TCS brake interventions are to be
avoided, for example when cornering at
the operating limits.
Setpoint sum and setpoint differential
torques are the basis for distributing the
positioning forces to the actuators. The
setpoint differential torque MDifNom is set
by the braking-torque difference between
the left and right drive wheels by means
of corresponding valve actuation in the
hydraulic unit (asymmetrical brake inter-
vention). The setpoint sum torque MMWhlNom
is adjusted by both the engine interven-
tions and a symmetrical brake interven-
tion.
With a gasoline engine, adjustments
undertaken through the throttle valve are
relatively slow to take effect (lag and the
engine’s transition response). Retarding
the ignition timing and, as a further op-
tion, selective suppression of injection
pulses are employed for rapid engine-
based intervention. In diesel-engine ve-
hicles, the electronic diesel control sys-
tem (EDC) reduces the engine torque by
modifying the quantity of fuel injected.
Symmetrical brake intervention can be
applied for brief transitional support of
engine-torque reduction.
Traction plays a special role in off-road
applications. Normally, in vehicles with off-
road requirements, traction control is au-
tomatically adapted by way of special situ-
ation identification in order to achieve the
best levels of performance and robust-
ness possible. Other vehicle manufactur-
ers give the driver the opportunity to
choose different adjustments from deacti-
vation of engine-torque limitation through
to adaptations tailored to special road
conditions (e. g. ice, snow, grass, sand,
slush, and rocky ground).
Supplementary transverse-dynamics
functions
The basic ESC functions described
above can also feature supplementary
driving-dynamics functions for special ve-
hicle categories, such as sport utility ve-
hicles (SUVs) and small vans for exam-
ple, and for special vehicle-stabilization
requirements.
Enhanced understeering control
It is possible even in normal driving con-
ditions for the vehicle to fail to comply
adequately with the driver’s steering input
 Driving-dynamics control system
(it understeers) if, for example, the road
surface in a bend is suddenly wet or con-
taminated. ESC can therefore increase
the yaw rate by exerting an additional yaw
moment. This enables the vehicle to nego-
tiate a bend at the maximum speed phys-
ically possible. The expected frequency of
interventions and the comfort require-
ments of the vehicle manufacturer differ
from vehicle type to vehicle type, and
there are accordingly different expansion
stages for executing such brake interven-
tions which influence the vehicle’s under-
steering behavior.
If the driver requests a smaller radius of
bend than is physically possible, then only
the reduction of the vehicle speed remains.
This can be read from the connection ap-
plicable during steady-state cornering be-
tween the radius of bend r, the vehicle
linear velocity υx and the yaw rate ψ̇:
υ cal situation.
r = ​ __x ​ .
ψ̇
In order to ensure a desired track course,
the vehicle is then – without a yaw mo-
ment being applied – braked as far as
necessary by specific braking of all the
wheels (Enhanced Understeering Con-
trol, EUC).
Rollover prevention
In particular, light commercial vehicles
and other vehicles with a high center of
gravity, such as sport utility vehicles
(SUVs), can overturn when high lateral
forces are generated by a spontaneous
steering reaction by the driver in the
course of an evasive maneuver on a dry
road for example (highly dynamic driving
situations) or when the lateral accelera-
tion of a vehicle slowly increases into the
critical range as it negotiates a freeway
exit with a decreasing radius of bend at
excessive speed (quasi-stationary driving
situations).
There are special functions (Rollover
Mitigation Functions, RMF) which identify
these critical driving situations by using
the normal ESC sensors and stabilize the
vehicle by intervening in brake and engine
control. In order to ensure intervention on
time, in addition to the driver’s steering
1281
input and the measured reaction of the
vehicle (yaw rate and lateral acceleration),
a predictive process is used to estimate
the vehicle’s behavior in the near future.
The two wheels on the outside of the
bend, in particular, are braked if an immi-
nent danger of overturning is identified.
This action reduces the lateral forces on
the wheels and thereby reduces the criti-
cal lateral acceleration. Particularly in the
event of highly dynamic evasive maneu-
vers, wheel control must be effected with
such high levels of sensitivity that, in spite
of the wildly fluctuating vertical forces FN,
vehicle steerability is not diminished by
the tendency of individual wheels to lock.
The reduction of wheel speed by individ-
ual wheel braking also ensures that the
driver is able to keep the vehicle in lane. In
quasi-stationary driving situations, punc-
tual reduction of the engine torque also
prevents the driver from provoking a criti-
The moment of intervention and the
intensity of the stabilizing interventions
must be adapted as accurately as possi-
ble to the current vehicle behavior. This
behavior can change significantly with
the load, for example in the case of vans
or sport utility vehicles fitted with roof
racks. Such vehicles therefore make use
of additional estimation algorithms which
calculate the vehicle mass and the
change in the center of mass caused by
load distribution, if this is required to
adapt the ESC functions (Load Adaptive
Control, LAC).
Trailer sway mitigation
Depending on the vehicle speed, combi-
nations of towing vehicle and trailer are
prone to swaying about their vertical axis.
If the vehicle is traveling at a slower speed
than the “critical speed” (normally be-
tween 90 km/h and 130 km/h), these
swaying motions are adequately damped
and are quick to die down. If, however, the
combination is traveling at a higher
speed, small steering movements, cross-
winds or driving over a pothole can sud-
denly induce such swaying motions,
which then quickly intensify and can ulti-
mately cause an accident due to the com-
bination jackknifing.
1282 Chassis control
Clear periodic oversteering triggers nor-
mal ESC stabilization interventions, but
these normally arrive too late and on their
own are not sufficient to stabilize the com-
bination. The Trailer Sway Mitigation
(TSM) function identifies swaying motions
in good time on the basis of the customary
ESC sensors; it does this by model-based
analysis of the towing vehicle’s yaw rate
while taking into account the driver’s
steering movements. When these sway-
ing motions reach a critical level, the com-
bination is automatically braked in order to
reduce the speed to such an extent that
not even the smallest subsequent excita-
tion will cause an immediate critical oscil-
lation again. In order to damp the oscilla-
tion as effectively as possible in a critical
situation, in addition to symmetrical decel-
eration through all the towing vehicle’s
wheels, individual wheel interventions are
performed which swiftly damp the swaying
motion of the combination. Limitation of
the engine torque prevents dangerous ac-
celeration by the driver during the stabili-
zation process.
Figure 6: Drive concept of an all-wheel-drive vehicle with ESC
1 Engine with transmission,
2 Wheel,
3 Wheel brake,
4 Axle differential,
5 Central differential,
6 ECU with enhanced ESC function,
7 Axle differential.
Engine, transmission,
gear ratios of differentials and losses
are combined into one unit.
A Lock interventions with
active central differential,
B Torque-vectoring
interventions. FR
2 6
υ Wheel speed,
3
υMWhl Mean wheel speed,
MMWhl Driving sum torque,
MBr Braking torque,
FA Front axle
4 5
RA Rear axle
R Right, L Left,
F Front, R Rear,
FA Front axle,
RA Rear axle.
FL
Activation of further driving-dynamics
actuators
In addition to utilization of the hydraulic
wheel brakes, other actuators are pro-
vided by means of which the driving-dy-
namic properties of a vehicle can be spe-
cifically influenced. When active steering
and chassis systems are linked with ESC
to form the composite system known as
Vehicle Dynamics Management (VDM),
they can, in their entirety, support the
driver even better and thereby improve
safety and driving dynamics even further.
While the combination of the steering or
roll-stabilization system with the brake
system has been introduced in the last
few years [5], systems for activating dif-
ferential locks in the drivetrain have been
established on the market for some time
now. The large number of such systems
means that linking with ESC is possible in
many cases. The supplementary actuator
can basically be activated either directly
from the extended ESC function (cooper-
ation approach) or via a separate ECU
which exchanges information with the
ESC ECU (coexistence approach).
RR
MBr, FR MBr, RR
Engine interventions B
1 A
MMWhl,υMWhl MMWhl, RA, υMWhl, RA
7
MMWhl, FA , υMWhl, FA
UFB0760-2E
MBr, FL MBr, RL
RL
 Driving-dynamics control system
In all-wheel-drive vehicles, the drive torque
is distributed via a central element to both
powered axles (Figure 6). When the en-
gine acts first and foremost on one axle
and the second axle is linked via the cen-
tral element, this is known as a hang-on
system. If this central element is an open
differential (without a locking action), drive
torque is limited when one axle demon-
strates increased slip. In the most unfavor-
able case, propulsion cannot be achieved
if a wheel spins. In combination with ESC,
symmetrical brake interventions by the all-
wheel TCS controller can limit the differen-
tial speed between the axles and thereby
achieve a longitudinal locking action.
The traction control of ESC can also be
matched to the special operating concept
of other types of central elements such as
Torsen and viscous couplings. Basically,
all the controllable drivetrain actuators
must demonstrate a defined locking mo-
ment and dynamic response when open-
ing and closing in order to specifically
adapt the vehicle’s self-steering proper-
ties with them.
If the drivetrain of a vehicle can be man-
ually switched over between different con-
figurations, ESC can be automatically ad-
justed to the operating mode selected by
the driver. Because ESC is based on indi-
vidual wheel control, cooperation with me-
chanical differential locks for specific off-
road conditions is only possible if the
differential lock can be automatically
opened during interventions by the trans-
verse-dynamics controller. The system
must otherwise be switched to an ABS
fallback level when the lock is engaged,
because driving-dynamics interventions at
one wheel would also affect other wheels
if the axles were rigidly linked.
In addition to simple links between the
two axles, there are controllable central
locks in which an electric or hydraulic ac-
tuator activates a coupling and thereby
adapts the locking moment (Figure 6, A).
In this way, it is possible with the ESC
driving-dynamics information (e. g. wheel
speeds, vehicle speed, yaw rate, lateral
acceleration, and engine torque) and by
also taking into account actuator-specific
variables (such as e. g. the mechanical
load on the component) to optimally
adapt the linking of the two axles to the
1283
current driving situation (Dynamic Cou-
pling Torque at Center, DCT-C).
The example in Figure 7 shows how
variable drive-torque distribution influ-
ences the vehicle behavior. If, in the event
of a risk of oversteering in a bend, provi-
sionally more drive torque can be shifted
to the front axle, it is necessary only much
later to avoid instability, to lower the en-
gine torque or even stabilize the vehicle
with brake interventions (the maximum
possible drive-torque shift is shown). If a
vehicle tends to understeer, this tendency
can be lessened by shifting drive torque to
the rear axle. In both cases, vehicle be-
havior with improved response and better
stability is achieved. The limits within
which shifting the drive torque is actually
possible are dependent on the concrete
drivetrain configuration.
Figure 7: Influence of drive-torque
distribution on vehicle behavior
a) Oversteer: Stability limit is first exceeded
on the rear axle,
b) Understeer: Stability limit is first exceeded
on the front axle.
1 Standard distribution during stable driving,
2 Incipient instability, drive torque is shifted
to the axle which still has stability potential,
3 Maximum shift of drive torque,
4 Withdrawal of shift,
5 Standard distribution is re-established
after instability has been reduced.
a b
5 5
4 4
50% 50%
50% 50%
25%
75%
75%
25% 3
3
100%
100%
75% 25%
2 2
25% 75%
50% 50%
50% 50%
UAF0116-1Y
1 1
1284 Chassis control
A controllable element on one axle can
be activated by ESC along similar lines to
the flexible linking of the two axles de-
scribed. In terms of basic operation, the
Dynamic Wheel Torque Distribution
(DWT) function barely differs from the
axle-differential lock effected by TCS via
the hydraulic wheel brakes. However,
such a supplementary actuator also ac-
tively distributes the drive torque between
the wheels on one axle in normal situa-
tions. This is done with minimal losses
and which much greater sensitivity and
comfort than can be achieved by traction
control in combination with braking-
torque control and engine-torque reduc-
tion while taking into account the wear of
the ESC hydraulic unit.
Figure 8: ESC components
1 Wheel brakes,
2 Wheel-speed sensors,
3 Engine ECU,
4 Electronically activated throttle valve,
5 Steering-angle sensor,
6 Brake booster with brake master cylinder,
7 Hydraulic unit with add-on ECU,
8 Yaw sensor with integrated
lateral-acceleration sensor.
6
2
7
1
System components
The hydraulic unit, the ECU directly con-
nected to it (add-on ECU) and the speed
sensors are suitable for the rugged ambi-
ent conditions that are encountered in the
engine compartment or the wheel arches.
The yaw sensor and the lateral-accelera-
tion sensor are either integrated into the
ECU or like the steering-angle sensor in-
stalled in the passenger cell. Figure 8
shows by way of example the installation
locations of the components in the vehi-
cle with the electrical and mechanical
connections.
Electronic control unit (ECU)
The ECU of printed-circuit board design
comprises, as well as a dual-core com-
puter, all the drivers and semiconductor
relays for valve and pump activation, as
well as interface circuits for sensor-signal
conditioning and corresponding switch in-
puts for supplementary signals (e. g. brake-
light switch). There are also interfaces
(CAN, FlexRay) for communicating with
other systems, such as engine and trans-
mission management for example.
UFA0019-3Y
 Driving-dynamics control system
Hydraulic unit
The hydraulic unit (also called the hydrau-
lic modulator), as in ABS or ABS/TCS
systems, forms the hydraulic connection
between the brake master cylinder and
the wheel-brake cylinders. It converts the
control commands of the ECU and uses
solenoid valves to control the pressures in
the wheel brakes. The hydraulic circuit is
completed by bores in an aluminum block.
This block is also used to accommodate
the necessary hydraulic function ele-
ments (solenoid valves, plunger pumps
and reservoir chambers).
ESC systems require twelve valves ir-
respective of the brake-circuit configura-
tion (Figure 9). In addition, a pressure sen-
sor is usually integrated which measures
the driver’s deceleration command by way
of the brake pressure in the brake master
cylinder. This increases the performance
of vehicle stabilization in partially active
maneuvers. Pressure is modulated during
ABS control (passive control) using ESC
hydraulics in the same way as described
for the ABS system.
Figure 9: Hydraulic circuit diagram of an ESC hydraulic unit (X-brake-circuit configuration)
MC Brake master cylinder, WC Wheel-brake cylinder,
IV Inlet valve, OV Outlet valve, SV Switchover valve,
HSV High-pressure switching valve,
RP Return pump, M Pump motor,
AC Low-pressure reservoir,
F Front, R Rear, R Right, L Left.
MC
Brake circuit 1
HSV SV
p
M
IV RP IV
AC
OV OV
WC WC
RL FR
1285
But because ESC systems must also ac-
tively build up pressure (active control) or
increase a brake pressure input by the
driver (partially active control), the return
pump used for ABS is replaced by a self-
priming pump for each circuit. The wheel-
brake cylinders and the brake master
cylinder are connected via a changeover
valve open at zero current and a high-
pressure switching valve.
An additional non-return valve with a
specific closing pressure prevents the
pump from drawing unwanted brake fluid
from the wheels. These pumps are driven
by a DC motor based on demand. The mo-
tor drives an eccentric bearing located on
the shaft of the motor.
Three examples of pressure modula-
tion are shown in Figure 10. In order to
build up pressure independently of the
driver (Figure 10c), the switchover valves
are closed and the high-pressure switch-
ing valves opened. The self-priming pump
now pumps brake fluid to the relevant
wheel or wheels in order to build up pres-
sure. The inlet valves of the other wheels
Brake circuit 2
U
UFB0752-3E
WC WC
FL RR
1286 Chassis control

remain closed. To reduce the pressure, For partially active control (Figure 10a),
the outlet valves are opened and the high- the high-pressure switching valve must be
pressure switching valves and switchover able to open the suction path of the pump
valves return to their original position against higher differential pressures
­(Figure 10b). The brake fluid escapes (> 0.1 MPa). The first stage of the valve is
from the wheels into the low-pressure res- opened via the magnetic force of the en-
ervoirs, which are run empty by the ergized coil; the second stage via the hy-
pumps. Demand-based control of the draulic area difference. If the ESC control-
pump motor reduces noise emission dur- ler detects an unstable vehicle state, the
ing pressure generation and regulation. switchover valves (open at zero current)
are closed and the high-pressure switch-
ing valve (closed at zero current) is
Figure 10: Pressure modulation opened. The two pumps then generate
in the ESC hydraulic unit additional pressure in order to stabilize
a) Pressure build-up when braking, the vehicle. When the intervention is fin-
b) Pressure reduction with ABS control, ished, the outlet valve is opened and the
c) Pressure build-up via self-priming pump
due to TCS or ESC intervention. pressure in the controlled wheel dis-
IV Inlet valve, charged to the reservoir. As soon as the
OV Outlet valve, driver releases the brake pedal, the fluid
SV Switchover valve, is pumped from the reservoir back to the
HSV High-pressure switching valve, brake-fluid reservoir.
RP Return pump, M Pump motor,
AC Low-pressure reservoir,
F Front, R Rear, R Right, L Left. Monitoring system
A comprehensive safety-monitoring sys-
tem is of fundamental importance for reli-
a able ESC functioning. The system used
p
encompasses the complete system to-
HSV SV U gether with all components and all their
IV RP IV functional interactions. The safety system
M
is based on safety methods such as, for
AC example, FMEA (Failure Mode and Ef-
OV OV fects Analysis), FTA (Fault Tree Analysis)
and error-simulation studies. From these,
RL FR measures are derived for avoiding errors
which could have safety-related conse-
b quences. Extensive monitoring programs
p
guarantee the reliable and punctual de-
HSV SV U tection of all sensor errors which cannot
IV RP IV be prevented completely. These programs
M
are based on the well-proven safety soft-
AC ware from the ABS and TCS systems
OV OV which monitor all the components con-
nected to the ECU together with their
electrical connections, signals, and func-
RL FR
tions. The safety software was further im-
c proved by utilizing the possibilities offered
p
by the additional sensors, and by adapt-
HSV SV U ing them to the special ESC components
IV RP IV and functions.
M The sensors are monitored at a number
AC of stages. In the first stage, the sensors
OV OV are continuously monitored during vehicle
UFB0782-2Y

operation for line break, signal implausibil-

ity (“out-of-range” check), detection of in-
RL FR
terference, and physical plausibility. In a
 Driving-dynamics control system
second stage, the most important sensors
are tested individually. The yaw-rate sen-
sor is tested by intentionally detuning the
sensor element and then evaluating the
signal response. Even the acceleration
sensor has internal background monitor-
ing. When activated, the pressure-sensor
signal must show a predefined character-
istic, and the offset and amplification are
compensated for internally. The steering-
angle sensor has its own integrated mon-
itoring functions and directly delivers a
message to the ECU in the event of error.
In addition, the digital signal transmission
to the ECU is permanently monitored. In a
third stage, analytical redundancy is ap-
plied to monitor the sensors during the
steady-state operation of the vehicle.
Here, a vehicle model is used to check
that the relationships between the sensor
signals, as determined by vehicle motion,
are plausible. These models are also fre-
quently applied to calculate and compen-
sate for sensor offsets as long as they stay
within the sensor specifications.
In case of error, the system is switched
off either partially or completely depend-
ing on the type of error concerned. The
system’s response to errors also depends
on whether the control is activated or not.
Further names for driving-dynamics
control
Aside from ESP® and the neutral designa-
tion ESC for Electronic Stability Control
there are further names used by vehicle
manufacturers for driving-dynamics con-
trol. Examples are Dynamic Stability Con-
trol (DSC), Vehicle Stability Assist (VSA),
Vehicle Stability Control (VSC), Dynamic
Stability and Traction Control (DSTC),
Controllo Stabilità e Trazione (CST).
1287
Special driving-dynamics
control system for
commercial vehicles
Function
Heavy commercial vehicles essentially
differ from passenger cars in their much
greater mass combined with higher cen-
ters of gravity and in additional degrees of
freedom resulting from trailer operation
[7]. They can thus assume unstable states
that extend far beyond the skidding famil-
iar to passenger cars. Such states in-
clude, as well as the jackknifing of multi-
ple-stage vehicle combinations, caused
for example by trailer sliding, overturning
caused by high lateral acceleration. A ve-
hicle-dynamics control system for com-
mercial vehicles must therefore, in addi-
tion to providing the stabilization functions
familiar to passenger cars, also prevent
jackknifing and overturning.
Requirements
The following requirements, in addition to
those for passenger cars, can be derived
from the extended functions of driving-
dynamics control for commercial vehicles:
– Improvement in directional stability and
response of a vehicle combination (e. g.
articulated road train or articulated-train
combination) at physical driving limits in
all operating and laden states. This in-
cludes preventing jackknifing on vehicle
combinations.
– Reduced risk of overturning for a vehi-
cle or vehicle combination in both
quasi-stationary and dynamic vehicle
maneuvers.
These requirements implemented in com-
mercial-vehicle ESC lead, as is the case
with passenger cars, to a significant im-
provement in driving safety. For this rea-
son, European law will from 2011 require
the gradual introduction of a driving-dy-
namics control system for heavy commer-
cial vehicles (from 7.5 t) (integral part of
ECE-R 13 [11]).
1288 Chassis control
Application
In the meantime, commercial-vehicle
ESC has become available for virtually all
vehicle configurations (except all-wheel-
drive vehicles):
– vehicles with the wheel formulas 4 × 2,
6 × 2, 6 × 4 and 8 × 4,
– combinations of tractor unit and semi-
trailer (articulated vehicle or simply
semitrailer unit),
– combinations of rig and drawbar trailer
(articulated road train),
– multiple trailer combinations (Euro-
kombi), e. g. combinations of rig, dolly
and semitrailer or semitrailer unit with
additional center-axle trailer or tractor
unit with B-link and semitrailer.
Operating principle
Driving-dynamics control for commercial
vehicles can be divided according to re-
quirements into the two function groups
described in the following.
Stabilizing the vehicle in the event of
imminent skidding or jackknifing
Directional stabilization of a commercial
vehicle is initially performed according to
the same principles as for a passenger
car. The controller compares current ve-
hicle motion with vehicle motion desired
by the driver, taking into account physical
driving limits. The physical model of mo-
tion in the horizontal plane – for a single
vehicle characterized by three degrees of
freedom (longitudinal, lateral and yaw mo-
tion) – is however extended for an articu-
lated vehicle to include the articulation
angle between the rig and the trailer (an
additional degree of freedom). There are
further degrees of freedom involved for
combinations with fifthwheel trailers.
To calculate the vehicle motion desired
by the driver, the ECU uses simplified
mathematical-physical models (single-
track vehicle model, [8]) to determine the
nominal yaw velocity of the rig. The pa-
rameters that are encountered in these
models (characteristic vehicle speed υch,
wheelbase l and steering ratio iL) are ei-
ther parameterized at the end of the ve-
hicle assembly line or adapted to the ve-
hicle’s behavior during vehicle operation
with the aid of special adaption algorithms
(e. g. Kalman filters or recursive least-
squares estimators, [9]). “Online” adapta-
tion of parameters is particularly impor-
tant in commercial vehicles, because the
variety of variants and loads is much
greater than for passenger cars.
Parallel to this, ESC calculates current
vehicle motion from the measured vari-
ables available for yaw rate and lateral
acceleration plus the wheel speeds. A sig-
nificant deviation between the current ve-
hicle motion and the motion expected by
the driver leads to a control fault that is
transformed by the actual controller into a
corrective nominal yaw moment.
The level of the nominal yaw moment
for a commercial vehicle depends on the
control fault, the current vehicle configura-
tion (wheelbase, number of axles, opera-
tion with or without trailer etc.) and the
laden state (mass, center of gravity in the
linear direction, etc.). As these parame-
ters are variable, they are continuously
determined by ESC. This is achieved, for
example, in the laden state with the aid of
an estimation algorithm that uses the sig-
nals from the engine management (en-
gine speed and engine torque) and the
vehicle linear motion (wheel speeds) to
permanently identify the current vehicle
mass.
On the basis of the current driving situ-
ation, the nominal yaw moment by braking
individual or several wheels and of the
trailer is transformed in a suitable manner.
This is depicted by way of example in Fig-
ure 11a and in Figure 11b for a clearly
defined oversteer and understeer situa-
tions respectively.
In addition to these clearly defined situ-
ations, there are other critical dynamic
situations in which other wheels or wheel
combinations are braked depending on
the desired stabilization effect. Thus, for
example in the case of sharper under-
steer, the entire vehicle is braked along
similar lines to Enhanced Understeering
Control (EUC) in passenger cars.
Because of the high center of gravity of
commercial vehicles, skidding and jack-
knifing by such vehicles primarily occur at
low-to-medium coefficients of friction at
which the tire static-friction limit is al-
ready exceeded at an early stage. At high
coefficients of friction, laden commercial
vehicles, on account of their high center
 Driving-dynamics control system
of gravity, normally start to overturn be-
fore the static-friction limit of the tires is
reached.
Reducing the risk of overturning
The overturning limit (lateral-acceleration
limit) of a vehicle depends not only on the
height of the center of gravity but also on
the chassis systems (axle suspension,
stabilizers, springs, etc.) and the type of
payload (fixed or moving) [10].
The situation which causes a commer-
cial vehicle to overturn is, aside from a
relatively low overturning limit, an exces-
sive cornering speed. ESC makes use of
this scenario to reduce the probability of
the vehicle overturning. As soon as the
vehicle approaches the overturning limit, it
is slowed down by reducing engine torque
and, if necessary, also applying the brakes.
The overturning limit is determined here
depending on the load of the vehicle and
the load distribution, whereby the laden
state of the vehicle is estimated “online”.
Figure 11: Principle of ESC braking intervention on semitrailers
a) Vehicle oversteering,
b) Vehicle understeering.
Braking force
Yaw-moment adjustment
} Direction of motion
of the (part) vehicle
a b
ESC intervention
1289
Depending on each driving situation, the
overturning limit that is determined is
modified. Thus, the overturning limit in
high-speed dynamic situations (e. g. ob-
stacle-avoidance maneuvers) is reduced
in order to permit early intervention. In
very slow maneuvers, on the other hand
(e. g. negotiating tight hairpin bends on
uphill stretches), it is increased in order to
prevent unnecessary and disruptive ESC
intervention.
Determining the overturning limit is
based on various assumptions regarding
the height of the center of gravity and the
dynamic response of the vehicle combi-
nation with a known axle-load distribution.
This covers the largest portion of the
usual vehicle combinations.
In order to ensure stabilization even in
the case of strong deviations from these
assumptions (e. g. extremely high centers
of gravity), ESC additionally detects the
lift of the wheels on the inside of a bend.
This is achieved by monitoring the wheels
ESC intervention
UFB0784E
1290 Chassis control
for implausible rotation speed. If neces-
sary, the entire vehicle combination is
then heavily decelerated by brake inter-
vention.
A trailer wheel lifting on the inside of a
bend is indicated by the trailer’s elec-
tronically controlled braking system
(ELB) via the CAN communication line
(ISO 11992 [13]) by activating the ABS
controller. For combinations with trailers
equipped with ABS only, wheel-lift detec-
tion on the inside of a bend is limited to
the tractor unit (rig).
System design
On the European market, the electroni-
cally controlled braking system ELB has
come to the fore as the standard for brake
control in heavy commercial vehicles.
ESC is based on this system, extending it
to include regulation of the driving dynam-
ics. To do so, ESC uses the ELB capability
of generating varying braking forces for
each individual wheel independently of
driver action.
The very different general conditions for
commercial vehicle brake systems in
North America mean that purely ABS or
ABS/TCS systems are used as standard.
An ESC based on ABS/TCS is therefore
used for these and similar markets. Here,
ESC uses the method already applied
with TCS on the drive axle to generate
braking force individually for each wheel
independently of the driver by means of a
TCS valve and the downstream ABS
valves. In addition, for ABS-based ESC,
the driver brake command must be mea-
sured by means of pressure sensors,
which would otherwise not be possible
during an ESC intervention on account of
the function of the TCS valve.
Sensor systems
Like passengers cars, commercial vehi-
cles use a combined yaw-rate and lateral-
acceleration sensor and a steering-
wheel-angle sensor as driving-dynamics
sensors for ESC. Each of these sensors
contains a microcontroller with a CAN in-
terface for analyzing and safely transmit-
ting the measured data.
The steering-wheel-angle sensor is
usually mounted immediately below the
steering wheel and it measures the angle
of rotation of the steering wheel. This is
then converted in the ECU into a wheel
steering angle.
In order to pick up the lateral accelera-
tion as close as possible to the center of
gravity of the rig, the combined yaw-rate
and lateral-acceleration sensor is usually
mounted in the vicinity of the center of
gravity.
Even though commercial vehicles es-
sentially use the same sensors as pas-
senger cars, the yaw-rate and lateral-ac-
celeration sensor must have a much more
robust design to cope with the rougher
ambient conditions, particularly on the
commercial-vehicle frame.
Electronic control unit (ECU)
The ESC algorithms are run together
with the other algorithms for brake con-
trol (e. g. ABS and TCS) in the brake con-
trol unit. This control unit is constructed
using conventional circuit-board technol-
ogy with correspondingly powerful micro-
controllers.
A CAN bus connects the ESC sensors
with the control unit. The nominal brake
pressures and wheel slip values of the
ESC are then implemented by the rele-
vant braking system for each wheel and
for the trailer. In addition, the braking sys-
tem transmits the requested engine
torque via the vehicle CAN bus (usually
standardized as per SAE J 1939 [14]) to
the engine ECU for implementation.
Moreover, relevant information is also
transferred from the engine and retarder
to the braking system via the vehicle CAN
bus. Essentially, this involves current and
requested engine torque and speed, re-
tarder torque, vehicle speed, and informa-
tion from various control switches and any
trailer that may be coupled.
 Driving-dynamics control system
Safety and monitoring functions
The extensive possibilities for ESC inter-
vention in the handling characteristics of
the vehicle and vehicle combination re-
quire a comprehensive safety system to
ensure proper system functioning. This
extends not only to the basic ELB or ABS/
TCS system respectively, but also to the
additional ESC components, including all
sensors, ECUs and interfaces.
The monitoring functions used for ESC
are essentially based on the functions
used in passenger cars and are adapted to
the characteristics of commercial vehicles.
There is also mutual monitoring of the
microcontrollers distributed in the overall
system. This means that the brake control
unit contains a main computer and a mon-
itoring computer that mainly performs
plausibility checks alongside minor func-
tional tasks. Furthermore, the corre-
sponding algorithms permanently check
memory and other internal computer
hardware components to detect any de-
fects that occur at an early stage.
The occurrence of faults results, de-
pending on the nature and significance of
the fault, in the shutdown of individual
function groups through to a complete
switching to “backup mode”, in which the
brakes are controlled by purely pneumatic
means (fail-silent response). This ensures
that incorrect sensor signals cannot cause
implausible and possibly dangerous oper-
ating states in braking operations.
The occurrence of a fault is indicated to
the driver by suitable means (e. g. warning
lamp or display) so that suitable action
can be taken.
Furthermore, any faults that occur are
assigned a time stamp in the control unit
and stored in the fault memory. The work-
shop can evaluate these with the help of a
suitable diagnosis system.
1291
References
[1] E. K. Liebemann, K. Meder, J. Schuh,
G. Nenninger: Safety and Performance
Enhancement: The Bosch Electronic Sta-
bility Control. SAE Paper Number 2004-
21-0060.
[2] National Highway Traffic Safety Admin-
istration (NHTSA) FMVSS 126: Federal
Motor Vehicle Safety Standards; Elec-
tronic Stability Control Systems; Controls
and Display. Vol. 72, No. 66, April 6, 2007.
[3] M. Mitschke, H. Wallentowitz: Dynamik
der Kraftfahrzeuge. 4th Edition, Springer-
Verlag, 2004.
[4] A. van Zanten, R. Erhardt, G. Pfaff:
FDR – Die Fahrdynamikregelung von
Bosch. ATZ Automobiltechnische Zeit-
schrift 96 (1994), Volume 11.
[5] A. Trächtler: Integrierte Fahrdynamik­
regelung mit ESP®, aktiver Lenkung und
aktivem Fahrwerk. at – Automatisierungs-
technik 53 (1/2005).
[6] K. Reif: Automobilelektronik, 3rd Edi-
tion, Vieweg + Teubner, 2009.
[7] E. Hoepke, S. Breuer (Editors): Nutz-
fahrzeugtechnik – Grundlagen, Systeme,
Komponenten. 4th Edition; Vieweg Verlag,
2006.
[8] C. B. Winkler: Simplified Analysis of the
Steady State Turning of Complex Vehi-
cles. International Journal of Vehicle Me-
chanics and Mobility, 1996.
[9] Ali H. Sayed: Adaptive Filters. John
Wiley & Sons, 2008.
[10] D. Odenthal: Ein robustes Fahrdyna-
mik-Regelungskonzept für die Kippver-
meidung von Kraftfahrzeugen. Disserta-
tion TU München, 2002.
[11] ECE-R 13: Uniform provisions con-
cerning the approval of category M, N and
O vehicles with regard to brakes.
[12] ECE-R 13-H: Standard conditions for
approval of passenger cars with regard to
brakes.
[13] ISO 11992: Road vehicles – Inter-
change of digital information on electrical
connections between towing and towed
vehicles.
[14] SAE J 1939: Serial Control and Com-
munications Heavy Duty Vehicle Network
Top Level Document.
1292 Chassis control
Automatic brake-system
operations
The supplementary functions described
here utilize except for the pneumatic-me-
chanical brake assistant the driving-dy-
namics control infrastructure. This com-
prises the sensors, the actuators and the
ECU.
Brake-assistant operations
Investigations into driver braking behavior
in the 1990s showed that car drivers differ
in the way that they respond to braking
situations. The majority – the “average
drivers” – do not brake hard enough when
faced with an emergency situation, in
other words, they require an unnecessarily
long braking distance (Figure 1). This can
be remedied by a system first launched in
1995, the brake assistant. Its main pur-
poses are as follows:
– It interprets a certain rate of pedal
movement (rapid application of the
brakes) that fails to apply maximum
braking force as an intention by the
driver to carry out full braking. In this
case, it generates the braking pressure
required to achieve full braking effect.
– It allows the driver to “cancel” full braking
operation at any time.
Figure 1: Comparison between
braking with and without brake-assistant
operations
A longer braking distance is required without
a brake assistant than with a brake assistant.
1 “Average driver”,
2 Experienced driver,
3 “Average driver” with brake assistant.
tv Delay time for braking results
in longer braking distance.
3
2
Braking pressure
tv
UFB0709-3E
Time
– The behavior of the brake booster and,
therefore, the pedal feedback, is not al-
tered under normal braking conditions.
– The basic braking-system function is not
diminished if the brake assistant fails.
– The system is designed to prevent acci-
dental activation.
Pneumatic brake assistant
This system requires a modified brake
booster which increases the level of am-
plification according to the rate of pedal
movement and pedal force. This results in
faster and greater buildup of pressure in
the wheel brakes.
In an alternative version, the brake
booster is extended to include an elec-
tronically activated valve. This enables an
ECU to influence the pressure difference
between the brake-booster chambers and
thus the boosting of the braking force. This
provides better opportunities for optimiz-
ing the trigger threshold and response
characteristics.
Hydraulic brake assistant
The hydraulic brake-assistant operation
uses the driving-dynamics control hard-
ware. A pressure sensor detects the driv-
er’s braking intention; the ECU analyzes
the signal on the basis of the defined trig-
gering criteria, and initiates an appropri-
ate brake-pressure build-up in the hydrau-
lic system. The upstream brake booster is
a standard unit and does not require any
modification.
As a general observation, it should be
stated that it is an absolute requirement
that all brake-assistant system variants
referred to are used in conjunction with an
antilock braking system (ABS) or a driv-
ing-dynamics control system due to the
actively generated rapid brake-pressure
rise beyond the wheel-lock limit.
 Driving-dynamics control system
Automatic brake-pressure increase
at the rear wheels
This is a function which provides the
driver with additional brake servo assis-
tance for the rear wheels if the front
wheels are controlled by the ABS system.
This function was introduced because
many drivers do not increase the pedal
force at the start of ABS control even
though the situation would require this.
Once ABS control has been initiated on
the front wheels, the wheel pressures at
the wheels on the rear axle are increased
by way of the return pump of the hydraulic
modulator until these too have reached
the lockup-pressure level and ABS control
is initiated (Figure 2). The brake applica-
tion is therefore at the physical optimum.
The pressure in the rear axle wheel-brake
cylinders can then exceed the pressure in
the brake master cylinder, also during
ABS control.
The cutoff condition is fulfilled when the
wheels on the front axle are no longer un-
der ABS control or when the pressure in
the brake master cylinder falls below the
cutoff threshold.
Figure 2: Automatic brake-pressure
increase
1 Brake-pressure increase by brake booster,
2 Further brake-force increase
by pedal force,
3 Brake-pressure increase by driving-
dynamics control hydraulic modulator,
4 ABS control range.
4 used to detect wet conditions.
3 the vehicle deceleration cannot be per-
Braking pressure
2 ceived by the driver. Actuation is repeated
1
UFB0780-2E
0
Pedal force
1293
Automatic brake-pressure increase
with forceful pressing of brake pedal
This function provides the driver with ad-
ditional brake servo assistance. It is acti-
vated if the maximum possible vehicle de-
celeration is not achieved even if the driver
forcefully presses the brake pedal to the
point that would normally cause the lockup
pressure to be reached (primary pressure
over approx. 80 bar). This is the case, for
example, at high brake-disk temperatures
or if the brake pads have a considerably
reduced coefficient of friction.
When this function is activated, the
wheel pressures are increased until all
wheels have reached the lockup pressure
level and ABS control is initiated (Fig-
ure 2). The brake application is therefore
at the physical optimum. The pressure in
the wheel-brake cylinders can then ex-
ceed the pressure in the brake master
cylinder, also during ABS control.
If the driver reduces the desired level of
braking to a value below a particular
threshold value, the vehicle deceleration
is reduced in accordance with the force
applied to the brake pedal. The driver can
therefore precisely modulate the vehicle
deceleration when the braking situation
has passed. The cutoff condition is fulfilled
if the primary pressure or vehicle speed
falls below the respective cutoff threshold.
Brake-disk wiper
This function ensures that, in the event of
rain or a wet road, the splash water is cy-
clically removed from the brake disks. This
is achieved by automatically setting a low
brake pressure at the wheel brakes. In this
way, the function helps to ensure mini-
mum brake-response times when driving
in wet conditions. Evaluated signals from
the windshield wipers or rain sensor are
The pressure level is adjusted so that
at a defined interval for as long as the sys-
tem detects rain or a wet road. If required,
just the disks at the front axle can be
wiped. The wiping procedure is termi-
nated as soon as the driver applies the
brakes.
1294 Chassis control
Automatic prefill
This function reduces the total braking
distance in emergency situations whereby
the driver operates the brake pedal im-
mediately after the accelerator pedal is
released. This is achieved by prefilling and
thereby preloading the brake system after
release of the accelerator pedal, which
means that in the subsequent brake op-
eration the pressure build-up is consider-
ably more dynamic. Accordingly, high ve-
hicle deceleration sets in earlier.
Prefilling of the brake system is ad-
justed by the return pump of the hydraulic
modulator. The brake shoes are then
firmly applied to the brake disks. If there is
no operation of the brake pedal directly
after a rapid release of the accelerator, the
pressure in the brake system is reduced
again. This does not impair driveability.
Electromechanical parking brake
The electromechanical parking brake
(EMP) generates the force for applying
the parking brake by electromechanical
means. The function of the hand- or foot-
operated parking-brake lever is performed
by a control knob with an electric-motor-
and-transmission combination. When the
driver operates the control knob, the elec-
tric motor (actuator) is activated when the
system detects that the vehicle is at a
standstill. When the vehicle is parked on a
level surface, the holding forces are set
lower than when the vehicle is fully laden
and parked on a gradient. Active wheel
sensors are used to detect that the vehicle
is parked (i. e. stationary). As an option, it
is also possible for the road gradient to be
detected by a tilt sensor.
The parking brake is released by means
of the same control knob. However, vari-
ous safety regulations and requirements
have to be met, e. g. to prevent inappropri-
ate or inadvertent release of the parking
brake by children or animals (see also
Parking brake, Passenger-car brake sys-
tem).
Controlled braking with
hydraulic modulator
If the electromechanical parking brake is
activated while driving, the vehicle must
be safely decelerated to a stop. The brake
pressure required for this is built up by the
return pump of the hydraulic modulator.
The driving-dynamics control system en-
sures safe braking even on slippery or wet
road surfaces. When the vehicle has
come to a stop, the electromechanical
parking brake assumes the function of
keeping the vehicle stationary.
The driver must press the activation
knob of the automatic parking brake con-
tinuously during the deceleration phase.
Hill hold control
This system simplifies hill starts. It pre-
vents the vehicle from rolling back after
the driver has released the brake pedal.
This is particularly helpful on heavily
laden vehicles with manual transmission
and vehicles that are towing trailers. There
is no need to operate the parking brake.
The function also works when performing
a hill start in the reverse direction.
The system detects the driver’s inten-
tion to pull away (Figure 3). After the brake
pedal is released, there is approximately
two seconds to start pulling away. The
Figure 3: Hill hold control
Sensors ECU
Initial pressure
Hill hold
Brake-light switch
control logic
Wheel speed
Accelerator
Handbrake Driving-dynamics
Engine torque control logic
and speed
Gear data
CAN
Clutch data Safety logic
CAN
Hydraulic modulator
UFB0755-3E
 Driving-dynamics control system 1295

brake is released automatically here if the The system remains active until it is
drive torque is greater than the torque re- switched off by pressing the button or
sulting from downgrade force. switch again, i. e. it is not automatically
Low-speed traction control is based on deactivated.
the driving-dynamics control hardware
and additional sensors: a tilt sensor ­detects Automatic brake application
the road gradient, a gear switch detects for driver­assistance systems
whether the driver has shifted to reverse This function is an additional function for
gear, and a clutch switch recognizes active brake application with adaptive
whether the driver has depressed the cruise control (ACC), i. e. for automatic
clutch pedal. vehicle-to-vehicle ranging. The brakes are
applied automatically without the driver
Automatic braking on hill descent – pressing the brake pedal as soon as the
hill descent control distance to the vehicle in front falls below
This system is a convenience function a predetermined distance (Figure 4). This
which assists the driver on offroad de- is based on a hydraulic brake system and
scents with gradients of approximately driving-dynamics control.
8 to 50 % by automatically operating the The function receives a request to de-
brakes. The driver can then concentrate celerate the vehicle by a desired amount
fully on steering the vehicle and is not dis- (input). This is calculated by the upstream
tracted by the need to operate the brakes ACC system. Automatic brake interven-
at the same time. The brake pedal does tion maintains vehicle deceleration by
not have to be operated. means of appropriate brake pressures
When this system is activated, e.g, by which are adjusted with the aid of the hy-
pressing a button or switch, a preset draulic modulator.
speed is maintained over the extent of the
specified brake pressure. If required, the
driver can vary the predetermined speed
by pressing the brake and accelerator
pedal or using the control buttons of a
speed control system.

Figure 4: Function description

of automatic brake application for ACC
1 Deceleration specified by ACC
(Adaptive Cruise Control),
2 Current deceleration,
3 Pressure in wheel-brake cylinders.

Typical signal characteristic

Braking Deceleration Braking

on
request

off

2
1
pressure

3
UFB0778-2E

Time
1296 Chassis control
Motorcycle Stability Control
Application
Motorcycle Stability Control (MSC) im-
proves two-wheeler safety in all critical
riding situations – particularly in turns/
curves. Here MSC coordinates all the
functions relevant to riding dynamics
such as, for example, the Antilock Braking
System (ABS, see Figure 1), the electron-
ically Combined Brake System (eCBS),
anti-stoppie control, Motorcycle Traction
Control (MTC), and wheelie control tak-
ing account of the current riding situation
and the current road friction-coefficient
conditions.
The ABS riding-dynamics control of a
motorcycle is similar in some points to
that of a passenger car (see Wheel-slip
control systems). Therefore the riding-dy-
namic particulars of two-wheelers will be
discussed especially in the following.
Figure 1: MSC vehicle components
1 Inertial sensor unit,
2 ABS hydraulics with ECU (assembly)
3 ABS hydraulics (exploded view).
1 2
Riding physics
of a two-wheeler
Maintaining equilibrium
A two-wheel vehicle is in a state of un-
stable equilibrium and is prone to falling
over. When moving it is 100% dynamically
stabilized by the gyroscopic forces of the
turning wheels [1] and via the castor off-
set. A moving two-wheeler thus becomes
stable from a certain speed.
Because a two-wheeler can tilt about
the longitudinal axis, it must maintain
equilibrium. Figure 2 shows the equilib-
rium of forces between gravity and cen-
trifugal force when cornering. In the case
of a real tire the wheel contact point is
laterally offset. As a result, more inclina-
tion through the angle λ is required than
for a very thin tire. The wider the tire, the
greater the necessary inclination at the
same speed and for the same curve ra-
dius.
Self-stabilization
If the motorcycle tilts towards the inside
of the curve, gyroscopic effects on the
turning front wheel induce a steering mo-
ment in the direction of the inclination [1].
As a result the motorcycle rides a tighter
radius, whereupon the rising centrifugal
3
DFB0817Y

force rights the motorcycle again. The
righting motion turns the front wheel
back to the initial position. The castor
offset on the front wheel brings about a
similar effect. The distance between the
point of intersection of the steering axis
with the road and the wheel contact point
is called the castor offset. When the lat-
eral component of the wheel downforce
increases, this results in a corresponding
torque towards the inside of the curve on
the steering (see Figure 3). The stability
of a two-wheeler increases with the speed
and the resulting increasing gyroscopic
effects. Likewise, a greater castor offset
provides for better straight-ahead stability.
To ride a stationary curve, the rider
must apply a steering moment to the out-
side of the curve to compensate the steer-
ing moment caused by gyroscopic effects
and castor offset. If the rider lets go of the
handlebars, the two-wheeler rights itself
and rides straight ahead again.
This produces the decisive difference
as the rider specifies the desired curve ra-
Figure 2: Equilibrium of forces between
gravity and centrifugal force when
cornering
S Center of gravity,
P Wheel contact point,
FZ Centrifugal force,
FN Gravity (normal force),
α Inclination angle,
λ Angle to tire center plane.
FZ
S nt Castor offset.
α FN
λ
DFB0819Y
P
Motorcycle Stability Control 1297
dius. In a passenger car the steering wheel
is turned without greater consideration of
the steering torque to the corresponding
steering angle. In contrast, the rider on a
two-wheeler specifies the curve radius via
the steering moment and the two-wheeler
adjusts the associated steering angle
itself accordingly by means of self-sta-
bilization. Here the two-wheeler and the
steering angle alway oscillate about the
position of equilibrium somewhat. In addi-
tion, as determined by the geometry, the
self-adjusting steering angle decreases
as the inclination increases.
Inclination estimation
Important riding-dynamic variables of a
two-wheeler are the inclination (roll angle)
and the pitch angle because a motorcycle
leans far into the curve and tends to roll
over when subjected to heavy braking and
acceleration. To determine these two an-
gles an inertial sensor unit with three ac-
celeration sensors and three yaw sensors
was developed (Figure 1); this sensor unit
enables changes in angle to be sensed
quickly.
The inclination and the pitch angle are
calculated in accordance with ISO 8855
[2] from the direction in which Earth's
gravity points when viewed from the vehi-
cle. The direction components of the grav-
ity vector g = (gx, gy, gz) are calculated by
means of the following two methods:
Figure 3: Self-stabilization via the castor
offset of a motorcycle leaning to the right
1 Steering axis.
M Steering moment,
FSA Lateral component of wheel downforce,
M
1
FSA
DFB0820Y
nt
1298 Chassis control
1. Determination of the gravity vector
from accelerations
When the vehicle is stationary the three
acceleration sensors directly measure
the components of the acceleration due
to gravity. When the vehicle is moving,
further components brought on by the
change of speed and the centrifugal
forces are added. The measured acceler-
ations must be corrected by these compo-
nents in order to obtain the gravity vector.
Because the acceleration signals are for
the most part disrupted more strongly by
engine vibrations or road irregularities, the
vector obtained in this way g = (gx, gy, gz)
must be filtered with a low-pass filter to
determine the angle precisely. This wors-
ens the signal dynamics, but the value is
long-term stable for this.
2. Rotation of the gravity vector by
integration of the measured rotational
movement
The rotational movement of the motor-
cycle about each axis is measured by
three yaw sensors in the form of angular
velocities. From this the change of direc-
tion of g = (gx, gy, gz) is calculated in each
calculation cycle. The direction vector
obtained in this way has good dynamics
because it follows the yaw rates without
further filtering. However, measuring er-
rors or disturbances are also added up. As
a result, when considered over a longer
period of time, the direction of the vector
would deviate ever further from the real
Earth's gravity.
Correcting the g vector from method 2
with that from method 1 combines the ad-
vantages of both methods. The resulting
angles dynamically follow each change
and are at the same time also long-term
stable.
Motorcycle ABS
Many accidents resulting in serious injury
could be avoided if the rider braked fully
without decelerating prior to the collision.
MSC was therefore developed with the
objective of enabling the rider to perform
drastic braking in every situation without
resulting in an accident.
Function of ABS
Just like in a passenger car, the antilock
braking system (ABS) is intended to stop
the wheels from locking. On a motorcy-
cle particular attention is paid to the front
wheel because here the greatest braking
force can be applied and at the same time
the front wheel is crucial to riding stability.
Usually the wheel slip is the most im-
portant variable for the ABS controller.
However, the vehicle speed must be
determined for this purpose. This poses
a particular challenge when it comes to
two-wheelers. Thus, for example, the rear
wheel is lifted up in the event of a “stop-
pie” in response to heavy braking with the
result that the rear-wheel speed no lon-
ger matches the driving speed. From the
remaining front-wheel speed the vehicle
speed must simultaneously be estimated
and the wheel slip calculated. Because
both these variables can no longer be
reliably determined in such a situation,
motorcycle ABS uses as well as the slip
additional indicators, such as for exam-
ple wheel deceleration, to detect wheel
instability.
Rear-wheel lift-up control
A rider who brakes heavily on two wheels
decelerates primarily with the front wheel.
Due to the dynamic wheel-load distribu-
tion in combination with a high center of
gravity, the wheel load shifts sharply to-
wards the front wheel – often even result-
ing in the rear end lifting up. Rear-wheel
lift-up control was developed to make sta-
ble braking possible. This function evalu-
ates the slip and deceleration values of
both wheels. If the rear wheel threatens
to lift up while braking, the function adapts
the pressure in the front-wheel brake cir-
cuit to keep the rear wheel on the ground
and avoid rollovers.