"Watts Current" Technical Bulletin... Clamp-On Ground Resistance Testing - Chauvin Arnoux 2020

Chauvin Arnoux® Inc.
15 Faraday Drive • Dover, NH 03820 USA • (603) 749-6434 • Fax (603) 742-2346 • www.aemc.com
Issue 21 “WATTS CURRENT” TECHNICAL BULLETIN Winter 2020
Inside This Issue:

Featured Product:
Power Factor and Reactive Power
Touch Potential and Step Potential
New AEMC Products:

AC Current Probes Models 525 / 526
Issue 21 “WATTS CURRENT” TECHNICAL BULLETIN
Winter 2020
Featured Product:
Clamp-On Ground Testers

Theory of Operation
I n locations where space is limited, access to the earth is unavailable, or the grounding system cannot
be disconnected, clamp-on ground resistance testing instruments may be the best option. Clamp-on
testers, such as AEMC’s Models 6416, 6417, and 6418, offer the advantage of measuring ground
resistance without disconnecting or de-energizing the system or requiring auxiliary electrodes.
Clamp-on ground resistance testers can be used in multi-grounded systems -- simply clamp the
instrument around the ground conductor or rod below all metal return paths and measure its effective
grounding electrode resistance.
By performing measurements on intact ground systems, you can also verify the quality of the grounding
connections and bonds. Resistance and continuity of grounding loops around pads and buildings can
also be measured.
2
Advanced clamp-on instruments such as the Models 6416, 6417, and 6418 enable you to:
• measure leakage current into the grounding

system
• determine ground voltage as an indicator of
a potential unsafe condition (Model 6416
and 6417)
• measure resistance, impedance,
inductance, current, and voltage
• determine the bonding integrity of the
grounding system
• store test results for later review and
analysis
• designed to EN 61010-1, 600V CAT IV
safety standards
Another advanced feature is data storage. For

example, the Model 6417 stores up to 2000
measurements. This enables you to conduct field
surveys, which can then be downloaded to a
computer for further analysis.
The Model 6417 also includes Bluetooth

connectivity, allowing you to communicate with the
instrument via a computer or Android app.
How Clamp-On Instruments Work

When determining whether or not a clamp-on
instrument is suitable for your application, consider
the following.
• Clamp-ons require a complete electrical circuit to measure resistance. Other methods, such
as the Fall-of-Potential test, use auxiliary electrodes and leads to set up a temporary electrical
circuit.
Clamp-ons are designed to be used with no additional electrodes or leads. Instead they
operate by injecting a repetitive burst AC signal into the grounding system to be tested at a
frequency that does not conflict with the fundamental frequency current. This requires a
complete circuit, with earth as part of the return path. As a result, clamp-ons cannot measure
the resistance of isolated electrodes, unless you create a temporary path using a jumper
cable to a low-resistance established grounding system. These instruments also should not
be used if you are unable to clamp on below an alternate lower-resistance return path that
does not include earth. (Instruments such as the Model 6417 report a “LOOP” message in
these situations.)
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Winter 2020
• Clamp-ons measure the resistance of the entire loop. This includes the grounding electrode
under test, as well as all other electrodes in the system and the conductors and bonds that
connect them.
In a typical municipal electrical distribution network, this may include literally hundreds of utility
pole grounding rods, light poles, and more. It may seem logical that the presence of these
additional rods in the loop would affect measurement accuracy. Instead (and perhaps
counterintuitively), the more electrodes in the loop the more closely the reading matches the
individual resistance of the electrode under test. We explain why this is true later in this
article.
The jaws of clamp-on instruments are designed with two independent shielded magnetic assemblies.
One side is a transmitter that injects the repetitive burst AC signal into the grounding system to be
tested. The burst voltage of the transmitter is kept constant, so the current actually induced into the
test circuit is directly proportional to the loop resistance. The other side is a receiver that acts as a
detector to measure the resultant current.
Applying Ohm’s Law (R = V/I ), the instrument divides the test voltage by the measured current to
calculate resistance.
The test voltage is transmitted at a specific frequency. This allows the clamp to distinguish the induced
current from other currents that may be present, such as leakage.
4
Operation
As noted previously, clamp-on ground testers require the electrode under test to be part of a conductive
loop consisting of other grounding electrodes. The path of this loop must include earth, as shown below.
Placing the clamp around any one of the electrodes measures the resistance of the entire loop. For
instance, in the preceding illustration the instrument has been clamped around electrode #1. The reading
combines the resistance of #1 plus the series/parallel resistance of the group consisting of #2, #3, and #4.
Mathematically this is expressed as.
𝟏𝟏
𝑹𝑹𝑳𝑳𝑳𝑳𝑳𝑳𝑳𝑳 = 𝑹𝑹𝟏𝟏 + � �
𝟏𝟏 𝟏𝟏 𝟏𝟏
+ +
𝑹𝑹𝟐𝟐 𝑹𝑹𝟑𝟑 𝑹𝑹𝟒𝟒
Where:
RLOOP = resistance of the entire loop
R1, R2, R3, and R4 represent the individual resistances of electrodes #1, #2, #3, and #4 respectively
Since the other electrodes in the circuit are in a series/parallel arrangement, adding electrodes lowers the
resistance of this group – in essence, the group collectively functions as a single grounding grid. Thus the
larger the number of electrodes in the loop, the smaller the resistance of the group and the closer the
reading matches the resistance of the electrode under measurement.
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Winter 2020
To demonstrate this point, assume that each electrode in the illustrated loop has a resistance of 10Ω.
Applying this value to the formula (and ignoring the resistance of connecting conductors and bonds)
results in the following:
𝟏𝟏
𝑹𝑹𝑳𝑳𝑳𝑳𝑳𝑳𝑳𝑳 = 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝛀𝛀 + � �
𝟏𝟏 𝟏𝟏 𝟏𝟏
+ +
𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝛀𝛀 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝛀𝛀 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝛀𝛀
𝟏𝟏
= 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝛀𝛀 + � �
𝟎𝟎. 𝟑𝟑𝛀𝛀
= 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝛀𝛀 + 𝟑𝟑. 𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑𝛀𝛀
= 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏. 𝟑𝟑𝛀𝛀
In this case, the instrument reading will be 13.3Ω, which is 3.3Ω more than electrode #1’s actual
resistance of 10Ω.
Now let’s add three more 10Ω electrodes to the loop:
𝟏𝟏
𝑹𝑹𝑳𝑳𝑳𝑳𝑳𝑳𝑳𝑳 = 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝛀𝛀 + � �
𝟏𝟏 𝟏𝟏 𝟏𝟏 𝟏𝟏 𝟏𝟏 𝟏𝟏
+ + + + +
𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝛀𝛀 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝛀𝛀 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝛀𝛀 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝛀𝛀 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝛀𝛀 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝛀𝛀
𝟏𝟏
= 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝛀𝛀 + � �
𝟎𝟎. 𝟔𝟔𝛀𝛀
= 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝛀𝛀 + 𝟏𝟏. 𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔𝛀𝛀
= 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏. 𝟕𝟕𝛀𝛀
This shows that adding three 10Ω electrodes in parallel to the loop actually lowers the reading and brings
it closer to that of the electrode under measurement.
In electrical grids with high numbers of connected grounded utility poles, the loop resistance reading is
only slightly higher than the individual electrode under measurement. This difference can provide a margin
of safety, to ensure the tested electrode meets local ground resistance guidelines. This makes clamp-on
instruments ideal for applications such as testing the grounding systems of utility poles connected to
municipal electrical grids
6
In Summary
• Clamp-on ground testers provide a quick and easy method for testing an electrode connected
to multi-electrode systems.
• These instruments work on both energized and de-energized ground electrode systems.
• Clamp-on ground testers do not require the use of auxiliary test rods.
• These instruments require a complete electrical circuit to operate. The circuit must include
earth as part of the return path.
• Clamp-on instruments measure the resistance of the entire loop. This is always higher
than the actual resistance of the individual electrode under test.
• The more electrodes included in the loop, the more closely the measurement matches the
resistance of the electrode under test.
• AEMC’s Models 6416, 6417, and 6418 provide additional advanced features including
measuring leakage current, checking bonding, user configurable alarm detection, data
storage, and (Model 6417) Bluetooth connectivity.
For more information about AEMC’s family of clamp-on ground testers, please visit our web site.
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Winter 2020
Power Factor and Reactive Power

H ow efficient is my electrical network? This is one of the more basic and critical questions
related to your distribution system. Yet determining a precise answer can be a little tricky if
you’re unfamiliar with concepts such as active power, reactive power, and Power Factor.
In this article, we briefly explain some of the parameters that help determine how effectively your
network delivers useful electrical power.
Active vs Apparent Power

To begin, it’s important to distinguish active power (the amount of energy being transferred to the
network’s load and/or dissipated by the network itself, represented by P and measured in watts) and
apparent power (the total amount of power delivered by the network, represented by S and measured in
volt-amps). Active power is also known as actual power, true power, “watt-full” power, useful power, and
real power. Apparent power is also known as total power.
In a DC system, where voltage and current are essentially linear, active power and apparent power are
more or less equivalent. In AC systems, the situation is more complicated. To understand why, consider
the familiar sine waves typically used to represent 3-phase AC electricity:
Each wave represents electricity periodically oscillating between its positive and negative values.
To simplify things a bit, we’ll focus on a single phase, while bearing in mind that the remainder of this
article applies equally to the other two phases.
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For “clean” AC power undistorted by factors such as harmonics, the sine wave is perfectly
symmetrical and spends as much time above zero as below it.
Capacitive vs Inductive
Each phase of AC power consists of two waves, one for voltage and the other for current. Ideally, these
waves are in phase (i.e. the peaks align), a situation known as a resistive network. Multiplying V x I at any
point in the cycle other than zero results in a positive S value.
In a resistive AC network, all non-zero points in the wave yield usable power. In this case, the
network’s apparent power equals its actual power (P = S), the same as in a DC circuit.
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Winter 2020
In practice, various loads on the distribution system such as transformers, motors, electronics, and
other components can cause the voltage wave to either lead or lag the current wave, a difference
represented by the symbol θ. A network with current leading voltage is called capacitive; lagging
current is known as inductive.
10
Reactive Power
The preceding two graphs show that for portions of each cycle, voltage and current have different signs –
in other words one is positive and the other negative. At this point multiplying V x I results in a negative S
value.
If we shade in these regions, we see the graphic below:
The shaded regions represent the difference between apparent power and actual power. This
difference is known as reactive power (also called “useless power” or “watt-less” power) and is
represented by the symbol Q. Reactive power is not consumed by the load; it simply “bounces”
back and forth between the load and the source without being transformed into mechanical, heat,
light, or other forms of energy.
The remainder of the cycle (the unshaded regions in the preceding graph) represents active power.
As we can see, the more that voltage leads or lags current, the larger the reactive power and thus
the less active power.
In simple mathematical terms:
S (apparent power) = P (active power) + Q (reactive power)
P=S–Q
Q=S–P
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Winter 2020
Power Factor
We can now turn our attention to answering the question asked at the beginning of this article: How
efficient is my electrical network?
To determine this mathematically, we divide active power by apparent power to derive a value called
Power Factor:
Power Factor (PF) = P / S
Power Factor is expressed as a ratio between 1 (unity) and zero. The higher this ratio, the more efficient
the circuit is for transferring power to the load.
For example, in resistive AC circuits where no reactive power is present, PF = 1. In capacitive and
inductive circuits, PF < 1; the higher the reactive power in the circuit the lower the PF.
Low Power Factor can cause multiple problems, including higher energy costs. Since reactive power
cannot be used by your loads, you may end up paying for more electricity than is actually consumed by
your facility. Improving Power Factor can help ensure the apparent power for which you are billed is
more closely equivalent to the active power used.
Low Power Factor can reduce the electrical capacity of your system. It can also produce overloads,
overheating, and shorter service life for your equipment.
Fortunately, there are a number of steps you can take to help increase Power Factor and improve the
efficiency of your electrical network. For example, you can minimize the amount of time your inductive
equipment (such as motors) operate on idle or with light loads. Replace older motors with energy-
efficient models, and run them near (but never above) their rated capacity as much as possible.
In some instances, you can install capacitors into your network to help decrease its level of reactive
power
AEMC Power Quality Instruments

AEMC offers a variety of instruments that make it easy to determine apparent power, active power,
reactive power, and Power Factor. These include the PowerPad® III and PEL families of instruments.
These are supported by DataView® data analysis software.
For example, the PEL connected to the DataView PEL Control Panel displays power quantities P, Q,
and S for each network phase and total:
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Buttons allow you to simplify the display to show only P, Q, or S values. Another button displays Power
Factor for each phase and total:
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Winter 2020
You can also view a phasor diagram, showing at a glance how much voltage lags or leads current for
each phase. This enables you to quickly determine whether the network is capacitive or inductive.
These instruments allow you to quickly determine whether or not reactive power is an issue in your
network, and whether or not remediation efforts may be required to improve its efficiency.
For more information on PowerPad III, PEL, and other AEMC power quality instruments, please visit our
web site.
14
Touch Potential and Step Potential

A grounding system is a conducting connection by which an electrical circuit or equipment is
connected to earth. This connection establishes and maintains as closely as possible the
potential of the earth on the circuit or equipment connected to it. The grounding system provides a low
impedance path for electrical currents to travel under fault conditions, minimizing the possibility that
the fault current will instead follow a path that endangers people and equipment.
Two critical concepts to consider when designing a grounding system are touch potential and step
potential. Both present risks to workers in close proximity to the grounded equipment or structure.
And both are directly affected by local soil conditions, illustrating the importance of soil resistivity
testing as part of your grounding system design and implementation.
Touch Potential
Of the two, touch potential is probably more familiar to the general public than step potential. An obvious
(if extreme) example of touch potential occurs when a person standing on the ground comes in contact
with a hanging power line. The voltage potential between the energized line and the ground upon which
the person is standing is great, allowing a potentially fatal amount of electricity to flow through the person’s
body.
Even in grounded systems, dangerous touch potential may be present during fault conditions. Consider a
grounded metal fence around a transfer substation. A fault current will travel down the fence and go to
ground at its grounding system. If a person comes in contact with the fence during the fault, the soil
resistance of the earth between where the person is standing and the fence will create a drop of potential
(also known as a voltage gradient), causing current to flow through the person’s body. The further the
person’s feet are from the grounded fence, the greater the touch potential and thus the higher the danger.
In addition, higher soil resistivity increases touch potential.
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Winter 2020
Grounding systems should be designed to ensure

touch potential stays below the level that can be
withstood by the human body. This includes
calculating the drop of potential between a reference
point (for instance the fence grounding system) and a
point one meter (3.28’) away, the so-called “reach
distance.”
To do this, use a four-pole ground resistance tester to

measure the resistance of the earth between the
fence and reach distance point. Then using Ohm’s
Law, apply this value along with the anticipated fault
current to calculate touch potential.
For example, suppose we measure the reach distance

ground resistance as 1.5Ω. If we assume a fault
current of 100A, touch potential (VT) will be:
VT = R x I
= 1.5Ω x 100A
= 150V
In this case, the touch potential of the fence will be

150V, a level considered dangerous. (Most utility companies consider touch potential exceeding
130V to be harmful.)
Step Potential
As noted above, grounding systems are designed to direct fault currents into the earth. The current then
travels through the soil. As it does, resistance in the soil produces a drop in potential voltage gradient.
The further apart two points along the current’s path are, the greater the drop between them.
Depending on soil resistivity, this drop can be relatively rapid, creating a difference in potential between
points only a few feet from each other.
If during a fault current event a person walks near the grounding system, the potential at the point
where one foot touches the ground can be significantly different from where the other foot touches. This
difference is known as step potential, and it can cause current to flow up one leg and down the other.
During high fault current events, step potential can present a serious shock hazard to nearby personnel.
(This is why drivers in accidents involving live wires contacting their vehicles are advised to hop away,
carefully keeping both feet together, if they must leave the scene. Simply walking away could be fatal if
both feet touch the ground at different distances from the live wire.)
16
Utility workers in particular are concerned with step potential. Electrical substations are usually
grounded by below-grade grid systems. Leakage currents and other factors can energize a grid,
especially one compromised with age. Walking on the surface above the grid can expose workers to
significant step potential.
Depending on conditions, dangerous step potential can exist a significant distance from the grounding
system. Factors include the amount of fault current that enters the ground, along with soil resistivity –
the higher the soil resistivity, the higher the step potential.
Soil composition can also play a role. For instance, if the surface layer has higher resistivity than the
underlying soil, the more conductive lower layer draws more current out of the grounding system
through the surface layer. This results in a large potential drop near the grounding system. Conversely,
a more conductive surface over high resistivity underlying soil can produce dangerous surface currents
for longer distances from the grounding system.
As with touch potential, step potential can be calculated by measuring the soil resistance. Typically this
involves using a ground resistance tester to perform a 4-point test.
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Winter 2020
The instrument is connected to the grounding electrode system and an auxiliary electrode that injects
current into the soil to simulate the fault. In between and in-line with these electrodes are placed two
potential electrodes, typically one meter apart to simulate a human stride. These electrodes measure
drop of potential to determine the resistance between them. This resistance and the fault current are
then plugged into the Ohm’s Law formula to calculate step potential (VS).
Reducing Touch and Step Potentials

The primary way to decrease touch potential and step potential is to reduce the grounding system’s
resistance. Consider our earlier example of a system with a 1.5Ω resistance to ground and a 100A fault
current, producing a touch potential of 150V. Reducing the ground resistance to 1Ω results in a
corresponding decrease in touch potential to 100V.
There are a variety of ways to reduce the resistance of a grounding system. These include adding
electrodes or using chemical enhancers to increase the conductivity of the local soil. This last measure
(where permissible) can be particularly effective for reducing step voltage, since the drop in potential
between each step will be smaller.
Deciding which measure(s) to consider involves carefully testing soil resistivity at the location. Computer
simulation and modelling may also be helpful, especially at sites close to other grounded installations –
modifications made to one site could impact touch and step potentials at neighboring facilities.
Correct placement of grounding systems is also essential. As mentioned earlier, touch potential rises in
conjunction with resistance. Contacting an energized metallic structure connected to a distant grounding
electrode results in a higher touch potential than touching it next to the electrode, due to the additional
earth resistance. Placing grounding systems in locations where people are most likely to come in
contact with energized metal helps reduce the danger of touch potential.
Other measures include applying a layer of non-conductive material, such as crushed blue stone, on
top of the surface in locations where touch and step potentials may be present (for instance, on top of
substation grounding grids). Workers in these areas should wear industrial-grade insulated footgear,
gloves, and clothing to help ensure personal safety. This is often required by utility safety personnel.
18
New Products
AC Current Probes MR525/526

T he Current Probes MR525/MR526 are Hall-effect
current probes with a single (MR525) or dual (MR526)
range designed for digital multimeters, data loggers,
wattmeters, power analyzers, and other instruments. The
probes include 5’ (1.5m) lead terminated by 4mm safety
banana plugs. They are powered by a 9V battery or by a
standard 5V external power supply via a micro-USB
connector (not supplied).
These clamp-on current probes measure DC currents up to
1400A, AC currents up to 1000ARMS (1400A peak), and
combined AC+DC currents without opening the circuit in
which the currents flow. They indicate the shape and
amplitude of the current measured in the form of a voltage.
The MR525 and MR526 include the following features:
• range overage indicator

• power supply indicator
• zero adjustment
• Auto Standby feature
• one or two ranges, depending on the model (sensitivity 1 and 10mV/A)
• micro‑USB connector to connect an external power supply
19
Chauvin Arnoux®, Inc. d.b.a. AEMC® Instruments
15 Faraday Drive • Dover, NH 03820 USA
Tel: (800) 343-1391 • (603) 749-6434 • Fax: (603) 742-2346
www.aemc.com • techsupport@aemc.com
AEMC®, PowerPad®, and DataView® are registered trademarks of

AEMC® Instruments.

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Chauvin Arnoux® Inc.

Issue 21 “WATTS CURRENT” TECHNICAL BULLETIN Winter 2020

Inside This Issue:

Power Factor and Reactive Power

Touch Potential and Step Potential

New AEMC Products:

Clamp-On Ground Testers

• measure leakage current into the grounding

Another advanced feature is data storage. For

The Model 6417 also includes Bluetooth

How Clamp-On Instruments Work

Mathematically this is expressed as.

Now let’s add three more 10Ω electrodes to the loop:

Power Factor and Reactive Power

Active vs Apparent Power

If we shade in these regions, we see the graphic below:

In simple mathematical terms:

S (apparent power) = P (active power) + Q (reactive power)

Power Factor (PF) = P / S

AEMC Power Quality Instruments

Touch Potential and Step Potential

Grounding systems should be designed to ensure

To do this, use a four-pole ground resistance tester to

For example, suppose we measure the reach distance

In this case, the touch potential of the fence will be

Reducing Touch and Step Potentials

AC Current Probes MR525/526

• range overage indicator

AEMC®, PowerPad®, and DataView® are registered trademarks of

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