EV10003: ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE

Lecture #3
Air Pollution-Part I

Dr. Aditya Kumar Patra

Department of Mining Engineering
09 & 16 Jan 2023 Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur
E-mail: akpatra@mining.iitkgp.ac.in
 Why study air pollution ?

• Causes health problems

• Causes visibility problems
• Causes agricultural and plant damage
• Causes degradation of buildings
• Causes odors
• Causes climate change
• Various other reasons …
Why study air pollution ?
Air pollutants
 Any substance found in the ambient air that is not part of its natural composition or any
substance whose concentration is higher than the concentration found in the air’s natural
composition.

 Air pollutants come from natural activities, such as volcanic eruptions, or human activities,
such as burning of fossil fuels.

 Can be in the following two physical forms:

‒ particulate matter (e.g., ash, dust, smoke, etc.)

‒ gases (e.g., sulfur dioxide, carbon monoxide, etc.)
Air pollutants

Air pollution is defined as the presence of contaminants in air such as dust, fumes, gases,
mist, odour, smoke or vapour in such quantities and characteristics for a particular duration
which may be injurious to human, plant or animal life or to the property or which
unreasonably interfere with comfortable environment of life and property.
 Air pollution – A common working definition

“Air pollution occurs when gases or aerosol particles,

emitted anthropogenically, build up in concentrations
sufficiently high to cause direct or indirect damage to
humans, plants, animals, other life forms, ecosystems,
structures, or works of art.”

Main points …

 Air pollution concentration is the important thing to know …

 “Concentrations sufficiently high” implies a concentration threshold beyond

which we can anticipate a realistic possibility of damage to health, ecosystems,
etc …

 Threshold is often also called a “level of concern” or “standard”

 Relevant Question: Is pollution level below or above threshold?

Air pollution – Sources
Classification of air pollutants
 Primary pollutants

‒ Found in the atmosphere in the same chemical form as when it was emitted
from its source.

‒ Example: carbon monoxide, nitric oxide, nitrogen dioxide, hydrogen sulfide,

sulfur dioxide, halogen compounds such as chlorides, fluorides, bromides,
particulate matter.

 Secondary pollutants

‒ Not directly emitted into the atmosphere but formed in the air as a result of
chemical transformation of other primary pollutants.

‒ Example: ozone formed from photochemical reactions of nitrogen oxides and

volatile organic compounds, sulfuric acid droplets formed from sulfur dioxide.
Classification of air pollutants
Key metal and ion markers of various sources contributing to PM2.5

These markers range from metals from direct combustion of fuels, like coal and diesel, to contributions from
other gases, like

SO2 forming sulphate aerosols (in a series of reactions involving ozone and some intermediate
radicals)
NOx forming nitrate aerosols and hydrocarbons forming secondary organic aerosols (via 500+ known
reactions with ozone and intermediate radicals)
Ozone is a by-product of these 500+ reactions.

Most of the chemical transformation between gases and aerosols takes place during the long-range transport
In other words, a significant portion of the PM2.5 samples collected in the city are there because of the
emissions originating outside the city.
Sources of air pollutants
 Human inputs of air pollutants come from mobile sources (such as cars) and stationary
sources (such as industrial and power plants).
Anthropogenic sources of air pollution
Anthropogenic sources of air pollution
Environmental impacts

Local Impact

Regional Impact

+
Global Impact
Air pollution concentration-
Two main ways to express

Ambient air quality standards, Source performance standards,

those that deal with those that apply to emissions of
concentrations of pollutants in pollutants from specific sources
the outdoor atmosphere

• Mass Per Unit Volume mass emissions per unit of time or

– Mass of air pollutant per cubic meter of air unit of production, such as
– Used for solid, liquid and gaseous air pollutants • grams per minute
– Grams per cubic meter (g/m3)
– Milligrams per cubic meter (mg/m3) = 0.001 g/m3
• kilograms of pollutant per ton of
• Parts Per Million (ppm) product.
– of molecules of air pollutant per million molecules of air
– Used for gaseous air pollutants
– 1 part per billion (ppb) = 0.001 ppm
– 1 part per trillion (ppt) = 0.001 ppb = 1.0 × 10-6 ppm
Example 2.1: CO2 emissions from coal combustion
Calculate the CO2 emissions from bituminous coal on the basis of emissions per unit
of energy released, assuming that the coal contains 67% C by weight with an
energy content of 28,400 kJ/kg.

Solution:

The overall reaction is the oxidation of carbon to CO2, where air is the usual source
of O2.

C + O2  CO2

Thus, 12 g of C produces 44 g of CO2.

Because the coal contains 67% C by weight, there is 670 g of C in 1 kg of coal.

Thus, 1 kg of coal produces

 44 g CO 2   1kg 
 CO2 coal  (670 g C)   
 12 g C  1000 g 

 2.46 kg CO2 / kg coal burned

Each kg of coal burned releases 28,400 kJ of energy. Hence, CO2 emitted per unit
of fuel energy is given by

2.46 kg CO 2 / kg coal
 CO2 coal   8.66 ×10-5 kg CO 2 / kJ fuel energy
28, 400 kJ / kg coal
Example 2.2: SO2 emissions from a coal-fired power plant
A 500 MW power plant burns 2  108 kg coal per year. Calculate the annual
emission of SO2 from the power plant, assuming that the coal contains 1.5% sulfur
by weight and that 97% of the sulfur is converted to SO2.

Solution:

The relevant chemical reaction is

S + O2  SO2
Thus, 32 g of S produces 64 g of SO2.

The mass ratio of SO2 to S is therefore

Mass SO 2 64 g
= =2
Mass S 32 g
Because the power plant burns 2  108 kg coal per year, the total mass of S
entering the plant is

msulfur = (0.015)  2 × 108 kg / year  = 3 × 106 kg / year

Of this, 97% is converted to SO2.

The total annual mass of SO2 is therefore

 kg SO 2 
mSO2  (0.97) (3  10 kg S / year)  2
6

 kg S 
 5.82 × 106 kg SO2 / year
Example 2.3: NOX emissions from a coal-fired power plant
Assume that the power plant in Example 2.2 emits NOX at a rate of 0.260 g NO2/MJ
of fuel energy input to the plant. Estimate the total amount of NOX emitted per year
by this power plant if the annual energy input is 5.68  109 kJ.

Solution:
Annual energy input = 5.68  109 kJ/year

Thus, the annual mass of NOX emitted is

 g NO 2  kJ   1 kg   1 MJ 
mNOX   0.260   5.68 × 10
9
  
 MJ  year   1000 g   1000 kJ 
 1.48 × 103 kg NO2 / year
Note: Although NOX consists of a mixture of NO and NO2, the total mass is expressed as
equivalent NO2 because NO2 is the criteria air pollutant.
Example 2.4: Particulate emissions from a coal-fired power plant

If the ash content of the coal in Example 2.2 is 9.8% by weight, calculate the annual
atmospheric emissions of particulate matter (PM) from the power plant assuming
that 80% of the ash in the coal is entrained in the combustion exhaust gas, while the
remaining 20% (called bottom ash) is collected as a solid waste at the combustor.

Solution:

Because the power plant burns 2  108 kg coal per year, the total mass of ash
entering the plant is

mash = (0.098)  2 × 108 kg / year  = 1.96 × 107 kg ash / year

Thus, the annual atmospheric emissions of PM

mPM = (0.80) 1.96 × 107 kg / year  = 1.57 × 107 kg PM / year

Health effects of air pollution
Clean Air Act
 The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) was created in December 1970 in the United
States to address the Nation’s environmental problems. In the same year the Clean Air
Act (CAA) was passed to safeguard public health.

 The CAA is the comprehensive federal law that regulates air emissions from stationary
and mobile sources.

 It authorizes the EPA to set standards to protect public health and public welfare and to
regulate emissions of hazardous air pollutants.

 The CAA is one of the United States’ first and most influential modern environmental laws,
and one of the most comprehensive air quality laws in the world.

 Numerous countries around the globe have enacted similar legislation to achieve healthy
air quality.
Criteria pollutants
 A group of six common air pollutants that are the most prevalent and the most
harmful to human health and the environment.

 Harmful to humans if concentration in ambient air is above certain levels.

 In the United States, the National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) sets
limits for each pollutant based on health and welfare standards.
Criteria pollutants
 NAAQS have been established for the following six ‘criteria pollutants’.
Carbon monoxide (CO)
 Description: Colorless, odorless gas; forms during incomplete combustion of carbon-
containing fuels.

 Major human sources: Cigarette smoking, incomplete burning of fossil fuels. About 77%
(95% in cities) comes from motor vehicle exhaust.

 Health effects: Reacts with hemoglobin in red blood cells and reduced the ability of blood
to bring oxygen to body cells and tissues. This impairs perception and thinking; slows
reflexes; causes headaches, drowsiness, dizziness, and nausea; can trigger heart attacks
and angina; damages the development of fetuses and young children; and aggravates
chronic bronchitis, emphysema, and anemia. At high levels, it causes collapse, coma,
irreversible brain cell damage, and death.
Nitrogen dioxide (NO2)
 Description: Reddish brown irritating gas; can be converted to nitric acid (HNO3), a major
component of acid deposition.

 Major human sources: Fossil fuel burning in motor vehicles (49%), and power plants and
industries (46%).

 Health effects: Lung irritation and damage; aggravates asthma and chronic bronchitis;
increases susceptibility to respiratory infections such as the flu and common colds
(especially in young children and older adults).

 Environmental effects: Reduces visibility; acid deposition of HNO3 can damage trees,
soils, and aquatic life in lakes.

 Property damage: HNO3 can corrode metals and eat away stone on buildings; statues,
and monuments; NO2 can damage fabrics.
Sulfur dioxide (SO2)
 Description: Colorless, irritating; forms mostly from the combustion of sulfur containing
fossil fuels such as coal and oil; in the atmosphere can be converted to sulfuric acid
(H2SO4), a major component of acid deposition.

 Major human sources: Coal burning in power plants (88%) and industrial processes
(10%).

 Health effects: Breathing problems for healthy people; restriction of airways in people with
asthma; chronic exposure can cause a permanent condition similar to bronchitis.

 Environmental effects: Reduces visibility; acid deposition of H2SO4 can damage trees,
soils, and aquatic life in lakes.

 Property damage: SO2 and H2SO4 can corrode metals and eat away stone on buildings;
statues, and monuments; SO2 can damage paint, paper and leather.
Lead (Pb)
 Description: Solid toxic metal and its
compounds, emitted into the atmosphere as
particulate matter.

 Major human sources: Paint (old houses),

smelters (metal refineries), lead manufacture,
storage batteries, leaded gasoline (being
phased out in developed countries).

 Health effects: Accumulates in the body;

brain and other nervous system damage and
mental retardation (especially in children);
digestive and other health problems; some
lead-containing chemicals can cause cancer.

 Environmental effects: Can harm wildlife.

Particulate matter (PM)
 Description: Variety of particles and droplets (aerosols) small and light enough to remain
suspended in the atmosphere for short periods (large particles) to long periods (small
particles); cause smoke, dust and haze.

 Major human sources: Burning coal in power and industrial plants (40%), burning diesel
and other fuels in vehicles (17%), agriculture (plowing, burning off fields), unpaved roads,
construction.

 Health effects: Nose and throat irritation, lung damage, and bronchitis; aggravates
bronchitis and asthma; shortens life; toxic particulates (such as lead, cadmium and dioxins)
can cause mutations, reproductive problems, cancer.

 Environmental effects: Reduces visibility; acid deposition of H2SO4 droplets can damage
trees, soils, and aquatic life in water bodies.

 Property damage: Corrodes metal; soils and discolors buildings, clothes, fabrics and
paints.
Particulate matter (PM)

The degree of damage of PM depends on the size of PM, number of

particles inhaled, and the general health of the person who inhaled.
 Particulate matter (PM)
Larger particles may be trapped in the nose or eliminated through coughing and sneezing. Fine
particles can penetrate deep into the lungs, and ultrafine particles may even enter the blood
stream. These particles can carry toxic chemicals which are linked to cancer.

Phagocytosis by alveolar macrophages

Particulate matter (PM)
Particulate matter (PM)
Particulate matter (PM): Gravitational settling

The movement of a particle in a fluid is

determined by a balance of the viscous drag
forces resisting the particle movement with
gravitational or other forces that cause the
movement.

A force balance called stokes law is used to

determine the relationship between particle
size and its settling velocity.
 Particulate matter (PM): Gravitational settling

The buoyancy force FB is a net upward

The gravitational force Fg, is equal to
the gravitational constant g times the
mass of the particle, mp. In terms of
particle density ρp and the diameter
Dp, mp is equal to (ρpπ Dp3/6).
𝜋
𝐹𝑔 = 𝜌𝑝 6 𝐷𝑝3 g
force that results from the increase of
pressure with depth within the fluid.
The buoyancy force is equal to
gravitational constant times the mass
of the fluid displaced by the particle.
𝜋
𝐹𝐵 = 𝜌𝑓 𝐷𝑝3 g
6
Where ρf is the fluid density.
 Particulate matter (PM): Gravitational settling

Most particle settling situations involve

creeping flow conditions (Reynolds
number less than 1).

In this case Stoke’s drag force can be

used as:
𝐹𝐷 = 3𝜋𝜇𝐷𝑝 𝑣𝑟
Where
μ is the fluid viscosity (units of g/cm-s)
Vr is the downward velocity of the
particle relative to the fluid.
Particulate matter (PM): Gravitational settling

The net downward force acting on the

particle is equal to the vector sum of all
forces acting on the particle.

𝐹𝑑𝑜𝑤𝑛 = 𝐹𝑔 − 𝐹𝐵 − 𝐹𝐷
𝜋 𝜋
= 𝜌𝑝 𝐷𝑝3 𝑔 − 𝜌𝑓 𝐷𝑝3 𝑔 − 3𝜋𝜇𝐷𝑝 𝑣𝑟
6 6
𝜋 3
= (𝜌𝑝 − 𝜌𝑓 ) 𝐷𝑝 𝑔 − 3𝜋𝜇𝐷𝑝 𝑣𝑟
6

The particle will respond to this force

according to the newton’s second law.
Thus,

𝐹𝑑𝑜𝑤𝑛 = 𝑚𝑝 × 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑑𝑣𝑟
= 𝑚𝑝 × 𝑑𝑡
Particulate matter (PM)
Gravitational settling

When the particle terminal velocity

is reached, it is no longer
accelerating so (dv/dt=0).

Thus Fdown=0 and noting that Vr is

equal to the settling velocity at
terminal velocity.
𝜋 3
(𝜌𝑝 − 𝜌𝑓 ) 𝐷𝑝 𝑔 = 3𝜋𝜇𝐷𝑝 𝑣𝑠
6

𝑔(𝜌𝑝 − 𝜌𝑓 ) 2
𝑣𝑠 = 𝐷𝑝
18𝜇
Particulate matter (PM) – Settling velocity estimate
Question:

Find the settling velocity of a spherical droplet of water with diameter 2µm, and
estimate the residence time of the particle suspended in air at an altitude of 1000m.

Solution:

Density of water, ρp = 1000 kg m-3 = 106 g m-3

Density of air, ρf = 1.2 kg m-3 = 1200 g m-3 (We can neglect it)

Viscosity of air, µ = 0.0172 g m-1 s-1

Diameter of particle, Dp = 2 x 10-6 m

𝑔(𝜌𝑝 − 𝜌𝑓 ) 2
𝑣𝑠 = 𝐷𝑝
18𝜇
=1.27 x 10-4 m s-1
Using simple box model to estimate the residence time of particles uniformly
distributed in a box of atmosphere with height h (m),

Residence time = h/v = 1000/(1.27 x 10-4 m/s) = 7.9 x 106 s = 91 days

TURBULENCE

Turbulence is highly irregular motion of wind.

Types of turbulence:

THERMAL TURBULENCE

Due to differential temperature profile of air

MECHANICAL TURBULENCE

Due to shear stress generated by air movement

TURBULENCE - Wind

Wind flows from higher pressure areas to the lower pressure areas.

Wind speed is a function of the pressure gradient.

Wind speed variation with altitude within PBL

Power law:

uh/ua = (zh/za)p
uh
uh = wind speed at altitude zh
ua = wind speed at altitude za ua
p = exponent zh
za
Lapse rate (Temperature Lapse rate)
TEMPERATURE

The ease with which pollutants can disperse vertically into the
atmosphere is largely determined by the rate of change of air
temperature with altitude.

Lapse rate

The rate of change of air temperature with altitude is called lapse rate.

A parcel of air moving upward experiences less pressure, expands

and cools.

A parcel of air moving downward comes under more pressure, gets

compressed and temperature of the air parcel increases.

Therefore we can imagine that as temperature, pressure and volume

of the air parcel are changing, its surroundings are adding or
subtracting energy from the air parcel.
Adiabatic lapse rate

However, had this energy transfer in the form of heat not taken
place between the air parcel and surrounding, the process
would be adiabatic and at that condition the rate of change of
temperature of the air parcel with altitude is known as adiabatic
lapse rate.

When the air is assumed to be dry, this is called dry adiabatic

lapse rate

Dry adiabatic lapse rate, Гd = - dT/dZ = 9.76 oC/km (≈ 10 oC/km)

SATURATED (WET) ADIABATIC LAPSE RATE

If the air has enough water vapour in it so that condensation takes

place as the air parcel is raised and cooled, latent heat will be
released.

This added heat will not allow the parcel to cool as rapidly as the dry
one.

The lapse rate of such air containing water vapour is called Saturated
adiabatic lapse rate.

This lapse rate is variable as amount of moisture that air can hold
before beginning of condensation is a function of temperature.

A reasonable average value for troposphere:

Saturated adiabatic lapse rate, Гs = - dT/dZ = 6 oC/km

Ambient (Environmental) Lapse rate

A number of factors, such as wind speed, sunlight and the

geographical features cause the lapse rate in the real
atmosphere to vary from the dry adiabatic lapse rate.

This lapse rate in the real atmosphere is called ambient lapse rate (Г).

This is also called environmental lapse rate.

The difference between the ambient lapse rate and adiabatic

lapse rate determines the stability of the atmosphere.
ATMOSPHERIC STABILITY

The tendency of the atmosphere to enhance or resist vertical

motion is termed as stability.

Three atmospheric stability categories

• Unstable atmosphere
• Neutral atmosphere
• Stable atmosphere

Primarily stability depends on Lapse rate.

ATMOSPHERIC STABILITY - Unstable atmosphere

The land surface quickly absorbs heat and

transfers some heat to the surface air layer.
This air warms, becomes less dance (and thus
more buoyant) than the surrounding air so
it rises vertically.
During unstable conditions, vertical movement
of an air parcel in the atmosphere is
encouraged upward or downward.
Unstable conditions most commonly develop
on sunny days with low wind speeds.

Source: Mihelcic and Zimmerman, 2014

ATMOSPHERIC STABILITY - Stable atmosphere

During stable conditions, vertical

movement of an air parcel is
discouraged.
Under very stable conditions, a
cooler layer of an air near the
land surface is capped by an
upper warmer air layer.
This condition is called an inversion
and prevents vertical motion of
an air parcel.

Source: Mihelcic and Zimmerman, 2014

ATMOSPHERIC STABILITY - Stable atmosphere
(Temperature Inversion)

A temperature inversion occurs

when a warmer layer of air
resides above a cooler
surface layer.
Areas that are prone to inversion
occur where large
populations of human reside.
These areas include coastal
zones, valleys, and locations
near mountains.

Source: Mihelcic and Zimmerman, 2014

ATMOSPHERIC STABILITY - Neutral atmosphere

Neutral stability occurs when the

environmental lapse rate is the
same as the dry adiabatic lapse
rate.
The vertical movement of air is
neither encouraged nor
supported under these
conditions.
Stability typically occurs on a windy
day when cloud cover prevents
strong heating or cooling of the
land.

Source: Mihelcic and Zimmerman, 2014

 NEUTRAL ATMOSPHERE

Ambient lapse rate = Dry adiabatic lapse rate

Air parcel experiences no buoyant force

No upward or downward movement of air parcel

Neutral atmosphere condition prevails

Very little pollutant dispersion

500

400
Height (m)

Dry adiabatic lapse rate

300

200 Ambient lapse rate

dT/dZ = -10 oC/km
100

19 20 21 22
Temperature (o C)
 UNSTABLE ATMOSPHERE

Ambient lapse rate > Dry adiabatic lapse rate (the lapse rate is said to be superadiabatic)

Air parcel experiences buoyant force

Upward movement of air parcel

Air from different altitude mix thoroughly

Very effective condition for pollution dispersion

500

400
Height (m)

Dry adiabatic lapse rate

300
Ambient lapse rate
200
dT/dZ = -12.5 oC/km
100

19 20 21 22
Temperature (o C)
 STABLE ATMOSPHERE

Ambient lapse rate < Dry adiabatic lapse rate (the lapse rate is said to be subadiabatic)

Very little vertical mixing of pollutants

Pollutants disperse very slowly; results in pollutant build up

500 Dry adiabatic lapse rate

400
Height (m)

300 Ambient lapse rate

dT/dZ = -0.5 oC/km
200

100

19 20 21 22
Temperature (o C)
Ambient (Environmental) Lapse rate

Example
Given the following temperature and elevation data, determine the
stability of the atmosphere.

Elevation (m) Temperature (oC)

2.00 14.35
324.00 11.13

Answer
ΔT/ΔZ = (11.13-14.35)/(324.00-2.00) oC/m = - 3.22/322.00
= - 0.01 oC/m
= - 10 oC/km

This is same as the dry adiabatic lapse rate.

Therefore, atmospheric stability is neutral.

 INVERSION
Two special cases of subadiabatic lapse rate

Isothermal lapse rate Temperature inversion

When there is no change of temp. When temperature increases
with elevation with elevation

Atmosphere is stable Atmosphere is stable

Both cases discourage pollutant dispersion

Dry adiabatic lapse rate

500
Ambient lapse rate (Isothermal)
400
Height (m)

300 Ambient lapse rate

(Temperature inversion)
200

100

19 20 21 22
Temperature (o C)
 TEMPERATURE INVERSION

An extreme case of atmospheric stability

Ambient temperature increases with altitude, called negative lapse rate

Results in a virtual lid on the upward movement of the pollutant

TYPES OF INVERSION

Radiation Inversion
Subsidence Inversion
Frontal Inversion
 RADIATION INVERSION

Surface of the earth cools after sunset

by radiation of energy towards space 2 AM

On a clear night, surface more rapidly 9 PM

radiates energy to space and ground
cooling occurs much more rapidly 6 PM

As the ground cools, the temp of the Z (m)

air in contact with the ground also 3 PM

drops

Therefore low level air close to ground

is colder than the air above it, a case T (oC)
of temperature inversion
(Development of radiation inversion)
 RADIATION INVERSION

Radiation inversion begin to form at about dusk

As the evening progresses, the inversion extends to higher

and higher elevation

Radiation inversion is more prevalent in winter season and in

nights with clear sky

On a cloudy night, earth’s radiation gets absorbed by water vapour, which in

turn reradiates some of the heat energy back to the ground.
 RADIATION INVERSION

Next day morning sunlight warms the ground and destroys the inversion

10 AM
No Inversion experienced

Inversion layer yet to be broken

Z (m)
Inversion layer broken

Inversion layer broken

T (oC)

(Erosion of radiation inversion)

 ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCE
OF RADIATION INVERSION

Enhanced pollution concentration in the evening and into

the night

Fumigation leading to temporary excessive pollution level

Formation of fog
 SUBSIDENCE INVERSION

Associated with high pressure weather system, known as

Anticyclone

Air in the middle of the high pressure zone descends, gets

compressed and temperature of air rises

Air on the edges are rising and getting cooled

 SUBSIDENCE INVERSION

Z1 1
T1
Top

Z
Z
1 km
High Descending air
10 oC results inversion
Z2 T2
Low Low Base
2
T1 TS T2 T
T
 SUBSIDENCE INVERSION

Top

Subsidence Subsidence
Descending air
Z inversion Z inversion
results inversion

Base

Radiation
inversion

T T
(Day time) (Night time)
 FRONTAL INVERSION

When a cold air mass passes under a warm air mass, the inversion is
called frontal inversion

Frontal inversion has short life

It tend to be accompanied by precipitation which cleanses the air

ATMOSPHERIC STABILITY - Summary

Stable atmosphere:
The thermal structure of the atmosphere inhibits
mechanical turbulence.
Discourages the dispersion and dilution of
pollutants.

Unstable atmosphere:
Mechanical turbulence is enhanced by thermal
structure.
Rapid vertical mixing of air takes place.
Encourages pollutant dispersal.
Improves the air quality.

Neutral atmosphere:
The thermal structure neither enhances nor
resists mechanical turbulence.
Limited pollutant dispersion; dispersion is mainly
due to diffusion.
 MIXING HEIGHT/DEPTH

2.0
If for some reason one of the air parcels (1, 2
Γ = Γd Γd
& 3) moves up or down, its temperature will Neutral
change by 10 oC/km.
1.5 3 Stable

At the new altitude, the air parcel

Altitude (Km)
stability/unstability will be decided by
Γ= 0
comparing its temperature with the 1.0 Stable
surrounding air temperature.

If air parcel temperature > surrounding air

0.5 2 Mixed layer
temperature: the air parcel is warmer and Γ > Γd
lighter and will experience buoyant force and Unstable
will move up (rise).
1
10 15 20 25
If air parcel temperature < surrounding air
temperature: the air parcel is colder and Temperature (oC)
denser and will experience no buoyant force
and will move down (sink). Layer of air Lapse rate Environmental Environment
relationship lapse rate

From ground to 0.5 km Superadiabtic Unstable

From 0.5 to 1.5 km Subadiabatic Stable
Above 1.5 km Subadiabatic Neutral
 MIXING HEIGHT
Air parcel 1 moves up

Will cool at the dry adiabatic lapse rate of 10 oC/km.

Air parcel still warmer than surrounding

2.0

Parcel will continue to rise of its own Γ = Γd Γd

Neutral

1.5 3 Stable
Air parcel 2 moves up

Altitude (Km)
Will cool at the dry adiabatic lapse rate of 10 oC/km.
Γ= 0
1.0 Stable
Air parcel becomes colder than surrounding

Parcel will sink back to where it started from

0.5 2 Mixed layer
If it sinks below the initial level Γ > Γd
Unstable
It will find itself colder than surrounding air
1
It will continue to sink 10 15 20 25

Temperature (oC)
If parcel 3 starts moving down

It will be warmer than the surrounding air

It will rise back to where it was

 MIXING HEIGHT

How far the air parcel 1 will go

up? 2.0

Γ = Γd Γd
Neutral
It will keep rising as long as it is warmer than
1.5 3 Stable
the surrounding air.

Altitude (Km)
Air parcel 1 will go up to an altitude of 1 km
Γ= 0
and then stop 1.0 Stable

If it goes higher than 1 km, it would find itself

colder than surrounding air and will sink back 0.5 2 Mixed layer
to 1 km. Γ > Γd
Unstable
Net result
1
10 15 20 25
Air from ground level to 1 km will actually
experience turbulent mixing despite the Temperature (oC)
stable atmosphere above 0.5 km.

Therefore, in this scenario, the mixing

depth/height is 1 km.
 MIXING DEPTH/MIXING HEIGHT

That height above earth’s surface to which significant mixing of added

pollutants occurs within the atmosphere (the height up to which pollutants will
extend from surface), primarily through the action of the atmospheric
turbulence

OR

The height above the earth’s surface up to which pollutants are diluted and
dispersed in the available atmospheric condition; i.e. significant mixing of the
pollutants takes place

Varies between 100m and 500m above the ground level

Depends on ambient lapse rate at a given place and time

Usually related to wind direction, wind speed and turbulence

It depends on basic meteorological parameters, surface turbulent fluxes and

physical parameters, and follows a diurnal cycle.

Mixing height cannot be observed directly by standard measurements

 MIXING HEIGHT

Usually an inverse relationship between pollutant concentrations and

mixing height exists; so mixing height is often used as, and is a critical
guide of, the pollution potential in an area.

Dispersion model predictions can be highly sensitive to changes in

mixing height.
 Mixing height

Mixing height is governed by either upper

atmosphere temperature inversions or
wind shear (changes in wind speed with
height).

Ambient lapse rate (ALR) has significant

influence of Mixing height.
 Mixing height

Mixing heights have a diurnal

variation and rapidly change after
sunrise and at sunset.

Higher mixing height

Unstable air
Summer season
Day time

Lower mixing height

Stable air
Winter season
Night time

Typical diurnal mixing height variation

 MIXING HEIGHT/DEPTH

Project the ground

temperature upward at the
dry adiabatic lapse rate until
it crosses the actual
ambient temperature profile.

The region from the ground

surface to the height at
which both the temperature
meets is the region of
turbulent mixing

The altitude of top of that

mixed layer is called Mixing
Depth or Mixing Height.
 VENTILATION FACTOR/COEFFICIENT

Air pollution dispersion is often studied with simple

models called box models. The larger the volume of the
box, the lower the pollution concentration

Ventilation factor (m2 s-1)

= Mixing depth (m) x Average wind speed within the
mixing depth (m s-1)

Ventilation coefficient is an indicator of the atmosphere’s

dispersive capacity.

The ventilation factor gives us a way of relating the

pollution concentration to the parameters that control
dispersion of the pollution in the local environment.

Basically, increasing either the mixing height or the wind

speed increases the effective volume in which pollutants
are allowed to mix.

If ventilation coefficient < 6000 m2 s-1, it indicates high

air pollution potential
Lapse rate and Plume Pattern

Behaviour of plume from a stack can be predicted by comparing the

adiabatic lapse rate with the ambient lapse rate

Different Plume types

Looping
Neutral
Coning
Fanning
Lofting
Fumigating
Trapping
LOOPING PLUME

A Looping plume occurs in highly

unstable conditions.
A rapid turnover of air causes
turbulence.
Looping plumes are usually
favorable for dispersion of air
pollutants and usually result
in low exposure to low
pollutant concentrations.
However, there may be short
episodes of exposure to
higher concentrations of air
pollutants where the plume
loops downward to ground
level. Source: Mihelcic and Zimmerman, 2014
 Wind

Ambient lapse rate ≈ Dry adiabatic lapse rate

Very weak lapse rate

Low wind speed

Plume tend to rise directly into the atmosphere until it reaches air
of density similar to that of plume itself
CONING PLUME

A coning plume occurs under

neutral conditions where
atmosphere conditions are
slightly stable.

Source: Mihelcic and Zimmerman, 2014

FANNING PLUME

A fanning plume occurs in very stable

conditions.
An inversion prevents vertical motion
of the plume, but horizontal
motion of the plume is not
prevented downwind.

Source: Mihelcic and Zimmerman, 2014

LOFTING PLUME

A lofting plume occurs when

release of air pollutants occurs
just above the inversion.
The air above the inversion is
unstable, which encourages
vertical mixing above the
inversion layer.
In this case ground-level
concentration is low because
stack height is above the
elevation of the inversion.

Source: Mihelcic and Zimmerman, 2014

FUMIGATING PLUME

A fumigating plume occurs when

air pollutants are released
just below an inversion layer.
The air below the plume in this
case in unstable.
Ground level receptors can be
exposed to high levels of air
pollutants.

Source: Mihelcic and Zimmerman, 2014

TRAPPING PLUME

Plume is caught between two

inversions, above and below the
emission source.

Dispersion of pollutants is limited

between the inversion layers. Wind

High concentration of pollutants in

trapped layer due to limited Γ
Z
dispersion.

May be associated with subsidence

T
inversion lasting for several days,
where almost all emissions are
trapped below the inversion layer,
leading to one of the worst
pollution situations
PLUME TYPES - SUMMARY

Height of the stack and local lapse rate characteristics critically influence
the dispersion of emitted pollutants

Lofting plume - Most favourable for pollution dispersion

Fumigating and trapping plume - Most undesirable for pollution dispersion