1.

SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY AND SOCIETY

THE INTERACTIONS OF SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY AND SOCIETY

A. What is Science?
Science is the investigation of the world and everything around us.

Branches of Science are as follows:

1. Biology- study of all living things.
2. Chemistry- study of the matter.
3. Physics- study of matter, energy and how they work together.

B. What is technology?
Technology is the use of knowledge gained through science for innovation (designing, making
and producing) tools to meet people’s needs and to make our lives easier (application).

Examples of technology in our daily lives:

knives, cups,spoons,pens,pencils,calculators,computers,cellphones,television, radios cars,
wheels, watches, candles, tractors, stove, bicycle, chair table, steam train and stapler.

The facts discovered through science are used to help us work faster, easier and better.

APPLIED SCIENCE

Science Technology

Observing and application

understanding

C. Summary of the differences between Science and Technology

SCIENCE
Focuses on gaining knowledge
Pursues knowledge and understanding for
its own sake
Involves discovery through careful
experimentation
Tries to be as value free as possible
TECHNOLOGY
Focuses on making things in order to meet
people’s needs.
Make objects and devices to meet people’s
needs
Involves design, invention and production
Is driven by society and its values

SUMMARY: Science is the investigation of the world and everything around us while
technology is the application of scientific principles or laws.
 D. The impact of technology on society
Technology in our modern everyday lives can be listed under three main headings:-

I. Transport - * road, rail, air and sea

Positive impact (benefits)

 Economic benefits such as creating jobs (import/ export goods)
 Greater travel opportunities by air, railway or road
 More leisure opportunities and business opportunities

Negative impact (problems)

 used oil in ships can contaminate the sea water
 Carbon dioxide in exhaust fumes is adding to the problem of global warming
 Motor vehicles kill and injure many people on roads and highway

II. Information and communication: gather, store, retrieve, process, analyses, transmit
information through devices such as mobile phone, radio, television, computer, CD,
DVD, Digital camera, game console, credit cards and laser.

Positive impact (benefits)

 People can work anywhere
 There is an increased awareness of the world with 24hrs news networks telling us of
events as they happen
 The internet gives us easy access to important information

Negative impact (problems)

 People become lazier and unfit because there is no need to move from a desk to meet and
communicate with others
 Many devices such as T.Vs, video games, mobile phones, are distrusting and have a bad
effect on , for example personal relationships and school studies.
 Many devices are expensive so thieves are encouraged to steal

III. Construction and manufacturing

Positive impact
 Architecture, engineering, building etc – changing of raw materials into finished products
(machines, cars, devices, scanner, roads, bridges, tall buildings).

Negative impact
 Create waste such as used oil, plastics bags, empty cans, bottles and card board boxes,
people do not always dispose of the waste properly e.g. pollute the environment
 E. The influence of Society on Technology
I. Travel
 People travel daily form one place to another quickly and safety.
 Roads rebuilt or redesigned to take account to the increase in number of cars.

II. Communication
 People communicate with others anywhere and at any time led to the development of
mobile phones, internet and electronic mail, take photographs, play music and videos,
show maps using GPS (global positioning system).
 Develop memory sticks, cards, powerful laptop and computers, very small cell phones
and small digital cameras.

F. Environmental issues related to technology

 Pollution – waste products, chemicals, used oil, burning fossil fuels

 Air, water and land are being polluted
 Smoke released from various industries lead to global warming
 Deforestation is taking place at an increasing rate
 Pesticides kill other animals that are useful to us as bees, fish etc.
 Fertilizers kill under water vegetation and fish

G. Environmentally friendly technology

 Recycle waste products e.g. bottles, tins, papers, plastics and metals
 Cars used unleaded petrol (lead is very poisonous as it can damage the brain)
 Solar and wind energy is used as source of energy which do not pollute the
Environment.

H. Health issues related to technology

Some health technologies that have led to important improvements in our health
Include:-

 X-ray technology allows us to see inside the human body so that we can identify
Broken bones
 The development of vaccine technology has meant that diseases that used to cause death
and illness no longer affect us.
 The development of drugs such as antibiotics and pain killers has meant that many
diseases can be cured.
 Technology that put people to sleep during surgical operations (anesthetics) has meant
that operations can now be carried out safely and painlessly.
 2. DOING SCIENCE

A. PLANNING A SCIENTIFIC INVESTIGATION

Steps taken when carrying out a scientific investigation

Ask a question

Make up a hypothesis

Experiment (carry out investigation)

Draw conclusion

Communicate the conclusions

1. Questions What did you observe? The answer will form a hypothesis.
2. Hypothesis is the possible/explanation to a scientific question, intelligent guess.eg why
did some things float in water and others sinks?
3. Fair test is an experiment in which only one factor is changed. This means that the
results of the experiment are unquestionable / valid.
4. Controlling variables are things that can be changed and may affect the final result.
5. Independent variable is the variable that you are interested in that will be changed in an
investigation. All the other possible variables must stay the same. If more than one
variable changes, then you do not know which variable has caused the effect.
6. Dependent variable is the variable that will not change BUT can be affected by the
change in the independent variable.
7. Control group is something that is used to compare your experimental group to. Without
a control, you cannot tell whether or not a change has happened in your experimental
group.
8. Experimental group is the group in which you made a change to the independent
variable that you are interested in.

SCIENCE PROCESS SKILLS

Observing experimenting Inferring Communicating

Predicting Comparing Interpreting Predicting
Classifying Analysing Controlling variables Conclusion
Solving problems Making hypotheses
 3. Working safely in the laboratory ( science)

Safety means being protected against harm which could be caused by hazards around us.
Hazards are things around us that could cause damage to us if they are not used safely, eg sharp
tools.

I. COMMON LABORATORY HAZARDS

 Biological hazards – are dangers to health that may be caused by contact with animals /
Plants can cause allergies.
 Chemical hazards – Chemical that may be poisonous / may burn / damage your skin
/Clothing eg dangerous chemicals include common acids such as sulphuric acid.
 Physical hazards – This type of hazard may be encountered when you are working with
high voltage electricity sources and with high energy radiation sources as X – rays.

II. SAFETY GUIDELINES WHEN WORKING IN THE LABORATORY

In order to reduce the risk of injuries and accidents happening in the Laboratory, there are some
rules that should be followed by all people who work in the lab. These rules are knows as safety
guidelines.
MEASUREMENTS

SCALAR AND VECTORS

I. Scalar quantity simplest measurements that have a numerical value of size but no
direction. Examples of scalar quantity are mass, length, speed, volume, width, time, area,
temperature, density.

III. Vector quantity: complex measurements that have a numerical value of size and
direction. Examples of vector quantity are force, velocity and acceleration.

Calculating the resultant vector

 Resultant vector is the overall result of the vectors acting on an object.
 The overall effect on an object (direction and speed) that the object moves in ,
depends on the magnitude and direction of the vectors that are affecting it.

N.B:-
a. ADD the magnitude of the vectors together if both vectors are acting in exactly the same
direction

Example – an object moving at a speed of 30km/h up North is affected by a force moving in

the same direction up North at a speed of 20km/h
Calculate the resultant vector

30km/h + 20km/h = 50km/h

b. SUBTRACT the magnitude of the vectors from each other if the vectors are acting in exactly
the opposite direction

Example – an object moving at a speed of 50km/h in the Easterly direction comes across a
force moving at a speed of 10km/h in a Westerly direction ( opposite direction)
Calculate the resultant vector

50km/h - 10km/h = 40km/h

SUMMARY
Scalar quantities
They can be described fully with only one
number
They do not have a direction
They have a fixed scale which never
changes eg length- ruler have a fixed scale
Vector Quantities
They need more than one number and / or
phrase to describe them fully.
They have to include a direction
They do not have a fixed scale
Classifying physical quantities into scalar and vector quantities

SCALAR UNIT VECTOR QUANTITIES UNITS

QUANTITEIS S
Volume M3 Acceleration(rate of speed + direction) m/s
Length M Deceleration m/s
0
Temperature C Velocity ( speed movement + direction) m/s
Area M2 Force (pull/ push +direction) N
Density Kg/M3
Time second
Speed m/s
Width M
Weight N

A. MEASURING LENGTH

Length is the distance between two points.

Standard unit of length

SI unit is metre and its symbol is ‘m’.

1centimetre (cm) = 10 millimetres (mm)

1metre (m) = 1000 millimetres (mm)
1metre (m) = 100 centimetres (cm)
1kilometre (km) = 1000 metres (m)
1kilometre (km) =100 000 centimetres (cn)
1kilometre (km) = 1000 000 millimetres (mm)

INSTRUMENTS USED TO MEASURE LENGTH

Measuring tape
Click wheel
Micrometer screw gauge
Vernia carlipers
Metre rule
30cm ruler

Sources of error are as follows for measuring Length

- If the 0 (zero) point of the scale is not lined up properly with one end of the object being
measured. The length could be longer or shorter.
- If the rule is not placed straight and lined up along the object that is being measured.
 - Parallex error; it happens because the thickness of the rule and the position from which
you are making your measurement affect how the scale on the rule lines up with the end
of the object being measured.

STEPS TO FOLLOW IN ORDER TO AVOID SOURCES OF ERROR

(HOW TO MAKE ACCURATE MEASUREMENTS)

1. Line up the 0 point on the rule exactly with one end of the object being measured
2. Make sure that the rule lies flat and lines up evenly against the edge of the object you are
measuring
3. Use a thin transparent rule if possible to avoid parallax error
4. Make sure your eyes are directly above the end of the object you are measuring to avoid
parallax error
5. Carefully read the number on the scale that lines up with the other end of the object you
are measuring
6. Record the measurement by writing it down

B. MEASURING AREA
Area is a measure of the size of surface of something.
The units of area are always in a squared unit.
SI unit of area is the square metre (m2).

In order to determine the area of a regular object such as a square, triangle and circle we use the
following formulas

- Square we use the formula side by side (Area = SXS )

Example,calculate the area of the square below

4cm

4cm

Formula = S x S
= 4cm x 4cm
= 16cm2

- Rectangle we use the formula length x width (Area = LXW )

5mm
 3mm|

Formula = L x W
= 5mmx3mm
= 15mm2

- Area of a circle we use the formula Pie(π) X Radius X Radius ( Area = π x r2 )

Radius is half of diameter
Pie (π) = 22/7 or 3.142 14km
diameter

7km
radius

Area = πxr2
= 22/7 x7km x 7km
= 154 km2
- Area of a triangle we use the formula half base x height ( ½ xbxh )

3cm

4cm

Area of triangle = ½bh

= ½ x 4cm x 3cm
= 6 cm2

DETERMINING THE AREA OF IRREGULAR SHAPES/ OBJECTS

Areas of irregular shaped objects (irregular shapes) is determined by

the following method
- trace the object on a graph pad or grid
- then calculate area of 1 square
- count number of full squares and more than half squares.
*ignore the small incomplete squares
- multiply area of 1 square with number of full square

area of square = 1cm x 1cm

= 1cm2
number of squares = 5
area of irregular shape =area of square x number of squares
= 1cm2 x 5
= 5cm2

c. MEASURING VOLUME

Volume is the amount of space something takes up or occupies.

The SI unit of volume is m3 ( the cubic metre ). Other units of volume are:

Cubic millimeters (mm3)

Cubic centimeters (cm3)
Milliliters (ml)
Litres

1 litre = 1000 millilitres (ml)

1ml = 1cm3

REGULAR OBJECTS
The volume of regular shaped objects such as a cube and cuboid we use the formular

Volume = Length x width x height

=LxWxH

Height (h)

Width(w)
 Length ( l )

For example, if a cuboid is 3metre long, 2metre wide and 1metre, then its volume will be

Volume = l x w x h
= 3m x 2m x 1m
= 6 m3

IRREGULAR OBJECTS
Volumes of irregular shapes such as fluids ( liquids and gas) and other solid shapes may be
measured using an instrument known as a Measuring Cylinder. This is a tall glass or plastic
container with a scale on one side. Measuring cylinders come in various sizes. Other instruments
used to measure volume are displacement can, burette, pipette, beaker, flask.

Below is a measuring cylinder with two different liquids

MEASURING VOLUME OF LIQUID USING A MEASURING CYLINDER

Precautions for using measuring cylinder

- Pour water and place it on a flat surface so that is level
- Study the scale
- Lower your head so that your eyes are at the same level as the surface of water
- Take the reading from the bottom of meniscus (meniscus is the curve upwards formed at
the sides of the container)
- Read your reading and put units

Diagram
*Parallex error – A, B, D
*Meniscus - C

TRADITIONAL MEASURING DEVICES

 - Cups
- Coke litre bottle
- Water jars with scale
- Baby bottle feeder
- 20l /25L / 5L containers

MEASURING VOLUME OF IIREGULAR OBJECTS eg stone SINKING OBJECTS

- Pour water in a measuring cylinder up to a certain volume, say Y cm3

- Then tie the stone in a string and lower it
- Lower the stone gentle to rest at the bottom
- Take the new reading
Answer
Volume of stone + water = X cm3
Volume of water = Y cm3
Volume of stone = X – Y = Z cm3

Diagram

DISPLACEMENT CAN

- Pour water in a displacement can until it comes out of the spout

- Let the last drop comes out of the spout
- Place a measuring cylinder at the other end and gently lower the stone
- The volume of water collecting in the measuring cylinder will be equal to the volume of
the stone.
 Diagra
m

VOLUME OF FLOATING OBJECTS

Volume of water + metal cube + Cork = P cm3

Volume of water + metal cube = Q cm3
Volume of cork = R cm3 ( P – Q = R)

Diagram
POSSIBLE SOURCES OF ERROR

- Not placing the measuring cylinder on a level surface when taking the reading
- Not taking the reading of volume form the bottom of the meniscus
- Avoid parallex error when taking the reading ( eye at the level of the surface of the water)

MEASURING MASS

Mass is the amount of matter in an object that makes up an object.

SI unit for mass is kilograms ( Kg).

1kg = 1000g
1g = 1000mg
1 tonne = 1000kg

Measuring mass of different objects

Measuring instruments used:

- Triple beam balance

- Electrical balance
- Bathroom scale
- Lever arm balance
Diagram
Triple beam balance Lever arm balance
Scales of measuring instruments eg triple beam balance
Diagram

= (1 X 100g) + (3 X 10g) + ( 3.5 X 1g)

= 100g + 30g + 3.5g
= 133.5g

SOURCES OF ERROR IN MEASURING MASS

- instrument is at level
- start at zero (0- point / reset it)
- wait for the meter to stop moving
- do not measure when breeze is disturbing and not greater than maximum
- avoid parallax error.

DENSITY
Density is mass of a unit volume of a substance. Compare the heaviness of equal volume of a
substance.

Formula for Density

Density = Mass _
Volume

Density of water is 1g/cm3 .

MEASURING DENSITY OF DIFFERENT LIQUIDS USING A HYDROMETER
Precaution:-
- study the scale
- bulb should float as it filled with air
- weight hold it upright when floating
- take the reading while still in a liquid ( specific gravity of a liquid)

Unit of density of different liquids is measured in percentage ( % ) .

Two hydrometers in liquids that have different densities

Low density liquid. High density liquid

Below is a table showing the density of some common substances

Substance Density (g/ cm3)

Wood (pine) 0.7
Oil 0.8
Pure water 1.0
Aluminium 2.7
Iron 7.8
Lead 11.3
Mercury 13.6
Gold 19.3
Ice 0.9
Paraffin wax 0.9
Platinum 21.5
Glass 2.6
Copper 8.9
RELATING DENSITY TO BUOYANCY

Buoyancy means the way in which something floats on a liquid. As the buoyancy force is
greater than force of gravity acting on a substance, the substance will stay afloat.

Diagram
MEASURING TEMPERATURE

Temperature is the measure of how hot / cold a substance is. It can also be defined as the
measure of how much heat an object has.
SI unit for temperature is Kelvins ( K ).
Instrument for measuring temperature is a thermometer.

Types of thermometer
i. Clinical thermometer – measures body temperature.
It ranges from 35 oC to 42 oC.
The scale of it measures to the nearest 0.1 oC.
It uses mercury which expands and contracts and has a thick glass.
Mercury is stored in the bulb ( reservoir).
The bulb is connected to a constriction ( kink) to prevent the backflow of mercury to the bulb.

DIAGRAM

ii. Laboratory thermometer – measures temperature of substances over a wide range.

It ranges from - 10 0C to 110 0C
-10 0C to 210 0C
-10 0C to 250 0C.
The scale of it measures to the nearest 10C.
It uses mercury and coloured alcohol which contracts when cooled and expand when in hot
objects.

Diagram
The table below shows the difference between a laboratory thermometer and a clinical
thermometer

Laboratory thermometer Clinical thermometer

- It has a thinner glass
- Its scale has a range of between
200C and 1200C
- The measuring liquid can move
freely up and down the bore as the
temperature changes
- It can measure temperature to the
nearest 10C
- It has a thick glass
- Its scale has a range of between
350C and 420C
- The level of the mercury column
remains at the highest reading as it
cools because of a coil in the bore
- It can measure temperature to the
nearest 0.10C

Other types of thermometers are electronic thermometer, meat thermometer and outdoor
thermometer.

CONVERTING TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENTS USING DIFFERENT SCALES

Although Degrees Celsius are the standard unit used to measure temperature of something, there
are two other scales of temperature measurement that are used.

A. Kelvin scale: to convert Kelvin into degrees Celsius, you use the formula.

Temperature in Degrees Celsius (oC) = temperature in Kelvin (K) -273

For example, if someone said the temperature outside was 298k, what would be the temperature
in degrees Celsius. To get the answer you subtract 273k from 298k. See below.

Temperature in Degrees Celsius (oC) = temperature in Kelvin (K) -273

Temperature in Degrees Celsius (oC) = 298 - 273
Temperature in Degrees Celsius (oC) = 25oC
In order to convert degrees Celsius into Kelvin, then you would use the formula :

temperature in Kelvin (K) = temperature in Degrees Celsius (oC) +273

For instance, if the temperature is 17oC, what would be the temperature in Kelvin? This is how to
get the answer.

temperature in Kelvin (K) = Temperature in Degrees Celsius (oC) +273

temperature in Kelvin (K) = 17 + 273
temperature in Kelvin (K) = 290 k

B. Fahrenheit scale: In order to convert 0F into 0C, we can use the following formula:

Temperature in degrees Celsius = (temperature in degrees Fahrenheit – 32) X 0.55

Degrees Celsuis ( 0C) = ( degrees Fahrenheit ( 0F) – 32) X 0.55

Degrees Celsius ( 0C) = (770F – 32) X 0.55
Degrees Celsius (0C) = (45) X 0.55
Degrees Celsius (0C) = 25 0C

You can also convert 0C into 0F by using the following formula:

Degrees Fahrenheit (0F) = degrees Celsius (0C) X 1.8 + 32

For example, if you were told that the temperature is 220C, what would be the temperature in
degrees Fahrenheit?

This is how to get the answer:

Degrees Fahrenheit (0F) = degrees Celsius (0C) X 1.8 +32
Degrees Fahrenheit (0F) = 220C X 1.8 + 32
Degrees Fahrenheit (0F) = 39.6 + 32
Degrees Fahrenheit (0F) = 72 0F

MEASURING TIME

Time – is the period between the start and finish of an event

- Is the duration of something / how long it takes for an event
- Measure of the gap (interval) between two event

The SI unit for time is second(s) and the symbol is ‘s ‘. There are :
- 60 seconds in 1 minute.
- 60 minutes in 1 hour.
- 24 hours in 1 day
- 7 days in 1 week.
- 30 days in 1 month.
 - 12 months in 1 year.
- 10 years in 1 decade.
- 100 years in 1 century

Traditional ways of estimating time

- Shade
- Position of the sun
- Cork crawling
- Hour glass

Instruments for measuring time

- Clock
- Watch
- Computer
- Mobile phone
- Radio
- Television set

Diagrams

Stop clock
10

SOURCES OF ERROR IN MEASURING TIME

- Not starting at zero. Reset the watch or clock.

- Needle not at the line up exactly with the 0 (zero) point on the scale.
- Slow reaction time ( reduced by electronic timing instruments).
- Thinking ahead about when something is going to start / end.
UNIT 2.0 :PLANTS, ANIMALS AND THE ENVIRONMENT

2.1: LIVING MATTER

Characteristics of living things

1. Growth – the increase in size of a living thing due to the increase in cell numbers.
2. Reproduction – the production of new ones from one or more parent.
3. Respiration – getting energy from food in the presence of oxygen.
4. Sensitivity – how living things respond /react to changes around them.
5. Nutrition - the feeding of organisms to provide energy.
6. Movement- the ability of an organism to move.
7. Excretion - the removal of waste products from the body or living thing

Basic Principles of Classification of Living things

The largest groups of living things are called Kingdoms. These groups can be further divided
into smaller groups called phyla, classes, orders, family, genus and species.
For example, the complete scientific classification of humans (binomial classification) is as
follows:

Kingdom ----- Animalia

Phylum --------Chordata
Class -----------Mammalia
Order ----------Primates
Family --------- Hominidae
Genus ----------Homo
Species ---------Sapiens

Classification keys
Dichotomous – are the simplest type made up of brief descriptions arranged in numbered pairs.
A simple way to classify and identify an organism is to use something –Key.

(DRAW A SIMPLE CLASSIFICATION KEY OF LIVING THINGS)

CELLS

A cell is a basic unit of life.

PLANT AND ANIMAL CELLS

Similarities between plant and animal cells

* Both have cell membrane, cytoplasm and nucleus

Differences between plant and animal cell

Plant cells Animal cells
-Has chloroplasts -No chloroplasts
-Has cell wall -No cell wall
-Has large permanent vacuoles - Vacuoles usually small or absent
-Has rigid structure and definite shape -No definite shape

Functions of parts of a cell

1. Cell wall- supports the cell membrane and gives a plant cell a particular shape.

2. Cell membrane-controls the movement in and out of the cell. It only allows certain
substances and therefore we say it –is semi permeable

3. Cytoplasm- (a gel like fluid) A site for the chemical reaction

4. Nucleus- control and direct activities taking place in a cell

5. Chloroplasts- contains chlorophyll which enables plants to make food

6. Vacuole- contains a liquid called cell sap. It stores dissolved substances eg salts and
sugars.

7. Mitochondria for cell-produce energy which is used by the cells to carry out other
functions.
Cell Specialization

Cell structure in a particular way to perform a particular function.

Specialized Animal cells

Nerve cell Red blood cell Sperm cell

Red blood cells

*transport oxygen. Have no nucleus and this leaves more space for carrying oxygen.
White blood cells
* fights the infection. Lymphocytes produce antibodies while phagocytes engulf harmful bacteria

Nerve cells
*carry electrical messages as quickly as possible.

Muscle cell
*contract and relax and pull the bones to effect movement. There are also muscle cells in the
heart which help it to keep blood pumping.

Sperm cells
*it has a tail that beats and enables it to swim (move)
 Specialized Plant cells

Conducting cells
*transport food, water and mineral salts through the plant e.g. Xylem cells, Phloem cells

Palisade cells
*found in the leaves and have large number of chloroplasts (photosynthesis takes place in these
cell mostly

Guard cells
* It controls the amount of water loss from plants. Open and close the stomata to allow gases to
pass in and out of the leaf. They are found in leaves

The Microscope
Plants and Animal Systems

a. Unicellular organism
An organism with only one cell e.g. amoeba, desmid, bacterium, yeast, paramecium.

b. Multi-cellular organism
An organism with many different kinds of cells e.g. a bird, cow, sponge, chimpanzee, baobao
tree

c. Difference between Unicellular and Multicellular organisms

Unicellular organisms Multicellular organisms

*They are made up of one cell.
*The cells may be grouped together but the
group only contains only one cell type.
*The cell do not co-operate with each
other.
*They are microscopic (cannot be seen
with naked eyes).
They are made up of more than one cell.
*The groups of cells are made up of more
than one cell type.
* The cells co-operate with each other.
*Some are microscopic although most can
be seen with naked eyes.

i. Tissue
A group of similar cells working together to carry out a particular function e.g. bone tissue, leaf
tissue muscle tissue

ii. Organs
Different tissues grouped together and all work together to perform one major function e.g. a
leaf, kidney, stem, heart.

iii. System
Several organs work together to form a system. Each organ has its own part to play in the
working of the system.eg digestive system in animals and transport system in plants.

Cells------->Tissues-------->Organs--------->Systems----------->Organisms
2.2: ENERGY FLOW IN LIVING THINGS

a. Leaf Structure

-The underside of a leaf has tiny holes called stomata (stoma for singular). Carbon dioxide enters
and oxygen leaves through the stomata during photosynthesis through the process of diffusion.

-The upper surface of a leaf contains palisade cells which contain a large number of chloroplasts.
Chloroplasts contain chlorophyll needed for photosynthesis.

b. Photosynthesis –is a process whereby green plants make their own food.
Green plants need four things for photosynthesis:
-carbon dioxide from the air
-water from the soil
-sunlight
-chlorophyll to trap the energy in sunlight
 c. Word equation

Sunlight
Water + Carbon dioxide ------------------------> Carbohydrate + Oxygen
Chlorophyll

d. Testing a green leaf for starch

Step Reason
-Put the leaf in boiling water for 3 minutes -To break open the cells
-Boil the leaf in alcohol for 10 minutes in a -To remove chlorophyll
water bath
-Put the leaf in hot water -To soften the leaf
-Spread the leaf on a white tile and add a -To test the presence of starch. If starch is
few drops of iodine solution on the leaf present the leaf will turn blue-black
 e. Oxygen as the other product of photosynthesis

Conclusion: If oxygen is present the glowing splint relights. This shows that oxygen is produced
during photosynthesis.

f. Three of the Conditions necessary for Photosynthesis

i. Is light necessary for photosynthesis?

NB: Aluminium foil is shining and as such will reflect light.

Conclusion: The part exposed to light will turn blue-black showing that photosynthesis took
place. The part covered with aluminium foil will not change colour because no photosynthesis is
taking place on those parts.
Therefore light is necessary for photosynthesis.
 ii. Is carbon dioxide necessary for photosynthesis?

Leave the plants for 2 days in sunlight and test for starch.
Conclusion: Leaves from plant 1 did not turn blue-black because there was no carbon dioxide
and leaves from plant 2 turned black as carbon dioxide was
Therefore carbon dioxide is necessary for photosynthesis tom take place.

iii. Is chlorophyll necessary for photosynthesis?

We use a variegated leave, which is a leave that has chlorophyll in some parts but don’t have in
others, (Part of the leaf is green and the other may be white, purple or yellow).

Conclusion: The part of the leaf that is green will turn blue-black while the part of the leaf that is
white, purple or yellow will remain unchanged.

g. The Importance of photosynthesis to life on earth

1. It is a source of food both for plants and animals. Plants make their own food while
animals depend on plants and other animals for food.
2. It provides organisms with oxygen which is needed for respiration. Organisms are not
able to make energy from food without oxygen.
3. It reduces global warming => photosynthesis removes carbon dioxide from the
atmosphere.

The leaf as a structure of gaseous exchange

Leaves have tiny holes called stomata. Carbon dioxide enters the leaves through the stomata.
Oxygen leaves the leaf through stomata. The process by which gasses enter and leave is called
diffusion.
RESPIRATION
Respiration is a process whereby all living organisms obtain energy.
*occurs in all living cells at all times.
*Carbohydrates combine with oxygen and water, carbon dioxide and energy are produced.

a. Word Equation for Respiration

Carbohydrates + Oxygen -------------------> Energy + Carbon dioxide + Water

Respiration and Breathing

*Respiration is a chemical process that takes place in the cells of animals and plants, to produce
energy, carbon dioxide and water, while Breathing is simply the taking in and out of the air
*Breathing enables us to take in oxygen for respiration and carbon dioxide out after respiration.

b. Relationship between photosynthesis and Respiration

Photosynthesis
Energy + Water + Carbon dioxide -----------------> Food + Oxygen

Respiration
Food + Oxygen -------------> Energy + Water + Carbon dioxide

c. Differences between Respiration and Photosynthesis

RESPIRATION
Energy is released
Carbon dioxide is released
Oxygen is used up
Water is given out
Glucose is broken down
A breaking down process
Takes place in the
mitochondria
Takes place continuously in
plant and animal cells
PHOTOSYNTHESIS
Energy is captured and stored
Carbon dioxide is used up
Oxygen is released
Water is taken in
Glucose is formed
A building up process
Takes place in chloroplasts
Only takes place in plant cells
that contain chlorophyll and are
exposed to sunlight

Effects of Deforestation on the Environment

Deforestation means cutting down of trees.

-Increase of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere which cause the increase in the earth’s temperature
(greenhouse effect) leading to Global warming.
-Reduced oxygen content in the atmosphere causing breathing problems to people
-Removed moisture from the atmosphere (transpiration) resulting to less rainfall
-Destroy habitats of some animals which may die or move away
TRANSPORT OF SUBSTANCES IN PLANTS
Water, mineral salts and food are transported by vascular bundles in plants. These vessels are
from roots to the leaves of a plant and are made up of the xylem tissue and the phloem tissue

Transport of water and mineral salts

The xylem tissues transport Water and mineral salts. Movement through the xylem tissues is
upwards by capillary action or root pressure. It is made by dead cells.

Transport of food (glucose) in plants

Glucose produced during photosynthesis is transported to all parts of the plants by phloem
tissues. The movement of food can be upwards or downwards depending on where the food is
needed. It is made by dead cells.

TRANSPIRATION

Transpiration is the loss of water through the leaves of plants. It is lost through the stomata in the
leaves.

Transpiration is important because:

-It cools the plant
-It allows water and mineral salts to be absorbed

Factors affecting the rate of transpiration

*Temperature
*The surface area of the leaf
*The number of stomata in the leaf
*Humidity
*The thickness of the cuticle
*Wind speed
*Bright light
NUTRIENT CYCLES

a. The nitrogen cycle

The nitrogen cycle is described in terms of:

a) Nitrogen fixation- Nitrogen in the air is changed into nitrates by nitrogen fixing bacteria
in root nodules of leguminous plants in the soil. Lightning also changes nitrogen into
nitrates
b) Plant protein- plants absorb nitrogen in the form of nitrates and use it to make plant
protein.
c) Animal protein- when animals feed on these plants, they use the plant protein and turn it
into animal protein.
d) Decomposition- when plants and animals die, they decay and decompose. Decomposers
(bacteria and fungi) make nitrates from animal waste and form deed plants and animals.
e) Denitrification- nitrates are broken down by denitrifying bacteria to release nitrogen
back into the atmosphere.

Nitrates into the soil: -Lightning

-Decaying (decomposition)
-Excretory products (urine, faeces)
-Legume plants
-Nitrifying bacteria (nitrification)

Removal of nitrates from soil: -Plants through absorption by roots

-Leaching
-Denitrifying bacteria
The Carbon Cycle

The carbon cycle is described in terms of:

a) Plants and animals
Plants take in carbon dioxide and use it with water to make carbohydrates during photosynthesis.
Animals get carbohydrates from eating plants and other animals.

b) Respiration
When plants and animals respire they produce and release carbon dioxide back into the
atmosphere.

c) Decomposition
When plants and animals die they decompose. During this process carbon dioxide is produced
and released into the atmosphere

d) Fossilization
This is the formation of fossil fuels from the remains of dead plants and animals. This takes place
for millions of years. Some decomposing bodies of dead plants and animals result in the
formation of fossil fuels such as coal, oil and natural gas.

e) Combustion (burning)
When fossil fuels and other materials burn, carbon dioxide is produced and released back into the
atmosphere.

Carbon dioxide to the atmosphere: -Combustion

-Respiration
-Decomposition
-Fossilisation

Removal of carbon dioxide: -Photosynthesis

-Consumption (food)
MANAGING NATURAL RESOURCES

Conserving Natural Resources

These are sources which are found already existing on Earth and they are not man-made. Some
natural resources in Botswana are:
-Water -Minerals - Energy -Soil -People
The Importance of Natural Resources

a) Water
It is used for domestic purpose such as drinking, cooking, washing etc. It is also used in
agriculture and industries, it can be conserved by regularly checking water pipes for
leaks and repairing damaged pipes.
b) Soil
Soil is used for different purpose such as construction of roads and building, growing
crops, molding pots, and can be conserved by Afforestation, not burning the veld
c) Minerals
Minerals are a source of income to our country. They sustain the country’s economy.
d) Wildlife
Wildlife includes both wild animals and wild plants. It acts as tourism attraction, source
of food, source of income and source of employment, and can be conserved by
construction of wildlife resources and national parks and introduction of anti-poaching
units.

RECYCLING
This means reusing things that have been used. They may be processed before they can be used.

Importance of Recycling to Conservation

*It reduces the amount of natural resources that we use up to make things.
*It reduces the amount of material that we have to throw away.
*It reduces the amount of carbon dioxide sent into the atmosphere.

Materials which are recycled in Botswana

- Plastic - paper
- glass - metal

Safe Methods for recycling resources

- Glass –drink bottles returned
- Paper- collect paper (used) and manufacture new ones (paper mesh)
- Aluminum- cold drink cans returned for money
-
Explore the business potential of recycling resources
- Plastics – make mates with used plastics
- Tins – create sculptures with aluminum from tin cans and wires
- Used papers – used in creating/ making paper mesh
- Beer bottles (coloured) – make candle holders eg at Gabane village
 UNIT 3.0: MATERIALS AND THEIR PROPERTIES: THE NATURE OF MATTER

Matter is anything that has mass and occupies space.

Physical Properties of Matter

- Matter occupies space.
- It has matter.
- It has density.
- It contracts when cooled.
- Matter expands when heated.
- It exists in three states which are: solid, liquid and gas.
- It is made of tiny invisible particles called atoms.

The Structure of an Atom

Electron

Shell Nucleus

An atom is the smallest particle of matter that can exist on its own. It has a nucleus. The nucleus
is made of protons and neutrons. The nucleus is surrounded by electrons which move around the
nucleus in shells. In between the shells and the nucleus is an empty space.

Protons carry a positive (+) charge. Neutrons have no charge and electrons carry a negative
charge (-).

Part of atom Location Charge

Proton Nucleus Positive (+)
Neutron Nucleus No charge (o)
Electron Shell Negative (-)
Arrangement of particles of matter:

-Particles are closely and neatly packed.

- Particles vibrate within their fixed positions, i.e. they cannot move from one place to another.
-They are attracted to each other by strong forces.

-Particles are loosely packed.

- Particles can move slightly into available space i.e. they can change positions.
- The forces between them are weak.

-Particles are far apart

Properties of Solids,
-Particles are free to liquids and
move i.e. gases
they can change positions
-Particles move very fast
-The forces between them are very weak.
Property Solid Liquid Gas
Mass High masses High but slightly Low masses
because particles lower than solids because particles
are closer to each because particles are further apart
other. are still close from each other.
with small spaces
between them.
Volume Fixed volume Fixed volume No fixed volume
because particles because particles because particles
are fixed in their move slightly. move freely and
positions Molecules are fill up the
always attracted container.
to one another.
There are no
changes in
volume.
Density High densities High densities but Low densities
because there are lower than solid because particles
more particles in because particles are further apart
space are close but have from each other.
small spaces
between them.
Shape Have definite Have no shape Have no shape
shapes because the but take up the because particles
particles are tightly shape of are free to move
packed. container because and are not
particles can attracted to each
change position. other.
Hardness Very hard because They flow Particles are
particles are tightly because particles further apart and
packed can move into cannot be felt
available space. when touched.
Compressibility Incompressible Almost Highly
because particles incompressible compressible
cannot move from because particles because particles
the positions. can move are far from each
slightly. other.
Heat expansion Little expansion Expand more Expand a lot
because particles than solids because particles
cannot move, only because particles are far apart from
vibrate at fixed can move into each other and can
positions. small available move freely.
space.
Expansion
Expansion is the increase in size of an object caused by movement of particles as they gain
energy.

Expansion in gases

Before heating the balloon is flat.

After heating the balloon expands.

What causes the expansion?

Ans: when gas particles in the conical flask gain energy, they become less dense, rise up and fill
the balloon causing expansion.
On cooling, the balloon decreases in size.

Expansion in solids
Before heating the ball passes through the ring easily.
After heating the ball it does not pass through the ring.

Why?
Ans: the ball does not pass through the ring because on heating the particles they gain energy and
start moving away from each other thus increasing the size of the ball.
On cooling the particles they loose energy and come closer to one another- making the ball to go
back to its normal size.

Expansion in liquids

Before heating the water level is within the flask but during heating the water level rises and
water spills out. This shows that water expands when heated.

Changes in state of matter

Liquid

Melting Evaporation

Freezing Condensation

Solid Sublimation Gas

DIFFUSION
It is the movement of particles from a place of high concentration to a place of low concentration
until they are evenly distributed eg perfume
The smell of perfume spread from where it was sprayed through the classroom. This showed
movement of particles (diffusion)

Diffusion in liquids

Particles in water are loosely packed and they can move a little. Potassium per manganite is used
in the experiment to colour the water so that the movement of particles can be seen clearly.
When particles gain energy they become less dense and rise up and cool particles come down.
The movement is called convectional current.

Diffusion in gases

In set up A the lid separates the two substances (air and bromine gas).
In set up B the lid has been removed and particles in the jar of air can move to the jar that
contains bromine gas and bromine particles can also move up until all the particles are evenly
distributed.

Diffusion in everyday life

Diffusion may be observed in everyday life when we perform the following activities:
- When we spray perfumes.
- When we spray air fresheners.
- When we spray insecticides.
- When you smell good food cooking in a house.

THE SCIENCE OF WATER

Water is a liquid that is very important in our lives.

 Properties of water
- It is colorless - It is odorless
- It is tasteless - It is a solvent
- Water boils at 100oC at sea level - Water freezes at 0oC
- It sticks together to form droplets and light things will float on its surface.
- ie Due to surface tension * This is a result of the water molecules at the surface attract
to each other and bind together.

CHEMICAL TEST FOR WATER

Some chemicals change colour when they come in contact with water.

The standard test for water is to use Cobalt chloride paper.

The cobalt chloride paper is blue when dry. When testing water it changes to pink if the liquid is
water.
 The pink cobalt chloride paper can be changed to blue again by heating it.

Water Molecule

Hydrogen
Atoms Oxygen atom

The chemical formula for water is H2O

H2O means one molecule of water is made from 2 Hydrogen atoms and 1Oxygen atom bonded
together known as water molecule.
The water molecule has positive and negative electrical charges.
Since opposite electrical charges attract, the water molecule attract each other and thus making
them difficult to separate. This is what forms a “skin” (surface tension) on the surface.

THE ANOMALOUS EXPANSION OF WATER

Liquids expand when heated and contract on cooling, except water.

Water expands when it is cooled. When water is cooled will contract, but only until it reaches a
temperature of 4 and below 4 it starts to expand.
When water expands the particles move away from each other and thus making ice to be less
dense than water.
This is why ice floats on top of water.

Effects of the anomalous expansion of water

The fact that when water freezes it becomes less dense means that water will only freeze on the
surface.
Ice on top will stop convection current ie water will remain liquid at the bottom.

How it affects Marine Animals

All plants and animals in water will continue living because the water beneath is not frozen.

3.2: ACIDS AND BASES

Acid
*It is a chemical substance that turns blue litmus paper red.
*It is a substance with a pH lower than 7.

Household Acidic Substance

-Lemon juice (citric acid)
-Bee stings (methanoic acid)
-Vitamin C (ascorbic acid)
-Grapes (tartaric acid)
-Vinegar (ethanoic acid)

Properties of Acids
- All acids dissolve in water.
- Acids have a sour taste. You will recognize this property in some of the natural acids
which we use as foods. The sour taste of lemons and the sour taste of milk that has
gone bad are due to acids. However it is important that you never try to confirm this
property with laboratory acids- these are very dangerous.
- Acids change the colour of certain substances called indicators. Indicators are dyes
often obtained from animals and plants.
- Acids are corrosive.
- Acids react with some metals to make hydrogen.
- Acids react with a family of chemicals called carbonates to make carbon dioxide.

Base
It is a substance that reacts with an acid to produce a salt and water only.
It neutralises an acid.
Most bases are oxides of metals.

Examples of bases
Iron oxide Magnesium oxide
Calcium hydroxide
Most bases do not dissolve in water. Bases that dissolve in water are called alkalis.
Copper oxide, iron oxide etc do not dissolve in water, so they are called bases

Alkalis
-Is a chemical substance that turns red litmus paper blue.
-It is a substance with a pH more than 7
Examples of Alkalis
Sodium hydroxide Potassium hydroxide
Milk of magnesia

Properties of Alkalis
- Alkalis feel slippery between the fingers as if you were holding soap.
- Alkalis readily dissolve oils and fats. This property makes them very useful as
cleaning agents for greasy surfaces.
- Alkalis change the colour of certain substances called indicators.
- Alkalis are corrosive.

All alkalis are bases but only soluble bases are alkalis

Household Alkaline Substances

- Toothpaste - Baking powder
- Soap - Milk of magnesia
- Ammonia solution

Acid alkali indicator

Indicators are made from plant material.

Preparing an acid- alkali indicator

1. Put some flowers/beetroot cubes in a beaker. Add water (half fill the beaker).
2. Bring to boil.
3. Leave to cool.
4. Sieve/ filter by using paper and funnel.
5. Use the solution (indicator) to test chemicals.
Universal Indicator
-It is used to test if the substance is acidic, alkaline or neutral.
-It shows the strength of a substance.
NB: Not all substances are acidic or alkaline, some are neutral eg water.

 A substance with a pH of 1 is very acidic.

 A substance with a pH of 14 is very alkaline.
 A neutral substance has a pH of 7.
The Corrosive and Hazardous effects of Concentrated Acids, Bases and Alkali
A corrosive substance is the one that will destroy or permanently damage another substance with
which it comes in contact. The main hazards to people include damage to the eyes, the skin and
tissue under the skin. However inhalation or ingestion can damage the lungs and gut.

Common acids and bases that we may come across and that are highly corrosive include:
- Sulphuric acid (car battery acid)
- Hydrochloric acid (swimming pool acid)
- Sodium hydroxide (caustic soda)

Guidelines for Using Chemicals Safely

- Read and follow instructions carefully.
- Don’t remove product labels.
- Don’t store household chemicals within the reach of children.
- Don’t store household chemicals in shelves normally used for food.
- Don’t store household chemicals in containers commonly used for food and drinks.
- Store all hazardous products out of the sun in tightly sealed containers.
- Never mix household chemicals. Doing so can be dangerous as toxic fumes can be
made.
- Don’t store incompatible products together. For example, acids should not be stored
with alkalis and flammables should never be stored with corrosives.

Accidents Involving Chemicals in the Home

Even if we are careful accidents do happen.
Common accidents are burns and poisoning.

1.Chemical burns
More concentrated alkalis and acids burn the skin.

How to treat A Chemical burn

-Remove any clothing that may have been covered with the chemical, taking care not to spread
the chemicals to other parts of the body.
-Quickly wash the affected area with lots of running cold water for at least ten minutes.
-Cover the burn with a clean non-sticky bandage. Do not put any cream or antiseptic ointment on
the burn.
-Check the signs of shock such as shallow breathing and keep the person warm with a blanket.
-If the burn is serious, take the person for medical treatment at a clinic or hospital.

2.Poisoning
-Dilute the poison as quickly as possible by making the person drink water or even milk.
-Do not make the person vomit.
-Take the poisoned person to see a doctor immediately.
-Take the container of the poison with you so the appropriate treatment can be quickly decided.
UNIT 4.0: SEXUAL REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH: Human Growth And Development

The Male Reproductive System

Ureter

Urethra Sperm duct

Penis Testis

Epididymis

Scrotum

Organ Function
Penis Passes semen from the male’s body to the female’s body during sex.
It also passes urine out of the body as waste.
Foreskin No special function. Is sometimes removed in a process known as
circumcision.
Urethra Transports both semen and urine to the outside. Testis
Glands Add liquid to sperm cells. The liquid (seminal fluid) nourishes the
sperm.
Sperm duct Transport sperm cells to the urethra.
Testis Produces the sperm cells.
Epididymis Stores the sperms.
Scrotum Holds the two testes outside body to keep them cool and allow for the
optimum production of sperm.

The Female Reproductive System

 Uterus

Ovary Oviduct/ Fallopian tube

Vagina
Cervix
Organ Function
Vulva Opening which allows the penis into the vagina.
Vagina It receives the penis. It is also the birth canal.
Cervix A ring of muscles which closes the lower end of the uterus.
Uterus/ womb Where the baby grows during pregnancy.
Oviduct/ fallopian Collects ovum during ovulation. It is where fertilization takes
tube place. Transports ovum, or zygote (fertilized ovum) to uterus.
Ovaries Produce oestrogen and progesterone. They also produce the ova.

Sex Cells
The male sex cell is the sperm and the female sex cell is the ovum.

The difference between the sperm and the ovum

Ovum Sperm
 Released once every 28 days
Appears larger than a sperm when viewed
through a microscope.
Headless and does not have a tail.
Not mobile on its own but moved by cilia
in the oviducts.
Lives in the oviducts for about three to
seven days.
Released in millions during every
ejaculation, which can occur at any time.
Appears quite small compared to an ovum
when viewed through a microscope.
Has a head and tail.
Mobile on its own, propelled by its tail.
Lives for about three to five days after
release.

Changes that occur at puberty

In Males
- Testes begin to produce sperm: this is why boys begin to fantasize about having sex
in their dreams. They ejaculate sperm mixed with seminal fluid during these wet
dreams.
- The voice deepens.
- Hair grows on the pubic area, chest and armpits.
- The body becomes more muscular.
- Pimples may develop.

In Females
- Menstruation starts.
- Breasts develop.
- Hips become wider and rounder.
- The voice does not deepen.
- Pubic hair grows.
- Pimples may develop.

Emotional changes in males and females due to puberty

- Both boys and girls start to have feelings for the opposite sex.
- They may feel that their parents are troubling them when they try to give advice.
- They start feeling like they should be given more freedom.
- They start to be very sensitive and this can result in severe mood swings.
- They may start to compare themselves with other people, and may become more self-
conscious.

The Menstrual Cycle

Menstruation is the release of the lining of the uterus and a dead ovum as a bloody discharge
through the vagina. The lining of the uterus is made up of blood cells. Usually one ovum is
produced at a time this happens approximately once every 28 days although this time may vary
slightly (the range is from 21 to 35 days).The period between the release of one ovum to another
is known as the menstrual cycle.
The menstrual cycle can be divided into four stages as follows:
a) Stage one (days 1-5): Menstruation (bleeding)
If the ovum is not fertilized, then it will pass out of the body.

b) Stage two (days 6-12): The repair phase

c) Stage three (days 13-16): The fertile period

This is the period when fertilization is most likely to occur. This is because ovulation has taken
place. During this period the ovum begins to move down the oviduct and is available for a sperm
to fertilise it.

d) Stage four (17-27): Pre-menstrual phase/ Ovulation

This is the release of the ovum from the ovaries to the oviducts. The ovum is now mature and
ready for fertilization.

The three hormones responsible for changes at puberty

Hormones are chemical substances which control the activities of one or more organs. Hormones
are produced by glands.

A. Oestrogen
It is produced by the ovaries and it has the following functions:
- It stimulates the development of the secondary sexual characteristics in females.
- It stimulates the maturation of the ovum during the menstrual cycle.
- It brings about the mood and behavioural changes that happen at puberty.
- It rebuilds the lining of the uterus that breaks down during menstruation.

B. Progesterone
It is another sex hormone that is produced by the ovaries in females and has the following
functions:
- It prepares the lining of the uterus for implantation. (It stimulates the thickening of
the wall of the uterus so that it is ready to receive a zygote if fertilization occurs)
- It maintains the uterus in pregnancy.
 C. Testosterone
It is the most important sex hormone in males. It is produced by the testes and it has the
following functions:
- It stimulates the development of the secondary sexual characteristics.
- It stimulates sperm formation and development.
- It is responsible for changes in aggression, mood and behavior that happen to boys
during puberty.

Menopause
Women are fertile from puberty until about the ages of 45 to 55 when the menstrual cycle begins
to become irregular and eventually stops permanently. This is known as menopause and the
woman can no longer have babies.

FAMILY PLANNING: Methods of Birth Control

Method Advantages Disadvantages

Condom -Prevents both sexually -Need to practice the method (can
transmitted infections and rapture).
pregnancy. -Easily destroyed by heat and light.
-Traps all sperm. -Some people are allergic to latex.
-very effective if used properly.
Contraceptive -Vey effective in preventing -Does not prevent transmission of
pill pregnancy. diseases.
-Does not have to be -Some women may experience a
remembered every time sexual bad reaction to the pill.
intercourse occurs. -Need to remember to take the pill
daily.
Spermicide Nearly 100% effective if Must be applied before every sex
cream combined with the use of a act.
condom and the diaphragm. -Does not prevent disease
transmission
-Not very effective on its own.
Intra-Uterine -Does not have to be -Does not prevent disease
Device (IUD) remembered every time sexual transmission.
intercourse occurs. -Can have side effects.
-Replaced after a long time. -Can only be inserted by a nurse or
-Highly effective. doctor.
-Can be removed when a couple -Can come out.
wants a child.

Depo provera -No preparation needed before -Does not prevent disease
injection sexual intercourse. transmission.
-Very effective. -May bring changes to the
-Only done four times a year. menstrual cycle.
-May have some side effects.
 -Its effects may last longer than
expected.
Diaphragm -Protects the cervix against -May develop holes.
infections. -Requires expertise to fit.
-Highly effective with -Must be inserted before sexual
spermicide. intercourse.
Sterilisation -Normally 100% effective. -Does not prevent disease
-Does not interrupt sex act. transmission.
-Only suitable for people who do
not want any more children
( cannot be reversed easily)
Abstinence -100% effective. -Requires extra- ordinary self
-No threats of pregnancy or control.
sexually transmitted diseases.
-No health risks.

The Implications of Family Planning in the Light of Family Size

The Implications are as follows:

- Where there is no family planning, family size tend to be big and children may not be
well spaced to allow for individual care before the next child is born.
- If parents take appropriate measure to control birth, they may decide how many
children they want to have and when.
- If more children are born in a family, it means there are more children to take care of.
They need food, school fees, health care, clothes etc.

OUTLETS THAT PROVIDE FAMILY PLANNING ADVICE AND SERVICES

- Guidance and counseling units

- Clinics
-Hospitals
-Family welfare offices

SEXUAL BEHAVIOUR PROBLEMS

Sexually transmitted infections are transmitted from one person to another through sexual
intercourse. They are caused by micro-organisms like fungi, virus, bacteria. They include:

THRUSH
It is transmitted through having sex with an infected person.

Cause
It is caused by a fungus
Signs and Symptoms
- White patches on the mouth and tongue
- Discharge from the penis or vagina
- A burning sensation while urinating
- Inflammation of the tip of the penis or vulva
- Itching on the vagina

Treatment
Antifungal creams such as gentian violet cream, iodine cream or nystation cream.

GONORRHOEA
It is transmitted through sexual intercourse with an injected person.

Cause
It is caused by a bacterium

Signs and Symptoms

In males
- An uncomfortable feeling in the urethra
- A green yellowish pus-like discharge at the tip of the penis
- Pain in the lower abdomen

In females
- Signs and symptoms are similar in both men and women, its just that they are difficult
to recognize because the female reproductive organs are inside.

Treatment
Antibiotics need to be taken as early as possible. If not treated immediately, gonorrhea can cause
sterility, miscarriage and premature labour, babies can be born infected with the disease.

SYPHILIS
Can be transmitted through sexually intercourse with an infected person.

Cause
Caused by a bacterium

Signs and symptoms

It comes in stages

Primary stage
There is a development of a sore, pimple or blister at the sexual organ, anus or mouth which
disappears on its own.

Secondary stage
Comes after a few weeks or months and includes:
 - Fever - Body rush - White patches on the mouth
- Swollen glands - Loss of hair - Nausea

Latent stage
No signs and symptoms can be observed, however, for many years, the bacteria is still spreading
around the body.

Tertiary stage
It may be too late to cure the disease and death is highly possible at this stage. Organs that can be
damaged include:
- Brain - Liver
- Heart

Treatment
Antibiotics can be used.

GENITAL HERPES
Can be transmitted through sexual intercourse, kissing and mother to child transmission.

Cause
Caused by the herpes simplex virus

Signs and symptoms

- Painful blister like sores on the sex organ, mouth, abdomen and inner thighs.
- A burning sensation during urination
- Swollen glands in the groin
- Cold sores

Treatment
Anti-viral drugs can be used to make the virus dormant. Pregnant women should visit the doctor
immediately after diagnosis. Babies born with the infection may have mental diseases.

HIV/AIDS
N.B
HIV= Human Immune deficiency Virus
AIDS = Acquired Immuno Deficiency Syndrome
AIDS is a disease caused by a virus called HIV. The virus destroys the immune system which
defends the body against infections.

HIV AND AIDS AS SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED INFECTIONS

HIV stands for Human Immuno – deficiency Virus .It causes AIDS which stands for Acquired
Immune Deficiency Syndrome. People who carry the virus are said to be HIV positive while
those who do not carry the virus are said to be HIV negative.
AIDS can be spread through unprotected sexual intercourse with an infected person, from mother
to child during birth, by coming into contact with infected body fluids, sharing unsterilized sharp
instruments like razor blades, etc.

How does HIV cause AIDS ?

HIV slowly causes AIDS because the virus destroys the immune system of the body such the
body can no longer fight off infections. The body now suffers from different types of diseases
which are shown by so many symptoms. The types of infections are known as opportunistic
infections. A person may be HIV positive for many years without
showing symptoms of AIDS. But as the immune system becomes weak, the body now suffers
from some many symptoms of diseases. Later the person develops AIDS. It is only through a
blood test when HIV status can be known.

Medical conditions of advanced HIV and AIDS

Some of the common medical conditions associated with advanced HIV and AIDS includes;
- Kaposi sarcoma : This a type of skin cancer caused by the herpes virus that is shown by
the person having red blotches on their skin
- Pneumonia: This is a lung infection caused by various different types of opportunistic
infections. AIDS patients die due to pneumonia.
- Cancer of cervix caused by the same virus that can cause warts.
- Leukaemia ( a cancer of the blood )
- Mental disorders (dementia)
- Severe weight loss and muscle wasting

Distinguishing between being HIV positive and having AIDS

A person who carries the HIV is said HIV positive. A person who does not carry the HIV is said
to be HIV negative. When a person who is HIV positive eventually begins to develop diseases
and becomes very weak, is said to have developed AIDS.
Opportunistic infections associated with HIV and AIDS
Some common opportunistic infections associated with HIV and AIDS includes;
- Tuberculosis, a serious infection of the lungs caused by bacteria.
- Candida albicans infection caused by fungus that is present in all the people but the
fungus become uncontrollable or grows out of control.
- Various bacterial infections attack the lungs and cause pneumonia.
- Toxoplasma infections are an infection of the blood
- Herpes infection causes blisters and sores around the mouth and genitals.

Programmes for treatment of HIV and AIDS conditions

HIV and AIDS cannot be cured although HIV can be prevented simply by using a condom
during sexual intercourse. Even though there is no cure or vaccine for HIV and AIDS , drugs
such as ARV , AZT are used to prolong the life of people who are HIV positive . Some of the
following programmes are used in Botswana;
- Anti-Retroviral Therapy Programme
 The government of Botswana started the programme in January 2002. It provides ART
(antiretroviral therapy) medication who have HIV and AIDS.
- Sexually Transmitted Infections ( STIs ) Control Programme
People with infectious diseases such as gonorrhoea , genital herpes and syphilis can
easily be infected by HIV and AIDS . To treat people who suffer from STIs can easily
reduce the spread of HIV and AIDS.
- Prevention of Mother to Child Transmission of HIV Programme ( PMTCT )
The programme started in September 1998 .It aimed at reducing the risk of HIV infection
from mother to child during pregnancy, birth and breastfeeding.
- Isoniazid Prevention Therapy ( IPT ) Programme
IPT programme started in 2000 mainly to prevent people with HIV and AIDS from being
infected by tuberculosis.
ENERGY FORMS AND SOURCES

Fossil fuels
These are dead remains of plants and animals that decayed and buried under the soil, millions of
years ago. E.g. coal, natural gas, petrol, diesel and oil.

THE ORIGINS OF FOSSIL FUELS

The energy from the sun is transferred through food chains to give fuel for living animals. When
plants and animals, the energy contained in this living being is trapped within them. Over
millions of years , layers and layers of dead plant and animal material is formed and this dead
and decaying material eventually breaks down into what is called fossil fuels i.e. natural gas ,
crude oil and coal .

THE IMPORTANCE OF FOSSIL FUELS

-Fossil fuels are the most important source of energy in most economies in the developing world.
90% of the energy in many countries uses fossil fuels as a source of energy.
- Fossil fuels are the source of non- renewable energy source and burning of them will lead to
global warming.
-Another factor is that Botswana is a landlocked country and therefore makes it difficult and
expensive to import fossil fuels such as crude oil. The other set back about fossil fuels is that
they cause pollution.

RENEWABLE AND NON RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES

Renewable resource is a source that can be replaced or used again. Non- renewable resource is a
resource that cannot be replaced once it has been used.

The table below shows some renewable and non- renewable energy sources

Renewable energy sources Non renewable energy sources

 Biomass (wood , dung etc)  Oil
 The sun ( solar energy )  Coal
 Moving water ( hydroelectric energy )  Gas
 Wind energy  Energy from radioactive material
 The heat of the earth ( geothermal ( nuclear energy )
energy )

ALTERNATIVE SOURCES OF ENERGY AND THEIR USE IN BOTSWANA

1. Solar energy
Solar energy is created from the heat and light of the sun. Solar energy is a renewable
source of energy because it can be created every day that the sun shines. Solar panels
collect the energy and batteries store the energy. Solar energy can be used for heating,
cooling and lighting. Solar energy is a clean source of energy. The solar panels and
 batteries are expensive. Installation fees are high and not so many people use solar power
or energy in Botswana.
2. Hydroelectric energy
Hydroelectric power (HEP) is produced by running or falling water .HEP is created
where water flows over turbines. The movement of the turbines generates electricity
generates electricity .Botswana does not generate hydroelectric power at present.
3. Wind energy
Wind can be used as alternative energy source. When wind blows, it can be used to turn
large propellers and this can make turbines turn. Wind energy can be used by farmers in
windmills to pump water. The disadvantages of wind as an alternative source of energy
are that wind farms occupy a lot land that could, perhaps, be used for farming. The other
disadvantage is that when there is no wind, windmills could not pump water.
4. Biomass energy
Biomass energy is created when biomass (such as wood and animal dung) is burnt.
Biomass fuel or biofuel is produced when bacteria and chemical processes change living
organisms into liquid or gas fuel .Most people use wood as a source of energy in
Botswana.
5. Nuclear energy
Nuclear energy is generated when atoms undergo fission. Fission takes place when the
nucleus of atom splits .The energy can be used to generate electricity. Uranium which is
an element, it is mainly used to generate nuclear energy. It can cause pollution and there
is high chance of nuclear accidents. There is one nuclear power station in South Africa.
6. Geothermal energy
It is energy generated when heat from beneath the earth`s surface is used to spin turbines.
E.g. geothermal energy is generated when hot water or steam escapes from the earth`s
crust. The water or steam spins turbines to create electricity.

THE IMPORTANCE OF CONSERVING ENERGY

When energy is conserved, it may have what we call setbacks. Some of the problems caused by
energy usage are;
 The burning of fossil fuels is causing global warming
 Energy is becoming more expensive
 The burning of fossil fuels causes air pollution
 Water that has been polluted by spilled oil and fuel eventually pollutes rivers, lakes, dams
and the sea.
 Waste from energy production ( for example old batteries and broken solar panels ) is
difficult to dispose of
 Chopping down of trees causes deforestation, soil erosion and desertification.
 The generation of energy in coal fired power stations uses a lot water
 Non-renewable fossil fuels are running out.

WAYS BY WHICH ALTERNATIVE SOURCES COULD BE HARNESSED IN

BOTSWANA
The benefits of developing renewable energy resources;
  It provides power to run primary schools, health clinics, local government centers, rural
businesses and households.
 It provides power for communication equipment and electric lighting to enable evening
classes for disadvantaged groups thereby freeing them for participation in village
meetings , education and village governance
 Health benefits include fighting diseases by boiling water , reducing respiratory illnesses
from indoor pollution , improving medication and providing power for refrigeration
 Providing electricity for communication ( for example : radio / television ) that can
spread important public information about , for example , combating deadly diseases
 Ending the negative effects on the environment (air pollution, land degradation,
acidification of land and water, climate change).

SOLAR POWER
Solar power is the best alternative energy source in Botswana. Even though the solar power is
expensive to install (the panels and batteries are expensive) the maintenance costs are low. Some
of the solar power can be used in a solar cooker, a reflecting screen concentrates the sun`s rays
onto a pot with food.
The business potential of solar power in Botswana
 There are businesses opportunities in supply, installation and maintenance of solar
panels, batteries and appliances.
 The development of solar technology in Botswana will assist many small businesses,
particularly in the rural areas which are not supplied by the national power grid.
 There are some research opportunities in this field of alternative energy supply.

WIND POWER
Wind energy has been used in Botswana on a small scale. It may be used in pumping water for
livestock and for domestic supply in rural areas.
The business potential of wind power in Botswana
 The business potential of Botswana is very small but there is a limited supply of pumps
and storage tanks.
 Wind is a valuable source of energy for farmers, particularly in rural areas.

HYDROELECTRIC POWER
There is no hydroelectric power generated in Botswana but Botswana is part of the West
Corridor Power Project which involves using the hydroelectric energy of the Congo River at the
Inga rapids. The power generation is estimated to be 3500 megawatts. 2000 megawatts will be
used by South Africa and the rest will be used be shared by Angola, Namibia, Botswana and the
DRC. Construction is expected to start in 2009 and be completed by 2012.
The business potential of hydroelectric power in Botswana
The costs of developing hydroelectric power are very high. The costs have to be shared by
countries. The establishment of Southern African Power Pool (SAPP) in 1993 which was signed
by all SADC countries in 1995 was aimed at making the development of alternative energy
sources possible for small countries.

ENERGY SOURCES IN THE HOME

Types of energy needed and used in the home
These include;
 Chemical energy
 Electrical energy
 Light energy
 Heat energy

Sources of chemical energy in the home

Two main sources of energy include;
- Food
- Fuels

Food as a source of chemical energy

Food that we eat is digested and release starch and carbohydrates which are broken down in
respiration, to release energy and waste products of water and carbon dioxide. The released
energy is used to do different kinds of work.

Fuel as source of chemical energy

Heat and light energy in our homes are usually provided by burning fossil fuels (coal, oil,
paraffin and natural gas) and biomass products (firewood). Burning releases heat or light energy
and waste products such as water and carbon dioxide are formed. The heat energy is used to cook
food, warm our homes and heat water.

Sources of heat and light energy in the home

 Light and heat energy from chemical energy
Paraffin used in lamps and lanterns to give us light. Gas used for cooking and warming
our homes.
 Light and heat energy from electrical energy
Electrical energy used to light bulbs in our homes, to cook food, and to heat our homes.

The financial and environmental implications of energy sources in the home

Financial implications
-Wood collected from the environment free of charge. Hence makes it a source of fuel in most
areas.
-Coal is an expensive source of fuel in Botswana. Not so many people can afford to buy it.
-Paraffin is expensive because it is imported from other countries
-Solar panels are expensive to buy and install but maintenance or running cost is low.

Environmental implications
-Large scale deforestation as trees are chopped down
-Less trees = less shade. Moisture evaporates from the soil and the soil dries out. Dry soils erode
more quickly.
-Wood, unless it is very carefully managed, is a non-renewable resource.
-Burning of coal causes air pollution and is contributes to greenhouse effect and global warming.
-Coal is a non-renewable energy resource.
-Paraffin is a non-renewable resource
-Burning of paraffin releases carbon dioxide into the atmosphere.
-Burning of gas releases carbon dioxide into the atmosphere
-Solar power is a renewable resource
-Solar power does not cause water or air pollution

ENERGY CHANGES AND USING ENERGY

Energy changes in everyday life
Energy that is stored in something is known as potential energy. Potential energy has the ability
to be changed into other forms of energy.
Example of energy changes that happen in a person to run include;
1. It starts with the sun. Matter is changed into electromagnetic energy.
2. Plants change some of the solar energy into chemical energy in the process of photosynthesis.
The chemical energy is stored in the plant. Then people eat plants or plant products.
3. After the food has been eaten, the stored chemical energy is converted into work and heat
energy in the process of respiration. Respiration takes place in every cell of your body. Some of
the stored energy is changed into kinetic energy so that the person can run.

Some of the applications of energy changes in everyday life

1. Photosynthesis: light energy from the sun is changed into chemical energy in plants
2. Car engine: chemical potential energy in petrol is changed into mechanical energy
3. Respiration: chemical energy in food is converted into work and heat energy
4. Tractor engine: potential energy in diesel fuel is changed into kinetic and heat energy
5. CD player: electrical potential energy in a battery is changed into kinetic energy to spin the
disc.

The importance of energy transformations

The changing of one form of energy into another is called the transformation of energy. Energy
transformations are important in the lives of people, animals and plants.

Examples;
1. The chemical energy stored in petrol is converted into heat in a car engine .This heat energy is
used to move mechanical parts of the car causing the car to move. Thus chemical energy is
converted into kinetic energy.
2. In a thermal power station, the coal is burned to heat water and change it into steam. The
steam turns the turbines which in turn produce electricity. The chemical energy stored in coal is
converted into electrical energy.
3. When we burn wood, the chemical potential energy is converted into heat energy. etc

The greenhouse effect

A greenhouse is a shelter, usually made of glass, in which plants are kept. The glass allows the
sun`s light and heat energy in, but slows its escape from the shelter. In this way, the plants are
kept warmer inside the shelter than if they were outside.
The earth`s atmosphere is heated in much the same way as a greenhouse. The atmosphere allows
heat and light energy from the sun to pass through and strike the earth`s surface .However, the
atmospheric gases, carbon dioxide in particular, trap the heat when it is reflected by the earth.
This is a natural process which keeps the earth warm enough to support life.

The greenhouse effect and global warming

Burning of fossil fuels like coal, oil and natural gases releases carbon dioxide. When population
increases , this means more fossil fuels are burnt and this leads to more carbon dioxide in the
atmosphere .The increase in carbon dioxide which is called greenhouse gas , has caused the
atmosphere to trap more heat , leading to an increase in the temperature of the earth . This is
called global warming. Global warming can lead to problems such as increase in sea level,
severe storms and farmer`s crops failing.

Using energy sources safely

Sources of electricity are use daily and therefore safety precautions have to be followed in order
to avoid or minimize accidents. Below are some of the safety precautions to be followed to
prevent electric shock.

1. Keep electric wires insulated.

Always have to ensure that the insulation is not damaged, if damaged can lead to electric shock
or can cause fire.
2. Do not overload an electric circuit
Overload of sockets can lead to overheat which can lead to fire and damage to appliances.
3. Do not mix electricity and water
Water can conduct electricity to some extent and this can lead to electric shock.
4. Never touch overhead cables
Touching overhead electric cables can cause severe shock or death.

Diagnosing faults in appliances

If an electrical appliance such as an electric kettle, electric iron or lamp is not working, there are
simple steps to follow to identify the problem and fix it. Always remember the safety
precautions. If in doubt, call in a qualified electrician.

Safety precautions when using fossil fuels at home or school

-Supervise young children when any fossil fuel is being burned

-Never leave a fire unattended
-If the fuel is being burned in doors, ensure that there is good ventilation
-Never play with matches
-Never light a match near petrol
-Do not throw paraffin or petrol onto wood to make it easier to light; it may explode.
SOUND ENERGY
Sound is a form of energy that is made when molecules vibrate (move backwards and forwards) .
Sound travels from one place to another because vibration is passed from one molecule to the
next and this forms a sound wave.

Producing high and low notes

Pitch is the highness and lowness of a note. High or low notes can be made by changing the
vibration that causes the sound .The faster the source of sound vibrate , the higher the note
produced and the faster the frequency of the wave increases and vice versa .
The waveform on the bottom of the figure above shows many more waves. They are more
frequent, so it`s a higher frequency sound that produced them .This means it has a higher pitch.
In summary;
 A vibration causes a sound wave. The frequency of the vibration causing the sound wave
determines how high a note is (that is, the pitch of a note).
 In musical instruments, the pitch of the sound is changed by lengthening or shortening the
object that is vibrating and producing the sound.

The loudness of a sound

The loudness or volume of a sound depends on the amplitude of the wave (how far the wave
goes up and down). The amplitude is the height of a wave from its peak to its mean rest position.
The size of the amplitude indicates the energy carried by the wave and represents e.g. the
loudness of a sound or the brightness of a light.

The reflection of sound (echoes)

Echo is a reflection of a sound wave by a surface or an object so that a weaker version is detected
after the original. Have you ever shouted out in a big space and heard your voice come? What
happened is that a hard surface, like a wall , reflected the sound waves back to you and this is
called echo.
The speed of sound in different materials
Sound travels differently in different material at different speeds. The speed of sound depends
upon the density, pressure and temperature of the medium.
 Medium Density ( g cm ⁻³ ) Speed of sound ( at 0 ̊̊C )
Gas(Air) 0.001 330ms ⁻¹
Water 1.0 1400ms⁻¹
Solid 7.8 5000ms⁻¹

Table below gives approximate speed of sound in various materials and how temperature affects
the speed of sound in air.

Material Solid , liquid or gas Speed of sound (kph )

Iron Solid 21,400
Glass Solid 20,300
Sea water Liquid 5,500
Pure water Liquid 5,390
Air at 0 ̊C Gas 1,190
Carbon dioxide gas 932

How sound travels or move

Sound travels from where it is produced to where it is needed or travelling through in form of a
wave. The wave travels through a medium e.g. air or solid or liquid.

Different types of wave

Waves are disturbances caused by the movements of some forms of energy form one place to
another; they are changes that occur in something such as the surface of the ocean and the air.

Longitudinal wave
A wave in which particles of the medium move parallel (in the same direction) to the movement
of the wave. E.g. sound wave, etc.

Transverse wave
A wave in which particles of the medium move in a direction perpendicular (at 90 ̊ angle) to the
direction in which the wave moves. e.g. a wave in water , electromagnetic waves , etc
Difference between wavelength, frequency and amplitude

Wavelength
Is the shortest distance between two identical points on a wave.

Frequency
Is how often the particles of the medium vibrate when a wave passes through the medium.

Amplitude
Is the maximum amount of movement of a particle of the medium from its rest position. It can be
said as the distance from rest to crest or from the rest position to the trough position.

HEARING
The sense of hearing enables us to hear information from our environment. The ears are the
organs responsible for hearing and also for the maintenance of balance. The ears transfer energy
of sound waves to special cells, which send signals to the brain. The brain interprets the signals
as sound.

THE STRUCTURE OF THE HUMAN EAR

Functions of the parts of the ear
The ear is divided into outer ear, middle ear and the inner ear. The outer ear is made up of ear
flap and ear canal. The middle ear is made up of eardrum, hammer, anvil and stirrup. The inner
ear is made up of cochlea, Eustachian tube and oval window.

EAR PART FUNCTION

Ear flap Collects sound waves in the air
Ear canal Directs sound waves to the middle ear
Ear drum Vibrates when sound waves reach it
Hammer , anvil and stirrup Three connected bones that are set into
motion at the same frequency as the vibrating
eardrum
Oval window Transfers vibrations to the fluid in the cochlea
in the inner ear
Cochlea A fluid filled tube lined with hair cells which
move when the fluid vibrates
Hair cells Transmit electrical signals to the auditory
nerves
Auditory nerve Transmits electrical signals to the brain

Eustachian tube and its function

The Eustachian tube balances pressure in the middle ear and allow movement of air in and out of
the middle ear.

The movement of sound waves into the ear and electric signals to the brain
The human eardrum is a stretched membrane. When sound waves hit the eardrum, it vibrates
and the brain interprets the vibrations as sound. The eardrum sends the vibrations to the small
bones. The stirrup passes the vibrations along the cochlea. Cochlea contains thousands hair like
nerve endings called cilia. When cochlea vibrates, it moves the cilia. The cilia change messages
to electrical signals which are sent to the brain through auditory nerve. The brain translates the
electric signals and tells us what we are hearing.

Ear defect s and hearing impairment

Hearing impairment is a term used to describe the complete or partial loss of hearing in one or
both ears.
The different degrees of hearing impairment
Deafness refers to the complete loss of ability to hear from one or both ears.

The table below shows the different degrees of hearing impairment that can happen.

Degree of hearing impairment Description

Mild The person may not even be aware of their
inability to hear certain sounds
Moderate The person will have some difficulty in
hearing.
Severe The person will have considerate difficulty in
following speech and in hearing
environmental sounds.
Profound The person`s range of hearing is extremely
limited. They may hear low toned sounds at a
much higher than normal volume, but are not
able to hear enough to follow speech and will
not hear most environmental sounds such as a
telephone or alarm. They may use sign
language or have difficulty monitoring the
volume and pitch of their own voice when
speaking.

Causes of hearing impairment and deafness

 Deafness can be inherited.
 Infections in a woman during pregnancy such as German measles
 The use of certain drugs during pregnancy
 Jaundice (when a baby becomes a yellow colour) in a newborn baby
 Infectious diseases such as meningitis, measles, mumps and chronic ear infections
 The use of certain drugs, including some antibiotic and anti-malarial drugs
  Head injury or injury to the ear
 Wax or foreign bodies blocking the ear canal
 Excessive noise, including working with noisy machinery, exposure to loud music or other
loud noises, such as gunfire or explosions, can damage the inner ear and weaken hearing
ability
 As people age, exposure to noise and other factors may lead to hearing impairment or
deafness.

Signs of hearing impairment

 Impaired speech
 Dizziness
 Hearing loss
 Loss of balance
 Tinnitus ( ringing in the ear )
 Reduced awareness of what is going on

Preventing hearing impairment

 Wear protective gear. People working in areas such as airports, construction sites, road
works, mines, heavy industries, etc should wear protective gear such as ear muffs.
 Immunize children against infectious diseases. Diseases such as measles can cause
hearing impairment. Immunisation will reduce occurrence of hearing impairment.
 Avoid use of certain drugs. These should be avoided during pregnancy.
 Treat chronic illnesses such as ear infections. These should be done in young children .

Safe and healthy care for ears

Some of the things one should do to care for yours ears include the following;
 Clean your ears carefully
 Wipe the outer ear gently with a washcloth or tissue
 Have your hearing checked occasionally
 Always wear a helmet when you ride a bicycle or skate board
 See a doctor if you have tinnitus or a sore ear

Practices which can cause harm or damage to the ears include ;

 Do not ever poke anything into yours ears , including cotton ear cleaners
 Do not listen to loud music with headphones
 Wear ear protection when you are using machinery that makes a loud noise

PERSONAL HYGIENE
CARING FOR TEETH

The Tooth
Tooth structure
The tooth is made up of two main parts,
-The root
It is made up of gum, cementum, periodontal ligament and nerve and blood supply. This is the
part of the tooth that is found cemented in the gum and that attaches to the jaw bone. The tooth is
held in place in the gum by cementum.
-The crown
It is made up of enamel, dentine and pulp cavity. This is the part that sticks out the gum. It is the
part that grinds and cut the food. The shape of the crown depends on the function of the tooth.

Parts of the human tooth

An adult person has 32 teeth. Teeth of children from 4 months to six years are called milk teeth.

Types of Teeth

Name Description Function

Incisor Flat sharp edged surfaces Used for biting and cutting food
Canine Sharp pointed edges Used for tearing and holding food
Premolars and Have cusps Used for chewing or grinding food
 Molars Have larger surface area

Tooth Decay
Tooth decay is caused by mouth acids. The acids dissolve the tooth enamel creating a hole
cavity. When the hole reaches pulp cavity serve pain is felt

How Tooth Decay Occurs

Bacteria in the mouth feed/act on sugary food left in the mouth and produce acids as waste
products. The acids then bores the tooth and cause decay.

Stages of Decay

Gum disease
Gum disease is caused by accumulation of plaque around the teeth. (Plaque is a mixture of food,
saliva and bacteria)
Plaque irritates the gum causing swelling.
Slowly the gum gets damaged resulting in teeth being exposed to infection.
Gum disease is also caused by
-lack of vitamin C (scurvy)
-smoking
-stress
-poor nutrition

Dental Care
-Eat food rich in vitamins eg oranges
-Brush teeth after meals
-Use tooth brush/ dental floss to remove food left between teeth
-Use toothpaste to clean teeth
(NB Toothpaste is alkaline so it neutralizes acids in the mouth)

Why do the molar and pre-molars decay faster than the incisors and canines?
Because they have cusps which trap food.
-Eat a balanced diet
-Visit a dentist to check/clean your teeth at least twice a year
-Brush your teeth for at least 3 minutes.

COMMUNICABLE DISEASES

Infectious disease is any type of disease caused by micro-organisms. These diseases are caused
by virus, bacteria, fungi and protozoa. Micro-organisms that cause diseases are called pathogens.
Communicable diseases are diseases that can be passed from one person to another.
- All diseases are also infectious diseases.
Non communicable diseases are diseases that cannot be passed from one person to another or
organism to another.

Communicable diseases and their causative agents

DISEASE CAUSATIVE AGENT

Bilharzia Fluke
Malaria Protozoa
Intestinal infections Parasites eg protozoa, bacteria
Polio Virus
Influenza Virus
AIDS Virus
Measles Virus
Chicken pox Virus
Tuberculosis Bacteria
Syphilis Bacteria
Cholera Bacteria
Ring worms Fungus
Athlete foot Fungus

i) Causative agents => are microbes that cause a disease eg bacteria, virus, protozoa,
fungus etc.
ii) Vectors => A vector is a carrier of a disease causing agent eg food, water, air,
animals. Vectors often contain the causative agent that hide or live on or in them.

Methods of prevention and controlling of communicable diseases

 Diseases that spread through Control and prevention
a) Food -Keep food covered
Intestinal infections caused by bacteria -Thoroughly cook food
-Wash hands before handling food
b) Water -Purifying water (chlorine is used to kill
Bilharzia germs in water)
Diarrhoea -Boiling water
Polio
c) Air -Covering nose / mouth when sneezing/
Tuberculosis coughing
Influenza -If infected by air bone disease eg murphs
stay home or away from people ie isolation
d) Animals -Destroy all favourable conditions for the
Malaria growth of those animals
e) Direct contact -Practice safe sex ie use condoms or
STIs abstain
Ring worms -Avoid sharing things like tooth brushes
-Touch open wound blood with protective
gloves

Life Cycles

A life cycle is a summary of the development stage of an organism from the first stage of
development (the egg) to the last mature adult stage. Though all life cycles follow the same
circular pattern the actual development stage may differ from organism to organism.

i) House flies
The house fly is an insect and it is a vector of a number of diseases. They spread diseases like
diarrhea, typhoid, cholera, etc. A house fly feeds mostly on rotting materials eg animal dung,
human faeces, etc. When a house fly visits such places, bacteria present in the rotting materials
cling to its body especially its legs. Later when this fly walks over a place of freshly cooked food
these bacteria fall on the food. Also when the house fly feeds it spits saliva containing germs on
to the food.

Life cycle of a House fly

The house fly has four main development stages.
-Eggs- are laid by mature females on batches of hundreds on or rotting materials. They are laid
below the surface to avoid drying.
-Larva- after twelve to twenty four hours the eggs hatch into larva which feeds on faeces. They
move away from light.
-Pupa- within about five days the larva is changed into pupa. The pupa is a resting stage in which
the adult housefly develops inside the pupa’s case.
Adult- the pupa changes into adult after about five days. The adult has two wings, a head, thorax
and abdomen. The complete life cycle from egg to adult takes ten to twelve days.

Control of Houseflies
-Avoid defecating in public places
-Place waste food in sealed containers
-Cover all cooked food
-Kill adult houseflies by spraying with insecticides
-Pitlatrine must be deep enough to trap the flies that have entered.

LIFE CYCLE OF MOSQUITOE

The mosquito is also an insect. There are different types of mosquito that is:
* Female Anopheles Mosquito- spreads malaria (female)
Malaria is caused by the female anopheles mosquito. Malaria is passed from person to person
when infected mosquito bites them. Malaria passes through a series of developmental stages.
Some of these stages develop further in the mosquito and others develop further in human. The
mosquito and human are therefore capable of infecting each other that is if an uninfected
mosquito bites an infected person, then the mosquito becomes infected. If an infected mosquito
bites an uninfected person, then the person becomes infected.

Life cycle of the Mosquito

The life cycle of a mosquito also follows four developmental stages.

*Eggs –the adult mosquito lays egg in batches of 200 or so in stagnant or slow moving water.
They trap air bubbles in order to float.
*Larva- After a day the larvae hatch from the eggs. The larvae have breathing tubes called
spiracles on their bodies. They can often hang out of the surface of water.
*Pupa- after 12 days the larvae changes into pupae which also breathe through tubes called
siphons. The siphons are open to the atmosphere while pupae themselves are under the water.
The pupae do not feed.
*Adult- after about 2 days the pupae change into an adult. The female starts laying eggs and the
life cycle is repeated.
The mouth part of the female mosquitoes are adapted for sucking blood while the male mosquito
live on plant juices.

Control of Mosquitoes
-Draining stagnant water
-Spraying still water with oil to kill larvae and pupae
-Using mosquito coils to kill adult mosquitoes
-Sleeping under mosquito nets
iii) Bilharzia Fluke
Unlike houseflies and mosquitoes, the bilharzias fluke is not a vector for disease causing
parasites. It is an organism that actually causes the disease itself. It is a small flatworm which is
transmitted by water rather than insects. The adult fluke is a parasite and lives in the veins of the
rectum or bladder.

Life cycle of Bilharzia fluke

Adult fluke lives in man and produces eggs. The eggs are passed out along with urine or faeces.
If the eggs reach the water they hatch into larvae. The larvae can only develop inside a water
snail. In the snail these larvae develop into embryo. These embryo flukes leave the snail and
swim about in water. If a person swims or stands in the infected water the embryo penetrate in
the skin and enter the blood. These embryos then settle in the rectum or bladder and develop into
adults.

Metamorphosis
Many insects eg housefly, mosquito etc have a life cycle in which there is a complete change
from egg to adult. This is termed as complete metamorphosis.
Egg ------------> Larva ---------------> Pupa ----------------> Adult

Insects like cockroach, grasshopper etc undergo incomplete metamorphosis

 Egg -----------> Nymph --------------> Adult

Control the spread of Bilharzia

-Killing the snails
-Fencing contaminated bodies of water
-Discouraging people from coming into contact with contaminated water
-Treating infected people
-Discouraging from urinating in water.

Food Poisoning
This is food/ drink containing harmful micro- organisms

Causes of Food Poisoning

Food poisoning is caused by food that is contaminated. Food can be contaminated with
-bacteria and virus
-chemicals => can be caused by chemicals from cleaning solutions or insecticides or from
chemicals in containers like lead tin.
-poisonous plants like mushrooms
-parasites such as tapeworms (food in undercooked pork)
Most food poisoning is not caused by bacteria itself but by toxins produced by bacteria.

Conditions for Microbal Growth

Most microbes can increase/ multiply rapidly if they are in favourable conditions. These
conditions are;
-Moisture (water)
-Warmth
-Food (protein, sugar, fat)

Signs and Symptoms of Food Poisoning

-Nausea, vomiting
-Diarrhoea
-Upset stomach, cramps, abdominal pains
-Dizziness, rapid heart beat, fainting
-Bloody diarrhoea or pus stools

Prevention of Food Poisoning

Food poisoning is influenced by the way the food is handled and prepared.
-Wash hands thoroughly before preparing food
-High risk food such as fish and meat must be kept in a cool place until it is cooked
-Keep raw meat, poultry separate from other food
-Cook food like meat, poultry, fish thoroughly to kill microorganisms
-Never buy food that is in torn or leaking package

Food Preservation and Handling

Proper food handling is needed to prevent food poisoning
 i) Salting => Meat can be well preserved by salting. The salt absorbs water from the
meat so it dries out quickly.
ii) Air drying => Vegetables and fruits can be well preserved by drying in the air. They
are first sliced and then spread out in the sun.

iii) Refrigeration => The low temperature stops the growth of microbes.
iv) Canning => The microbes are killed by cooking the food. The food is placed in
sterile tins or glass jars while still very hot. The container is then sealed. The seal
prevents the food from becoming contaminated again.
v) Pasteurisation => This method is commonly used to treat milk. The milk is heated
for thirty minutes at temperature between 50 C and 60 C.
vi) Pickling => Pickling is another ancient method that is used to preserve meats, fruits
and vegetables. Pickling combines the preservative qualities of an acid, such as
vinegar. Acids stops bacterial growth.

vii) Fermenting => uses yeast to produce alcohol. Alcohol is a good preservative because
it kills bacteria. When you ferment grape juice you create wine, which will last quite
a long time without refrigeration.
viii) Carbonating => water in which carbon dioxide gas has been dissolved under pressure.
By taking out oxygen, carbonated water stops bacterial growth..
ix) Cheese making => the milk in cheese becomes something completely unlike milk.
This process makes use of bacteria, enzymes and naturally formed acids to solidify
milk proteins and fat and preserve them.
x) Irradiation => is a process that uses electron beams, X-rays or gamma rays. It
produces a similar effect to pasteurization, cooking or other forms of heat treatment,
but with less effect on look and texture.
Nuclear radiation is able to kill bacteria without changing the properties of the food. So, if you
seal food in plastic and then radiate it, the food will become sterile and can be stored on a shelf
without refrigeration. Unlike canning, the taste or texture of the food does not change when you
irradiate it. Therefore it’s often used to preserve foods such as herbs or spices so that their
flavours or aromas are not changed.
Irradiation can also delay fruit ripening and help stop vegetables such as potatoes and onions
from sprouting.

xi) Chemical food preservation => there are three classes of chemical preservatives
commonly used in foods
*Benzoates (such as sodium benzoate)
*Nitrites (such as sodium nitrite)
*Sulphites (such as sulphur dioxide)
All these chemicals either slow down the activity of bacteria or kill the bacteria.
NUTRITION : DIGESTION

Digestion is the process in which food is broken down into simpler substances or parts that can
then be absorbed (taken up) by the body. This can be mechanical- reducing food in size to
increase its surface area so that chemicals can act on it. It can also be chemical- breaking down
of food by chemical substances called enzymes.

IMPORTANCE OF DIGESTION

Digestion is a very important process because of the following:

 The cells of the body need a constant supply of energy to carry out their work
 Parts of the body and cells are also continually being repaired and replaced. As a result
the body needs a constant supply of new building materials in the form of protein, amino
acids and other chemicals.
 The body needs vitamins and minerals. These are chemicals that are needed to help in
many of the chemical reactions that occur in cells. Without them the cells do not work
properly and the person becomes ill.
 Digestion is the only way that we can obtain the raw materials that the body needs to
function and survive.
FUNCTIONS OF THE DIFFERENT PARTS OF THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

Parts of the digestive Functions

system
Mouth -Teeth Cut/ grind the food up into small pieces.
-Tongue Mixes food with saliva and moves it into oesophagus.
Salivary glands Produce a fluid that lubricates the food and which contains
enzymes that begin breakdown of food.
Pharynx Helps with swallowing of food.
Oesophagus Connects the mouth/ pharynx to the stomach. Also passes
food from mouth to the stomach.
Stomach Contain acids and enzymes that begin the chemical
breakdown of foods, particularly proteins.
Gall bladder Releases a fluid into the duodenum that helps to digest
fats.
Pancreas Releases fluid into the duodenum that contains enzymes
that digest carbohydrates, protein and fats.
Small intestine –Duodenum Contains fluids from the pancreas and gall bladder that
digest food further.
-Jejunum and ileum Areas of the digestive system where digestion is
completed and absorption of nutrients takes place.
Large intestine (Colon) Water is absorbed here
Rectum Faeces are formed and stored here
Anus Faeces pass out of the body through the anus.

THE ENZYMES RESPONSIBLE FOR FOOD DIGESTION AND THE END PRODUCTS
OF DIGESTION

Digestive enzyme Secreted from Food type digested End product of digestion
Salivary amylase -Salivary lands Starch (Complex Glucose and other simple
& pancreatic -Pancreas carbohydrate) sugars
amylase
Protease -Stomach Protein Amino acids
(Pepsin & trypsin) -Pancreas
Lipase Pancreas Fat Fatty acids and glycerol
ABSORPTION OF FOOD INTO THE BLOOD STREAM

The simple molecules obtained during chemical food digestion need to get from the digestive
system to every cell in the body. The blood system is the transport system that carries the simple
molecules of food to the cells. The walls of the small intestine have tiny finger-like projections
on them called villi (singular: villus). Blood capillaries and special lymph vessels called lacteals
are found in the villi. Simple sugar molecules and amino acids diffuse across the membrane of
the villus into the blood system. Fatty acids and glycerol diffuse into the lacteals. The lacteals
join up to become lymph vessels which eventually empty the fatty acids and glycerol into the
blood stream too.
TESTING FOR STARCH

1. Put a food sample on a white tile.

2. Put a few drops of iodine solution on the food sample.
3. Observe the colour changes. If iodine solution turns blue- black or black starch is present.
If iodine solution remains brown, starch is absent.

TESTING FOR REDUCING SUGAR (GLUCOSE)

To test for reducing sugar, the benedict’s test can be used.

1. Boil water in a beaker. Switch off the heat source.
2. Pour 5cm Benedict solution into a test tube and place in the beaker for 5 minutes.
3. Add a few drops of the test substance to the test tube.
4. Wait for a few minutes.
5. What colour does the solution turn?

*If the solution remained blue –no glucose present

*If the solution turned green –small amount of glucose present
*If the solution turned yellow –some glucose present
*If the solution turned orange –large amount of glucose present

TEST FOR FATS

1. Translucent spot test

a) Take a filter paper.

b) Rub the food sample on a filter paper.
c) Hold the filter paper towards the direction of the sunlight and observe carefully.
d) Do you see a translucent spot or not? If the translucent spot is present, fats are present. If
the translucent spot is absent, fats are absent.

2. Emulsion test

a) Put a food sample into a test tube.

b) Add water to make a solution.
c) Add ethanol and shake.
d) Do the contents remain clear or turn cloudy? If it remains clear, fats are absent. If the
solution turns milky it means that fats are present.

TEST FOR PROTEIN

 1. Grate or mash some test substance.
2. Shake it up vigorously in a test tube with a bit of water.
3. Add 1 to 2 drops of copper sulphate to the test tube.
4. Add about 5ml of sodium hydroxide to the solution.
5. What colour does the mixture turn?

If the solution turned pink to violet –proteins are present.

DRUGS

A drug is a chemical substance that has an effect on our body when it is introduced.

The difference between medicinal and non-medicinal drugs

Medicinal drugs are taken to cure an illness. They are also used to reduce the symptoms of
illness and make you feel better. Examples are painkillers- paracetamol, antibiotics- penicillin
and cough medicines. Medicinal drugs are not usually harmful to the person taking them unless
abused.

Non-medicinal drugs do not have any medical use. They are often taken with the intention of
changing the mood of the user. Some non-medicinal drugs are legal, for example alcohol and
nicotine in tobacco. Some non-medicinal drugs are illegal, for example cannibas (dagga),
cocaine and heroin.

Commonly abused drugs

Tobacco, Alcohol, solvents(like glue), stimulants(like cocaine) give people energy and help to
keep them awake, sedatives(like dagga, sleeping tablets) help to calm people down and can make
them feel sleepy, hallucinogens(like ecstasy, cannabis) make people see and hear things which
are not really there.

Dangers of misusing medicinal drugs

Medicinal drugs are used to help a person to get better by curing a disease or by treating any
symptoms that they are suffering from. Misuse of medicinal drugs happens when someone
continues to take the drug even though their disease has been cured or the symptoms they were
suffering from have gone away. People misuse medicinal drugs for the following reasons:
*The drugs make them feel better and more relaxed or gives them a high that they enjoy.
*They have become addicted to the drug found in the medicine they are taking and cannot stop
taking the medicine.
The most common medicinal drugs that are misused are:
- Sleeping pills - Medicines containing codeine
- Painkillers - Diet pills
- stimulants

Medicinal Plants Used in Botswana

*Sengaparile (Devil’s claw): used to treat arthritis and rheumatism
*Monepenepe (Cassia abbriviata): a small tree, the bark and roots of which are used to treat
headaches, diarrhea and skin diseases.
*Mukwa tree: used to treat stomach problems.

Allergic Reactions to Drugs

When people are sensitive to a certain substance they are said to be allergic to it.

Examples of symptoms of mild allergic reactions

*Sneezing *Itchy ears and eyes
*Runny nose *Tickly throat
Mild allergic reactions are easily treated with drugs known as antihistamines.

Symptoms of severe allergic reactions

*Difficulty in breathing (like asthma) *A drop in blood pressure
*Unconsciousness *Itchy rash all over the body (hives)
*Swelling of lips, face, neck and throat (this can prevent the person from breathing)
Severe reactions are commonly seen in people who are allergic to bee sting, certain foods (ie
peanuts), and certain medicinal drugs.
Drugs that are known to cause allergic reactions are penicillin, tetracycline (an antibiotic),
codeine and drugs used to treat epilepsy.
THE HUMAN BODY: TRANSPORTING SUBSTANCES IN THE HUMAN BODY
BLOOD

Blood is a reddish liquid that circulates around the body.

Functions of Blood
Blood perform the following functions:
- Transportation - Regulation of body temperature
- Defence against diseases - Blood clotting

1.TRANSPORTATION
i) Haemoglobin in red blood cells combine with oxygen in the lungs. It is then carried to all cells
of the body.
ii) The blood also carries carbon dioxide from the tissues of the lungs.
iii)Blood takes the digested food materials such as glucose, amino acids, lipids, vitamins and
minerals from the intestine and carries them to the liver for storage.
iv) The hormones of the glands are carried by the blood to the tissues.
v) Nitrogenous waste such as urea are carried to the kidneys by the purpose of excretion.

2. Regulation of Body Temperature

-The blood distributes the heat produced in body tissues throughout the body. Thus a uniform
body temperature is maintained.

3.Defence Against Diseases

The white cells destroy harmful bacteria and germs that enter the body.

4.Blood Clotting
Blood platelets help in blood clotting at the site of injuries.

Different Blood Components

A & C – White blood cell
B – Red blood cell
D – Platelets
E - Plasma

Components of blood have different functions described on the table below:

COMPONENTS
RED BLOOD CELLS
-They are red because they contain a molecule called
haemoglobin.
-Haemoglobin is the molecule that caries oxygen
around the body inside the red blood cell.
-They are shaped like a disc.
-They have no nucleus.
-They are produced in the bone marrow.
WHITE BLOOD CELLS (also known as
LEUKOCYTES)
-These are the cells of the immune system.
-There are different types of white blood cells and
have different shapes.
-They have a nucleus
BLOOD PLATELETS (THROMBOCYTES)
-They are not proper cells; they are small fragments
of cells without a nucleus.
-They are produced in the bone marrow.
BLOOD PLASMA
-Plasma is 90% water. The other 10% contains
minerals, proteins, hormones, antibodies, proteins
involved in blood clot formation, and waste products
dissolved in water.
FUNCTIONS
-Red blood cells carry oxygen
and carbon dioxide around the
body.
-They defend the body against
diseases.
*Phagocytes- detect and eat up
bacteria or germs (therefore they
are large and change shape).
*Lymphocytes- identify the
germs with its huge nucleus and
sends out antibodies.
-When a wound occurs, they stick
together with other substances to
form a blood clot. This stops
blood from coming out of the
body.
-Most of the substances found in
blood are transported around the
body in the plasma.

BLOOD GROUPS
There are four blood types known as A, B, AB and O.

Uses of Blood groups in medicine

 Blood groups enable medical practitioners to develop a wide range of cures by studying
antigens and antibodies.
 Even though they are not 100% effective, blood groups can be used to explain some
paternity issues.
 Blood groups help in developing antibodies for vaccination against diseases.
 Blood groups can help in the development of certain antibiotics.
 Blood groups allow for the administering of safe blood transfusions.

BLOOD TRANSFUSION
Is when the blood of one person (a donor) is given to another person (the recipient) by letting it
flow into the body of the recipient through a needle placed in one of their veins.

Safety measures taken during blood transfusion

1. Blood must be checked first for its compatibility with other types of blood. Blood of
different blood groups can mix well. When they mix well they are said to be compatible.
There is also a case where blood groups do not mix well but rather clot, and they are said
to be incompatible. Blood groups of a similar type mix well together. However blood
group O can be donated to all other blood groups, that is why it is known as a universal
donor. Blood group AB can receive all other blood groups, so it is known as a universal
recipient.

Blood Group Recipient

Donor A B AB O
A Compatible Incompatible Compatible Incompatible
B Incompatible Compatible Compatible Incompatible
AB Incompatible Incompatible Compatible Incompatible
O Compatible Compatible Compatible Compatible

2. Blood must be tested for diseases such as Hepatitis, HIV/AIDS and other STIs. This is to
ensure that the recipients are not given infected blood from the donors.
3. Blood must be warmed up to normal body temperature. This is to ensure that there are no
disparities between the blood donated and the victim’s blood.
4. All equipment that is used such as containers, needles and tubes must be sterilized to
ensure utmost hygiene.

THE CICURLATORY SYSTEM

The Human Heart
The function of the heart is to pump blood around the body. The heart is a double pump- Arteries
take blood away from the heart while veins take blood to the heart. The heart is divided into four
chambers. The two chambers at the top are called the atria. The one on the left is called the left
atrium or auricle, while the one on the right is called the right atrium or auricle. The two
chambers at the bottom are called ventricles. There is the right ventricle and the left ventricle.

Deoxygenated blood enters the heart on the right side through the vena cava. It passes through
the right auricle to the right ventricle. When the heart contracts(beats) it pumps blood to the
lungs through the pulmonary artery.

Oxygenated blood passes from the lungs to the left side of the heart through the pulmonary vein
into the left auricle. It then passes to the left ventricle where it is pumped out of heart through the
aorta.

STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF THE BLOOD VESSELS

Blood Vessel Structure Function

Arteries -Have thick elastic Carry oxygenated blood except
mascular walls without pulmonary artery, ie blood
valves flows at high pressure.

-Have thinner, less elastic Carry deoxygenated blood

walls and one way valves except the pulmonary vein, ie
blood flows at low pressure.

Veins
Capillaries Have walls that are one cell Provide cells with nutrients
 thick and no valves and oxygen from the blood
cells.

Common Diseases of the Circulatory system

Diseases that affect the circulatory system are:

1. Heart attacks

It can occur as a result of the following:

-Coronary arteries blocked by a clot, which leads to coronary thrombosis.
-Arteries can be clogged by cholesterol, which leads to atherosclerosis.
-Arteries can rapture or break,. This is called aneurysm.

2. Strokes
It may occur as a result of any of the following:
-Arteries at the brain can be blocked by clots.
-Arteries at the brain can be blocked by cholesterol.
-Arteries at the brain can rupture causing aneurysms in the brain.
A stroke can lead to paralysis and death in severe cases.

3. Anaemia
It is a shortage of oxygen in the body due to:
-shortage of red blood cells
- shortage of blood.
-sickle-shaped red blood cells.
-not enough iron in the diet.
-the destruction of red blood cells by diseases.
 4. HIV/AIDS
It is a virus which has the following effects on the circulatory system:
-destruction of white blood cells
-poor immunity
-vulnerability to different diseases

5. Irregular heart rhythm

This occurs when the atria contract abnormally.

6. Blood leaking back into atria

This occurs as a result of the valves not functioning effectively.

7. Spasm
This is an uncontrolled, repeated contraction of the heart muscles in the coronary artery walls.

Causes of circulatory diseases

-Smoking: contributes to the narrowing of blood vessels.
-Raised levels of cholesterol in the body: cholesterol can end up blocking the blood vessels.
-High blood pressure caused by high level of salt in the diet. It can lead to a strain on arteries.
-Diabetes: high levels of sugar in the blood may not be tolerable to the blood vessels.
-Inheritances: there is an observed trend whereby those from families with circulatory diseases
tend to end up having them.
-Old age: as organs and tissues age, their effectiveness lowers.
-Stress: individuals with high stress levels have reportedly been associated with circulatory
problems.

Prevention of circulatory diseases

*Make exercise a habit.

*Eat a correct diet.
*Avoid eating too much salt to avoid the risk of hypertensive disease.
*Avoid taking drugs, including the smoking of cigarettes.
*Have your blood pressure checked regularly.
*Have your cholesterol levels checked regularly.
*Do not take drugs during pregnancy so that the unborn child can develop tissues and organs
fully.
*Try to avoid high stress situations.

Breathing
It is the taking in of air (inhaling) and taking out of air (exhaling). When breathing oxygen gets
into our bodies through lungs.

Breathing in (inhaling)
- The ribs move up and out.
- The diaphragm contracts and rises.
- As a result, the volume of the chest is increased.
- The lungs expand.
- Air is forced into the lungs.

Breathing out (exhaling)

- The ribs move down and in.
 - The diaphragm relaxes and comes downwards.
- As a result, the volume of the chest decreases.
- The lungs contract.
- Air is forced out of the lungs.

Exchange of gases by lungs

Oxygen diffuses from the lungs into the bloodstream. The blood transports oxygen to all parts of
the body where is needed.

Carbon dioxide diffuses from the cells where it is as a waste product of metabolism. It is carried
by the blood to the lungs. It crosses into the lungs by diffusion. It exits the lungs during
exhalation.

Levels of carbon dioxide in inhaled air and exhaled air

Gas exchange in the lungs means that the amount of carbon dioxide in exhaled air is much larger
than the amount of carbon dioxide found in the air that is inhaled.
Amount in inhaled air Amount in exhaled air
Carbon dioxide 0.04% 4%
Oxygen 21% 16%

Air breathed out will turn lime water milky, while air breathed in will not turn the lime water.

Effect of physical exercise on the rate and depth of breathing

During exercise the pulse rate is high. This means that the heart is beating faster per unit time.
The heart beats faster to carry more nutrients and oxygen to the body parts. As a result, the
breathing rate increases to supply more oxygen to respiring cells and remove carbon dioxide
from them.

Effects of smoking on lungs

Smoking has the following effects on the lungs:

 - It increases the chances of developing respiratory diseases such as bronchitis and
emphysema.
- It blackens the alveoli and damages their linings.
- It combines with haemoglobin and prevents oxygen from combining with the
haemoglobin.
- It contributes to the narrowing of blood vessels.

EXCRETION: The excretory System

Excretion is the removal of the waste products of metabolism (chemical reactions) that take place
in the body.

Excretory organs and their products

Excretory organs Excretory products

Lungs Carbon dioxide, water vapour
Skin Water, salts, nitrogenous waste
Kidneys Urea
Digestive system Bile pigments
Common problems of the Excretory System
 Kidney failure: This is when the kidneys cease to function effectively. It results in the
poor excretion of nitrogenous wastes.
 Hepatitis: This is a liver disease that might render the ineffective excretion of bile
pigments.
 Perspiration lapse: The skin might reach a state when it cannot remove sweat effectively.
 Lung diseases: Bronchitis, pneumonia and emphysema may destroy the lungs to the
extent that they do not remove wastes effectively.
 Ineffectiveness of excretory hormones: Hormones such as the antidiuretic hormone and
aldosterone may not function effectively.
 Urinary tract infections (UTI) – affect the bladder and urethra that are usually caused by
bacteria also appear in the in the faeces as E-coli.
 Kidney stones – crystals of salts and minerals such as calcium that form in the urinary
tract
 Kidney failure – caused by infection, poisoning or overdose of drugs, a sudden drop in
blood pressure (shock) and heart failure

Prevention of problems of the excretory system

 Drugs and alcohol generally strain the kidneys and the liver. Efforts should be made to
avoid drug abuse at all costs.
 Smoking has been found to be dangerous to the lungs. It worsens lung diseases. It should
be avoided.
 A healthy diet that is rich in skin enhancing vitamins is recommended. Healthy skin
carries out the work of perspiration very well.
 Regular medical checkups of the excretory organs are important.
The difference between Excretion and Egestion

Excretion is the removal of waste products produced by the processes that take place in cells
while Egestion is the removal of undigested food as solid waste (faeces).

ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM: ELECTRICAL ENERGY

Magnetism
Is a property of matter which produces a field of attractive (bringing together) or repulsive
(forcing apart) forces. Magnetism is the force that causes a nail or paper clip to be pulled toward
a magnet.
When we change something from being non-magnetic to being magnetic, we say that
magnetism is induced in the material.

Methods of Magnetisation
There are two main ways that we can induce magnetism in non-magnetic materials:
 Electrically
 Stroking an object with a magnet

Inducing Magnetism Electrically

A coil of wire is wrapped around a piece of iron or steel and an electric current is passed through
it. The iron or steel only act as a magnet when the electric current flows, the molecules become
arranged in one direction. This is known as polarization. Polarization is what makes something
magnetic. When the electricity is switched off, they lose their magnetic properties. This kind of
magnet is called an electromagnet.
Inducing Magnetism by Stroking
There are two kinds of stoking: Single stroke and double stroke method
 Single stoke method: a piece of iron or steel is stroked in one direction with a strong
magnet.

 Double stoke method: a piece of iron or steel is stroked by two strng magnets using
opposite ends of the magnets. This produces a stronger magnet.

Magnetic properties of Iron and Steel

Magnetic properties of iron Magnetic properties of steel

Iron gets magnetized quickly Steel gets magnetized slowly.
Iron loses its magnetism quickly Steel loses its magnetism slowly
Iron is used to make temporary Steel is used for making permanent
electromagnets. magnets

Uses of Magnetic Materials

- Magnetic recording media ( video and audio tapes contain a reel of magnetic tape. The
information is encoded onto a magnetic coating on the tape)
- Computer floppy disks and hard disks
 - Credit cards, debit cards and ATM cards
- Some television and computer screens
- Speakers and microphones
- Electric motors and generators
- Magnetic compasses
- Decoration
- Toys
- Magnetic levitation transport (Maglev)
- Magnets can pick up magnetic items

Proper care for magnets

Proper care of a magnet means taking the following steps:

 Don’t ever drop or hit a magnet. Most magnets are brittle and can break easily.
 Don’t ever place a magnet in a flame.
 When you store a horseshoe magnet, you must place a keeper plate on the end of the
magnet to protect the poles.
 Store magnets so that the south pole of one magnet is facing the north pole of another.
Never store magnets with the same poles facing each other.

Electric Charge

Electrostatic Charging causes static electricity. Static electricity is electricity which does not
move. When we charge objects by friction, and they retain their charge, the charged objects are
said to have static electricity.

The two types of charging: positive and negative

All matter is made up of tiny particles called atoms. Atoms are made up of protons, neutrons and
electrons. An atom has an equal number of protons and electrons, and their total charges balance
each other. Protons are positively charged and electrons are negatively charged. The protons
are bound very tightly into the nucleus and cannot escape but the electrons can move towards an
atom or away from it.

To measure the size of an electric charge we have to use standard units. The SI unit of charge is
the Coulomb (C). One coulomb is the amount of charge accumulated in one second by a current
of one ampere.

Repulsion and Attraction between charges

Repulsion
Repulsion is a force that pushes two objects apart. Two positive or negative charges will repel
each other.

Attraction

Attraction is a force that pulls two objects together. A positive charge will attract a negative
charge.

Sources of electrical Energy

-Battery (chemical energy)

-Solar cell (solar energy)
-The dynamo (kinetic energy)

Energy changes in a power station

Most of the electricity that is used throughout the world is generated in large power stations that
burn coal or oil. The energy changes in a power station are:

Chemical Energy (fuels)

Heat energy (boiler)

Heat energy (steam)

Kinetic energy (turbines and generator)

Electrical energy (generator)

*The burning of fossil fuels in a boiler produces heat energy that changes water into steam.
*The steam is used to turn a large turbine. As the turbine turns, it also turns a large dynamo
called a generator.
*The generator converts this kinetic energy into electrical energy.

Effects of Electricity
The Heating effect of electricity and its applications
Electrical energy can be converted to heat energy.

A number of devices in the home use the heating effect of electricity:

 Electric heater * Electric kettle
 Electric iron * Electric toaster etc

The Chemical effect of electricity and its applications

Electrical energy can be converted to chemical energy.

A solution of copper sulphate is able to conduct electricity. You will have seen some of the signs
of a chemical reaction;
- Bubbles of gas were made at the carbon rod connected to the positive side of the battery.
- The carbon rod connected to the negative terminal of the power supply became covered
with copper.
The chemical effect of electricity is used in a number of applications:
 1. Electrolysis- is the breaking down a liquid chemical compound (an electrolyte) by
passing an electric current through it. For example it is used in industries to extract metals
such as copper and aluminium from ore.
2. Electroplating- is similar to electrolysis.
3. Electrical cells (batteries)- the batteries that we use in torches and radios are also
examples of the chemical effects of electricity.

The Magnetic effects of electricity and its applications

When a coil of wire is wound around an iron nail and current is allowed to pass through the coil,
a magnetic field is created. When the current flows, the iron nail is turned into a magnet. We call
this an electromagnet.
Electromagnets are used in:
1. Communication devices such as the telephone, radio and television.
2. Industry to operate cranes, generators, motors and transformers.
3. The home to operate electric door bells and some toys.

Electric Power Consumption: The Power Rating of an Electric Appliance to its Electrical
Energy Consumption

The power of an appliance tells you how much energy it consumes in one second. To consume
something is to use it up. Power is measured in units called watts (W) and kilowatts (kW).
Power (W) = Volts x Amps or W = Vx A
One kilowatt = One thousand watts: 1 kW = 1000W
One megawatt = One million watts: 1mW = 1 000 000W

An electricity meter placed in your school or house by the power corporation records the number
of units used.
The cost of using any appliance can be calculated using the formula:
Cost = electric power x time x cost per kWh
Or
Cost = number of units(power x time) x cost per unit

Some examples:
1. Calculate the cost of running a 100W light bulb for four hours if the Power Corporation
charges P0. 95 per unit.
100W = 0.1 kW
Cost = 0.1 x 4 x 0. 95 = P0.38
Or
Cost = (0.1 x 4) x 0.95 = 0.4 x 0.95 = P0.38

2. Calculate the cost of using a 3kW heater for 30 minutes (1kWh costs P0.95)
30 minutes = 0.5 hrs
Cost = 3 x 0.5 x 0.95 = (P1.425) = P1.43

Reducing the Cost of Electricity

- Use fluorescent light bulbs in your home.

- Switch off lights in rooms when no one is in them.
- Add insulation to your roof and water geyser.
- Use ceiling fans instead of air conditioners.
- Don’t fill the kettle every time you boil it, only add as much water to the kettle as you
need etc.

Safe Use of Electricity in the Home

Fuses: It is a safety device used to prevent wires from becoming too hot. A fuse contains a strip
of metal that will melt easily when heated or when overloaded with current. In this way the
appliance is protected from damage.
Fuses are normally rated 1A, 3A, 5A and 13A.

The earth wire

The earth wire is connected to earth for safety purposes. An appliance that has a metal casing
must be connected to earth. If there is a broken wire in the appliance and it touches the metal
casing of the appliance and you then touch that appliance, you are the direct contact between the
live electric wire and the earth. You can suffer from a serious electrical shock.

Modern appliances are double insulated, this means that the electrical parts in the appliance are
not in contact with the outer casing of the appliance, eg hairdryers, radios, etc. These appliances
usually carry the double insulation symbol

Live, Neutral and Earth wires in an electric cable

Three-core electric cable contains three insulated (plastic coated) wires.

Colour Name Function

Brown Live wire Carries the electric current from the mains to
the appliance.
Green and Earth wire Transfer electric current from the appliance to
yellow the earth if there is any problem.
Blue Neutral Carries electric current from the appliance to
the mains.
Wiring a mains plug correctly

A fuse must always be connected to the live wire so that the electricity stops flowing when the
fuse breaks.

A switch must also be to the live wire so that the appliance is not live when it is switched off.

Steps to be followed when there is an electric fault in a circuit

- Inspect the mains switch board (fuse box).
- Check if any of the circuit breakers (trip switches) are down.
- If one of these switches is down, it tells you where the problem lies, eg if the stove switch
is down, the stove is causing the problem.
- If the plug switch is down, make sure the mains switch is down and check the plug
connections of any appliance connected.
- If there is a problem with wiring, rewire the plug and switch the mains back on.

General rules to follow when dealing with electrical appliances

1. Always turn off the electricity at the main fuse box before doing any electrical work.
2. Make sure that plugs are wired correctly and have the correct size of fuse.
3. Check cables and plugs for damage. Replace any broken or cracked plugs and damaged
cables.
4. Do not pull the plug from a wall socket by pulling on the cable. Hold the plug itself.
5. Never use wet hands to switch appliances on and off or to carry working appliances.
6. Never use electrical appliances in a bathroom or near a kitchen sink.
7. Do not plug too many appliances into one socket. Use multi-adaptors as little as possible.
8. Switch off televisions which use an outside aerial and computers during a thunderstorm.
THE SOLAR SYSTEM

It is made up of the sun and the 9 planets.

Earth System: Earth Spheres

Our planet Earth is one of the 9 planets which circle the sun. It is the only planet that bears life.

Geo-Science or Earth Science

It is the study of the earth and its systems.
These include soil, rocks, climate seas and oceans, river patterns, vegetation, atmosphere.

Spheres that make up the Earth and their features

The earth is made up of 4 spheres.

1. Lithosphere
2. Hydrosphere
3. Biosphere
4. Atmosphere

1.Lithosphere
It is the solid part of the planet earth. It is made up of the layers known as the crust and the upper
mantle. The body of the earth is made up of 3 layers, the crust, mantle and the core.
Mantle -molten (semi liquid) due to high pressure and high temperature (1600oC). It is made up
of minerals which contain iron and other dense minerals.

Crust - solid rocky crust that covers the whole planet. It is the visible part of the earth that we
live on.

Outer core- liquid made up of iron and nickel.

Inner core -solid due to extreme pressure. It is made up of iron.

2.Hydrosphere
It is the water part of the earth and it includes oceans, seas, lakes, ponds, rivers and streams.
Water in the earth heats up more slowly and cools down more slowly than land and so the earth’s
temperature does not change rapidly. The continous movement of water is described by the water
cycle.
  Liquid water is changed into water vapour in a process called evaporation. Most water
evaporates from the oceans.
 Water vapour changes to liquid water in a process called condensation.
 Water in a liquid (rain) or solid form (hail or snow) falls back to the Earth’s surface in a
process known as precipitation.
 Water returns to the oceans as surface runoff or groundwater.

3.Biosphere
The zone where life is found. It is made up of living organisms (plants and animals).

It is divided into biomes. A biome is a large area which is characterized by a similar climate,
flora (plants), fauna (animals) and soil eg grassland.

4.Atmosphere
A thin layer of air which surrounds the earth. It is held in place by the force of gravity.

It consists of gases: Liquids Solids

–Nitrogen 78% Rain water Dust
- Oxygen 21% Water vapour Smoke
-Other gases 3% Salt
Ice

Importance of the atmosphere to life on Earth

- Contains water vapour which may condense to form clouds and eventually rain.
- It is an important part of the water cycle.
- Almost all matter occurs in the atmosphere.
- Contains carbon dioxide for photosynthesis.
- Shields life on earth from radiation from the sun.
- Air and wind movement help in pollination.

Interaction Between the Spheres of the Earth

The earth’s spheres are interdependent.
- Water moves between different spheres in a system known as water cycle.
- Water (hydrosphere) is found in the clouds (atmosphere) and flows through the soil into
underground aquifers (lithosphere).
- A layer of air in the atmosphere shields plants and animals (biosphere) from radiation.
- Birds (biosphere) fly through the air (atmosphere) and fish (biosphere) swim in the sea
(hydrosphere).
- Nutrients flow between different spheres.
- Atmosphere provides oxygen to biosphere for respiration and carbon dioxide for
photosynthesis.

Careers in Geo-science
1. Economic and mining geologist
Looks for metallic and non-metallic resources, studies mineral deposits, finds environmentally
safe ways of disposing of waste materials from mining activities.
2. Geologist
Studies the materials, processes, products, physical nature and history of the earth.
3. Climatologist
Studies weather processes; climate and climate change and pollution.
4. Mineralogist
Studies mineral formation, composition and properties.
5. Soil scientist
Studies soils and their properties to determine how to sustain farming and how to look after our
soils.
6. Paleontologist
Studies fossils to understand past life forms and their changes through time and to reconstruct
past environments