Professional Documents
Culture Documents
NUTSHELL SERll=S
BOOK2
BY
CAPT. H. SUBRAMANIAM
Extra Master, F.R.Met.S., M.R.I.N., F.N.I., F.C.M.M.I., M.I.Mar.Tech., M.I.Met.S.
Principal
LB.S. College <if Advanced Maritime Studies & Research,
Mumbai.
VIJAYA PUBLICATIONS
2 CHAITRA, 550 ELEVENTH ROAD,
CHEMBUR, MUMBAI 400 071-
6. Clouds 33 12 Tropical revolving storms 89
Classification of clouds; description and Definition; danger to shipping; local names
abbreviations of the ten basic types of and seasons; origin. movement and
clouds; formation of clouds - turbulence lifespan; structure; definitions: associated
orographic lifting, convection currents and weather; storm surge; warning signs of an
frontal lifting. approaching TRS: action to take when the
7. Pressure gradient, wind and waves 43 presence of a TRS 1s confirmed; ideal
Isobars: pressure gradient; Coriolis conditions for the formation of a TRS.
(geostrophic) force; prediction of wind 13. Weather reporting system 108
direction; prediction of wind speed; General idea; the voluntary observing
geostroph1c wind scale: sea. swell, gust, fleet; synoptic hours; meteorological log
squall, veering, backing; Buys Ballot's law; books; classification of ships - selected
Beaufort wind scale and Beaufort weather ships, supplementary ships, auxiliary
notation; descriptive terms to use to ships; equipment and publications
describe sea and swell. supplied by the India Meteorological
8. True and apparent wind 56 Department; Meteorological services &
Meaning. difference. relationship; methods warnings as per SOLAS 74: obligation to
of estimating direction and force of wind at report dangers. examples of safety
sea; problems involving true and apparent messages; weather bulletins: weather
wind. forecast areas around India.
9. The seven basic isobaric patterns 66 14. Weather Codes 122
Straight isobars; cyclone or low; The various types of weather reports -
secondary low; anticyclone or high: col; Ship reports; Land station reports; the
ridge or wedge; trough - non-frontal and SYNOP Code; the MAFOR Code; the IAC
frontal. (Fleet); important points when coding a
10. General pressure and wind distribution 76 ships weather report: examples in coding
The ideal condition; the actual season- and decoding weather messages.
wise situation. Prevailing winds. 15. Pressure measuring instruments 133
11. Periodic and local winds 80 The principle, construction, corrections,
Land and sea breezes; the Monsoons of errors, maintenance and precautions when
the Indian Ocean; Katabatic and Anabatic using the mercury barometer, the aneroid
winds. barometer, the precision aneroid
barometer and the open scale barograph.
ii iii
--
16. Other meteorological instruments 157 dimunition and visibility; probable
The principle, construction, corrections, indications of the proximity _of an iceberg:
errors. maintenance and precautions when classification of icebergs by the
using: the thermometer, the wet and dry International Ice Patrol; ice terms in
bulb hygrometer, the Stevenson screen; common use; approximate ice-limits.
the whirling psychrometer . 23. The International Ice Patrol 194
17. Visual storm signals 168 IMO reference; necessity; RMS Titanic:
General idea. description and pictorial objective: area of coverage; contributors;
representation of various signals used in annual budget; headquarters: Ice Recon-
Indian ports. naissance Unit; period of ice patrol; air-
18. Sea-surface currents in the Arabian Sea 171 craft reconnaissance; source of ice
and the Bay of Bengal information; data processing; predictions;
General idea of the three distinct phases - proof of success; diminution of icebergs:
during the north-east monsoon, during the tracking icebergs; other ice patrols.
late north-east monsoon and during the 24. Air-masses and fronts 202
south-west monsoon. Definition of an air-mass; factors affecting
19. Cyclostrophi_c force 176 its properties; classification of air-masses:
General idea; why winds in a TRS move definition of a front; how a front is detected
spirally inwards; why there is no wind at by a meteorologist warm and cold fronts.
the eye of a TRS; why maximum wind 25. Frontal depressions 208
speed occurs in the eye-wall: how Buy's Detailed description of the formation of a
Ballots law was derived. frontal depression, weather sequence on
20. Comparison between a tropical 179 the passage of a frontal depression i.e.,
revolving storm and a temperate warm front warm sector and cold front;
latitude depression. occlusions; warm and cold occlusions.
21. Stability of air 181 26. Ocean currents 217
Absolute stability; absolute instability; Causes of ocean currents - drift
conditional stability; neutral equilibrium of upwelling, gradient; warm and cold
air. currents; examples of each type; general
22. Ice at sea 184 circulation charts of each ocean, general
General idea; sea-ice, ice-bergs - glacier circulation in the Mediterranean Sea;
origin and ice-shelf origin; their effects of oceans currents on climate.
description, differences. movement,
iv V
[1 - THE A TMOSPHEREJ
VI 1
[1 - THE ATMOSPf-lEREJ [1 - THE ATMOSPHERE]
height of about 8 km above the poles and about 16 (a) Increase with height instead of falling. This is
km above the equator. called a temperature inversion
In the troposphere, atmospheric temperawre OR
normally falls steadily as height increases. In the (b) Remain constant with height. The air is then said
stratosphere, the air temperature remains fairly to be an isothermal layer.
steady around minus 56.5°C (216.5°K). However. both above conditions, (a) & (b), are
temporary and will return to normal subsequently.
Separation zones
The zone of separation between the troposphere Adiabatic lapse rate
and the stratosphere is called the tropopause. This :s Adiabatic change of temperature of a parcel of air
of interest to manners as it is the upper limit of the is the change in its temperature due to increase or
troposphere. within which weather changes occur. decrease of its volume, without any exchange of heat
The separation zone between the stratosphere from the surroundings. If the volume was increased.
and the mesosphere is called the stratopause and the temperature of the parcel would decrease and
that between the mesosphere and the ionosphere, the vice-versa. This is due to a law in physics. If a parcel
mesopause. However, these are of no direct interest of air is made to rise, its volume would increase in
to mariners. accordance with the rarer air at that height. This
expansion causes the parcel of air to cool, though no
Composition exchange of heat has taken place with the
The atmosphere consists mainly of Nitrogen surrounding air. This cooling is hence adiabatic.
(about 78%) and Oxygen (about 21 %). Water vapour
and rare gases including CO2 occupy about 1%. Wet and dry air
Any parcel or sample of air that is fully saturated is
Temperature of the atmosphere called wet air or saturated air. ·
S. I. Units of air temperature are degrees Celsius Any sample of air that is not fully saturated is
and degrees Kelvin. Freezing temperature of water = called dry air.
0°c or 273°K. Boiling temperature of water = 100°C
or 373°K. DALR
It has been observed that the temperature of a dry
Variation of temperature with height parcel of air, which is made to rise, falls at a steady
In the troposphere, the temperature of air normally rate of 10°C for every km of ascent i.e., the adiabatic
falls steadily as height increases. Sometimes, local lapse rate of a dry parcel of air, or Dry Adiabatic
influences cause the temperature of air to: Lapse Rate (DALR) is 10°C per km.
3
[1 - THE ATMOSPHERE] [1 - THE A TMOSPHEREJ
4 5
[1 - THE ATMOSPHERE] [1 - THE ATMOSPHERE]
However, one interesting point to note is that Semi-diumal range of atmospheric pressure
whereas the minimum ground temperature may be The difference between the maximum and
only a couple of degrees below the air temperature, rrnrnrnum values is called the semi-diurnal range of
the maximum ground temperature may be as high as ::itn~ospheric pressure. The average semi-diurnal
40 degrees higher than the air temperature. range is more in the tropics than in middle latitudes. In
trop;cai regions it is about 3 mb (i.e., upto ±1.5 mb
Atmospheric pressure from normal) and in UK (!at 51 °N) it is about 0.8 mb
Atmospheric pressure is the force exerted. per unit (, e .. upto ± 0.4 mb from normal). In high latitudes, it is
area, by air. It is thus the weight of the column of air negligible and frequently masked by fronts and frontal
above a unit area. dspressions.
S. I. Units of atmospheric pressure: hectopascals or
millibars. Barometric tendency
1 hectopascal = 1millibar Barometric tendency is the difference between the
1000 mb = 1 bar= 750.1 mm of mercury atmospheric pressure at the time of observation and
1 bar= 1.02 kg per cm 2 or 10.2 t per m2 . tr1e atmospheric pressure three hours earlier. It is
The average atmospheric pressure at the earth's expressed in millibars and up to one decimal of a
surface is about 1013 mb. millibar.
Barometric tendency gives the forecaster a good
Lapse rate of atmospheric pressure idea of the rate of change of pressure. which is useful
Atmospheric pressure always decreases as height for predicting the movement of pressure systems
increases. The graph of the lapse rate of atmospheric ,also called isobaric patterns). It is for easy
pressure against height above sea level is a curve. comparison by the forecaster that barographs and
The average lapse rate is about 115 mb per km barometer readings should be in accordance with
height in the lower levels of the atmosphere (upto 5 v -.-c (GMT) and not ship's time.
km height). At higher levels, the lapse rate is higher.
Characteristic of the barometric tendency
Semi-diurnal variation of atmospheric pressure This is explained under later in this book unde:-
Owing to many causes, which are not fully . Barograph".
understood by man, atmospheric pressure changes
with the time of the day. It has been observed that it is -oOo-
maximum at about 10 & 22 hours and minimum at
about 04 & 16 hours Local Mean Time. Since this
happens twice a day, it is called semi-diurnal variation
of atmospheric pressur~.
6 7
[2-HEA1] [2- HEA1]
8 9
[2- HEATj [2- HEAT)
r7
~ DAYLIGHT
INDICATES
~I
I ~/
(Jl
ARCTIC CIRCLE
C
.
NORTHERN WINTER
J \
a: I.· . :
I \
\
(I)
,_._::_.:D
TROPIC OF CANCER."_-_.·,- 23½'.
The seasons
, ,_ . _::. :-:·... . :_/ .-·_: :_.:
_ _._.._
TROPIC OF CAPRICORN · • · • 23
Because of the tilt of the earth's axis of rotation,
the sun appears to be overhead {dates are for 2002):
10 11
[2-HEAT]
[2- HEAT]
This causes the seasons listed below: Over the equator, the sun's rays are never more
0
than 23½ away from the vertical. The equatorial
Northern Hemisphere Southern Hemisphere region is hence warm throughout the year compared
From To From To
to the tropics where the angle of incidence may vary
Spring Mar 20 Jun 21 Sep 22 Dec 21
between 23½ 0 and 66½0 .
Summer Jun 21 Sep 22 Dec 21 Mar 20
Autumn Sep 22 Dec 21 Mar 20 Jun 21 That is why polar regions and high latitudes are
Winter Dec 21 Mar 20 Jun 21 Sept 22 colder than equatorial regions. That is also why the
northern hemisphere is warmer when the sun is north
If desired, the exact dates for any particular year of the equator (northern summer) and vice versa.
when the declination is zero, maximum north and
maximum south may be extracted from the nautical Temperature zones of the world
almanac. Because of the reasons explained earlier in this
d1apter, the earth is divided into the following
Why polar regions are colder than equatorial regions tnmperature zones:
Since the earth is so far away from the sun, the
sun's rays may be assumed to be parallel to each N p
other when they arrive. That half of the earth that is
towards the sun gets sunlight, during daytime, as
shown in the foregoing figure. It will be noticed that NORTH TEMPERATE ZONE
each pole receives sunlight only during its summer TROPIC OF CANCER 23J'
but not during its winter. This is one of the reasons
why the poles are cold.
Imagine two identical, parallel, equidistant sets of •••••• ■ <o ••••••••••• 0
rays, one set reaching perpendicular to the earth's
surface (AB in the foregoing figures) and the other set
reaching at a slant (CD). The heat received by CD is l ROPIC Of CAPRICORN 23f·
equal to the heat received by AB but because of the SOUTH TEMPERATE ZONE
slant, arc CD is larger than arc AB and the heat ANTARCTIC CIRCLE
received is thus spread over a larger area. Surface """-c:;~·-:;;:·-·~--I···~·iii;i;:z::::::_--.;~ South Frigid Zone
temperature of CD is therefore less than that of AB. s p
The more the slant away from the perpendicular, the
greater the surface area heated by the same rays and
the less the surface temperature. -oOo-
12 13
~
WATER VAPOUR 1
RH X
t
IN THE ATMOSPHERE Saturation and dew point
If a sample of air was progressively cooled, its
relative humidity would steadily increase i.e., the air
Humidity would become relatively more moist. At some
Humidity is the quantity of water vapour present in tnmperature, the air would become wet i.e.. its
the atmosphere. relatively humidity would become 100%. The air is
tt1en sa1_d to be saturated and the temperature at
Absolute humidity which this occurs is called the dew point temperature
Absolute humidity is the mass of water vapour <>f that sample of air. Dew point of a sample of air
contained in a sample of air. It is usually expressed in would depend on its temperature & relative humidity.
3 Both relative humidity and dew point of air are
grams per cubic metre (gm/m ).
lound by using a _bygr_pmeter or a psychrometer and
Relative humidity then_ consulting meteorological tables - dry bulb
Relative humidity 1s the percentage ratio of the rPad1ng on one axis and the difference between wet
actual water vapour contained in a given sample of ; ind dry_ read_ings on the other axis. The point of
air, to the maximum quantity of water vapour that the 1111msect1on gives the relative humidity and the dew
Jl()lr1t
sample can hold at that temperature.
14 15
[3-WATER VAPOUR] [3-WATER VAPOUR]
of 'Water vapour in the atmosphere'. There are three passage until the temperature of the air in the hold is
causes of sweat in a hold: above the dew point of the outside air.
On sophisticated ships carrying highly perishable
1. Atmospheric sweat: cargoes, where ventilation has to be done even under
A hold contains a very large volume of air. Any air the circumstances mentioned earlier, de-humidifying
brought in by ventilators at any instant is very small units are fitted whereby the air entering the hold 1s
compared to the volume of the hold. If the ciried before hand so that sweat does not form.
temperature of the air in the hold 1s low, the incoming
air will be cooled and. if the incoming air is cooled 2. Cargo sweat
below its dew point, it will give off moisture. This will Some cargoes such as hides, skins, ores, etc.,
condense as sweat on cargo and in the steel parts of <;xude (give off) large quantities of water vapour
the hold and is liable to cause damage to cargo. It is making the relative humidity of the air inside the hold
therefore essential to compare the temperature of air very high. The slightest cooling would cause sweat to
in the hold with the dew point of the outside air. form on the steel parts of the hold. This would drip on
If hold temperature is less than dew point of other cargoes in the hold, possibly causing damage to
outside air, restrict ventilation. them. This can only be prevented by use of large
If hold temperature is greater than dew point of capacity exhaust fans (fitted on most cargo ships),
outside air, ventilate freely. 11s1ng dunnage to keep the cargo off the steel and
A classic example of the above is when a ship is < ·overing the top of the cargo in the hold with bamboo
coming to India with cargo from Europe, in winter. The 111ats or cardboard sheets.
ship, cargo and the air in the hold are all initially very
cold. Within a few days of the ship's departure from :\. Ship sweat
Europe, the vessel enters warmer regions. Though When the temperature of the sea is much lower
the temperature of air outside is then much higher 111;in that of the air above it, the underwater parts of
than before, the cargo in the hold takes a week to II 11: hold would be cooled by contact with the sea.
increase its temperature by even a couple of degrees I lr'nce sweat would form on the steel parts of the hold
Celsius. Hence the temperature of the air in the hold I 14 )low the waterline. This normally would flow into the
is very low due to its contact with the cold cargo and I 11lqes. The use of dunnage to keep the cargo off the
will most probably be well below the dew point of the ·.1, ~(➔ I parts of the hold and also to keep it a few
air outside. If ventilation was allowed, the air entering < ,·11l1metres above the bottom of the hold would
the hold will give off its moisture which will condense ·.11ff1ce Ventilation would also help, in reducing the
as sweat on all cold surfaces in the hold and is liable , , d;1t1ve humidity in the hold.
to damage cargo. Under these circumstances, hold
ventilation has to be restricted nearly throughout the
16 17
[3-WATER VAPOUR] [3-WATER VAPOUR]
Fohn wind effect , 11, I( 1r aph1c cloud and then heavy rain falls on the
Fohn Wind Effect is an effect whereby the leeward w11 ,dward side. On reaching the top, the air will still be
side of a mountain range is drier and warmer than the 1ut11r ated and its temperature would be about 5°C.
windward side. This would be more pronounced if the Wt11lo descending on the leeward side, the
wind was blowing from the sea towards a coastal te111pmature of the air would increase at 10°c per km
mountain range, as the air would then be moist. Fohn ([)Al R) This is because, once the temperature of the
wind effect is the direct result of the difference 111 h(ig1ns to rise even by a small amount, the air is
between the DALR and the SALR of air as illustrated not saturated any more. On reaching sea level on the
below: l•11w;11d side. the temperature of air would have
lncrnased to 35°C. Since the same air was saturated
· ·•·. · s·c
11 1,"C and no water vapour has been let in or taken
. :·_.... ..-KM-- out. the dew point of the descending air would be 5°C .
'.·· 3
Cornpanng the temperature and dew point on the
ff Windward side (temperature 25°C, dew point 5°C), it
2
11 <·11 iar that the leeward side is warmer and drier than
1h11 windward side. It is also clear that heavy
~ ~
COND L 1s·c 1
pr,)( .11 >1tat1on occurs only on the windward side and no
~' 11r:1p1tat1on occurs on the leeward side, which is
DEW POINT 1s·c
TEMPERATURE 2s·c
SEA
FOHN WIND EFFECT
TEMPERATURE 35°C
DEW POINT s·c
------------
LAND
- tu,11ui referred to as the 'rain shadow area' of the
rn111u1ta1n range.
-oOo-
18 19
[4 -THE HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE] [4 -THE HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE]
~
vapour into water. It is the opposite of
~-CLOUDS
--~
evaporation. During condensation, latent heat
CONDENSATION
1s given off to the surrounding air.
t ! !
PRECIPITATION
1 i i Condensation occurs if air is cooled below
its dew point. This is usually the result of:
• Contact with cold surface of land or sea.
• Adiabatic cooling when air rises
! ! ! i 1 t • Contact with colder masses of air.
• Radiation of heat into space from upper
----L-AN-0---------.~
- \ i t r
~~
layers of air.
If condensation is caused by contact with
cold land surfaces, dew is formed and
deposited on the surface. However, if a light
SEA wind is blowing over the cold land surface, or
if condensation is caused by any of the other
THE HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE
causes mentioned above, the water droplets
form on dust or minute salt particles and are
1. Three main stages: so small that they remain suspended in the
There are three main stages in the hydrological air. The droplets have a radius of less than 10
cycle - Evaporation, Condensation and Precipitation - microns (one million microns are equal to one
and each is described below: metre). Large quantities of such droplets near
1.1. Evaporation: is the transformation of water each other are visible to the human eye. If
into water vapour. It is accelerated if the air is these droplets are very near ground level, they
warm and dry (has a low relative humidity). are called mist (or fog) as explained under the
Since about three-quarters of the surface of chapter titled 'Visibility') and if they are well
the earth is covered by water, enormous above ground level, they are called clouds
quantities of water-vapour form daily, from the (described under the chapter titled 'Clouds').
sea surface.
21
20
[4 -THE HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE] [4 - THE HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE]
way of rivers and streams. Short circuits in the system deposited on exposed surfaces on or near the
do take place. Evaporation takes place directly during ground. when the ground temperature is much
precipitation and also from streams, rivers. lakes, lower than freezing point. In this case, the
vegetation and soil. Precipitation takes place over sea water vapour directly turns into ice without
also.· becoming water. The presence of ice particles
The most important point in the hydrological cycle on the surface quickens the formation of
is that during evaporation. salt and other impurities hoarfrost.
are left behind and hence water obtained through When vapour turns into solid without
precipitation is very pure. However, in industrial areas becoming liquid, it is called 'deposition' in
the impurities present in the air (air pollution) can be chemistry, but in meteorology the name
absorbed by precipitation before it reaches the ''sublimation" is more commonly used.
ground. Hoarfrost should not be confused with frozen
dew. In the case of frozen dew, the water
vapour becomes water and then freezes.
22 23
[4 -THE HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE] [4 - THE HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE]
2.3. Glazed frost: Is a thin, transparent, smooth 2 5. Mist and fog: These are discussed in detail in
layer of ice formed when rain or drizzle falls on the chapter titled 'Visibility'
a surface whose temperature is below freezing 2 6 Types of precipitation
point. Glazed frost can also form if a warm
moist current of air blows over a very cold PRECIPITATION
surface.
In the UK, glazed frost is also called t
"Black ice" as it cannot be distinguished
against a black road surface. It is dangerous
J
Water Snow
i i
Ice
to walk or drive on glazed frost as it is very
i i
smooth and slippery.
2.4. Rime: If the temperature of water particles in a
i7 i i r½
fog is below 0°C, they are said to be
supercooled droplets of water. When super-
cooled water droplets in a fog come into
contact with very cold solid objects such as
ship's masts, superstructure etc., whose
Drizzle
driv
Rain
Freezing rain/
Sleet
Snow
Flakes
Snow
pellets
Ice
pellets
Hail
24 25
[4 -THE HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE]
[5 -VISIBILITY]
MisUFog
Mist is said to exist when visibility is reduced by
wc:.1ter particles that have condensed on dust, minute
1>articles of salt, etc., but are so small that they remain
suspended in the air. If mist becomes dense and
, educes visibility to 1 km or less, it is called fog. Mist
can occur when relative humidity is an low as 80% -
the radius of the droplets of water is less than 1
,rncron (one million microns are equal to one metre).
1-og generally occurs when relative humidity is 90% or
more - the radius of the droplets of water is between 1
& 10 microns. Mist is always experienced before and
after fog.
26
27
[5 -VISIBILITY] [5 -VJS/BIUTY]
accurately and is hence obtained by estimation. It is Radiation fog reaches its maximum about half
then reported in weather messages by two code I 1our after sunrise because air temperature is at its
numbers between 90 & 99. When visibility has le >west at that time. It generally dissipates after the
different values in different directions, the lowest ,;un has shone for a few hours and the land surface
value is to be reported. I 1c:1s warmed up.
Conditions favourable for radiation fog are:
TYPES OF FOG • Large moisture content in the lower layers of air.
1. Radiation fog • Little or no cloud at night.
Also called land fog because it forms only over • Light breeze at the surface.
land, not over sea. During the night, land gives off its • Cold wet surface of land.
heat very quickly. On clear nights, the radiation of
heat from the land surface into space is quicker as it 2. Advection fog.
is unobstructed by clouds. The air in contact with the Is also called sea fog because it is mostly found
ground thus gets cooled and if cooled below its dew over sea. It can, however, form over land also. It is
point, a large quantity of dew is deposited. If, formed when a moist wind blows over a relatively cold
28 29
[5 -VISIBILITY] [5 -VISIBILITY]
- - -
0 0 0
Westerlies, blowing over the warm Kuro Shio, DEW POINT 0 N <D
30 31
[5-VJSIBILITYJ [6-CLOUDSJ
32 33
[6-CLOUDSJ [6-CLOUDSJ
High clouds have the prefix "Cirro" to their names <;,ven below is a brief description of the ten cloud
and consist entirely of ice crystals. Their bases will be typos listed above. It is suggested that whilst at sea
between 6 km above sea level and the tropopause. tho "International cloud atlas", which is available on
Note: These heights are average only. They are nemly all ships, should be consulted when making
slightly lower over the poles and slightly higher over ob,mrvations of clouds for weather reports. After
the equator. The tops of medium clouds & the bases 1uff Ic1ent practice and experience, it will be noticed
of high clouds can overlap by as much as 3 km. that navigating officers will need to consult the cloud
Clouds are of four main types, classified according 1tlns only on rare occasions. One important point to
to their appearance: remember is that stratiform clouds indicate a stable
• Cirrus: A silvery cloud in the form of feathers or 1t111osphere whereas cumuliform clouds indicate an
fibres seen high up in a blue sky. un~;table atmosphere.
• Cumulus: A white cloud, shaped like a cauliflower,
which can have great vertical extent. 1 Cirrus: Silvery, high clouds appearing like feathers
• Stratus: An even layer of grey cloud, not giving rain. or fibres. Being so high up. they always have a
• Nimbostratus: An even layer of grey cloud giving bnckground of blue sky and, during twilight, often
rain. Nimbostratus is the modern name for Nimbus. t1ppear bright red or yellow. On dark nights, cirrus can
Hence it is an original type of cloud and not a tin detected only by its dimming effect on stars.
combination of nimbus and stratus .. ~• Cirrostratus: A thin whitish veil of high cloud
Cloud names have abbreviations, which consist of lhrough which the sun or moon have a watery look.
two letters, of which the first is a capital letter. The I t 1f! outline of the sun and moon are sufficiently clear
various type of clouds their abbreviations, and tc ,r altitude observations by a sextant. Haloes are
grouping according to height, are given below: , >lten seen due to cirrostratus clouds. Cirrostratus
High Medium Low Special douds should not be mistaken for altostratus clouds
Bases Bases Bases between Bases at low wt11ch are described below.
between 6 between 2 sea level and 2 cloud level but
km above km and 6 km km above sea tops may .\ Cirrocumulus: A high layer of cloud in the form of
sea level & above sea level. extend well into ·,mall flakes or cauliflowers, white in colour with no
tropopause. level. high cloud dark shadows in between.
level.
Cirrus Altostratus Stratus Cumulus ,1 Altostratus: A thin greyish or bluish veil of cloud
Abbrev: Ci Abbrev: As Abbrev: St Abbrev: Cu ltirough which the sun or moon appears very dim - as
Cirrostratus Altocumulus Stratocumulus Cumulonimbus 1f seen through frosted glass. The outline of the sun
Abbrev: Cs Abbrev: Ac Abbrev: Sc Abbrev: Cb and moon are hazy and not clear enough for altitude
Cirrocumulus Nimbostratus
Abbrev: Cc Abbrev: Ns
observation by a sextant. Altostratus does not give
34 35
[6-CLOUDSJ
[6-CLOUDS]
37
36
[6-CLOUDSJ
[6-CLOUDSJ
38
39
[6-CLOUDS] [6-CLOUDSJ
(more than about 1O miles long) in mid ocean may be •ixcess moisture gets condensed into more and more
seen to have a stationary cumulus cloud above it •:loud, resulting in great vertical extent of the cloud -
during daytime. Actually the cloud 1s continuously towering cumulus.
forming from below and dissipating to leeward. It is for If the ascent is very rapid, cumulonimbus cloud
the same reason that, during daytime, the coastline of ,nay form with its head well into high cloud level until it
a large landmass may have a long line of cumulus , naches the tropopause, beyond which convection
cloud above it, parallel to the coast. though there may c:urrents cannot rise. The top of the cloud then
~r I r,s
I '--../ Over sea, there is little change of air temperature
during day and night and hence cloud development is
very little. However clouds may develop over sea at
r 11ght due to cooling caused by radiation of heat into
space, by the upper layers of air. Cloud development
~t l~ over sea, therefore, is opposite in time to that over
land - over land it forms during day and dissipates at
i l t~
ONDENSATION LEVEL
night whereas over sea, the opposite happens.
(d) Frontal lifting: Where a warm air-mass and a cold
arr-mass are in contact, their line of separation, at sea
level, is called a front. The boundary between them is
f i1
CONVECTION CURRENT
riot vertical. It is inclined towards the colder air mass
because the cold air, being denser, acts like a wedge
and lifts up the warm air.
SEA SURFACE
In the case of a warm front, the slope is gradual
The greater the ascent of air, the greater the and the upsliding warm air forms stratiform clouds -
vertical extent of the cloud - as the air ascends more nimbostratus, altostratus, cirrostratus and finally
and more, it gets progressively cooled further and the cirrus.
40 41
[6-CLOUDS] [7 - PRESSURE GRADIENT, WIND & WAVES]
Isobars
An isobar is a line drawn, on a weather map,
Joining all places having the same atmospheric
pressure at the time for which that weather map was
drawn.
It is important to note that atmospheric pressure is
dynamic - it may change frequently. Hence, its value,
when stated, holds good only for that particular time.
Standardisation
So that proper comparisons can be made, the
reading of the barometer is converted to that at sea
level and the value of index error, if any, allowed for.
For mercury barometers, two more corrections are
necessary - correction for difference of latitude away
from 45°, and correction for temperature variation
from the stand3rd temperature of that barometer.
For standardisation, isobars are drawn at 4 mb
intervals and the pressure denoted by an isobar must
be divisible by four i.e., 996, 1000, 1004, etc. and not
997, 1001 , 1005 or 998, 1002, 1006. Where
consecutive isobars are very far apart, intermediate
isobars ai 2 mb intervals may be inserted.
42
43
7
f7 - PRESSURE GRADIENT, WIND & WAVES]
f7 - PRESSURE GRADIENT, WIND & WAVES]
44
45
---------------------------------:----------Ii
I,
46 47
[7 - PRESSURE GRADIENT, WIND & WAVES] [7 - PRESSURE GRADIENT, WIND & WAVES]
If a geostrophic wind scale, drawn to the scale of The following are a few important definitions
the map, is not available, the following table may be concerning wind:
used to obtain geostrophic wind speed.
Geostrophic wind speeds in excess of 130 knots 1. Sea (waves): Is the name given to waves, on the
rarely occur, if at all. Both, the geostrophic wind scale sea-surface, created by wind that is presently
and table, given in this chapter, are meant for straight blowing. The height of sea disturbance, in open
or gently curving isobars. If the curvature is waters, is directly related to the wind force as per
appreciable,. corrections for that would be necessary, Beaufort scale.
based on latitude and radius of curvature, but they are 2. Swell: Is the name given to waves, on the sea-
beyond the scope of this book which is intended for
surface, formed by wind that has subsequently
officers of merchant ships.
stopped blowing or is blowing at some other place
quite far away. Swell travels quickly and has been
C ..C known to have been felt over 1000 miles away. Swell
~ E
is:t
Q) Q)
travels radially outwards from the centre of a storm
..c >
Q) :g LATITUDE and is usually the first indication of the presence and
0 0 (/)
C
ro
QJ
C/l
~
ro bearing (direction) of a TRS.
~ § -g
0 o.!!l
oo goo 3. Gust: A gust of wind is the sudden increase of wind
M 10° 20° 30° 40° 50° 60° 70° 80°
20 132 122 118 115 speed for a very short period of time. It is usually
25 Geostrophic wind soeed 121 105 98 93 92 caused by terrestrial obstructions to the flow of wind.
30 In Knots 119 101 88 81 79 77
35 131 102 86 75 70 67 66 4. Squall: A sudden increase of wind force by at least
40 115 89 75 66 61 59 57
45 102
3 stages of the Beaufort scale (increase of at least 16
80 67 59 54 52 51
50 136 92 72 60 53 49 47 46 knots wind speed), reaching upto at least force 6 (22
60 113 77 60 50 44 41 39 38 knots) and lasting at least one minute. A squall is
80 85 57 45 38 33 31 29 29 different from a gust of wind by its greater duration.
100 133 68 46 36 30 26 24 24 23
150 89 45 31 24 21 18 16 16 15
200 67 34 23 18 15 13 12 12 11
5 Veering: A clockwise change of direction from
300 44 23 15 12 10 9 8 8 8 which the wind is blowing e.g., from N to NE, from S
to SW, from W to NW, etc.
48 49
[7 - PRESSURE GRADIENT, WIND & WAVES]
[7 - PRESSURE GRADIENT, WIND & WAVES]
50 51
Mean Limits of Probable Probably
Wind Wind
Beaufort Scale of Wind Force Height Maximum
Beaufort of Height of
Speed Speed
Wind Waves Waves
in knots In knots Descriptive
Force in in
Term Sea Criterion
Measured at height of m m
10 m above sea level * *
0 00 <1 Calm Sea like a mirror.
1 02 1-3 Light air Ripples with the appearance of scales are formed,
but without foam crests. .1 .1
2 05 4-6 Light breeze Small wavelets, still short but more pronounced, -
crests have a glassy appearance and do not .2 .3
break
3 09 7-10 Gentle Large wavelets, Crests begin to break. Foam of
breeze glassy appearance. Perhaps scattered white .6 1
horses.
4 13 11-16 Moderate Small waves, becoming longer; fairly frequent
breeze white horses. 1 1.5
5 18 17-21 Fresh breeze Moderate waves, taking a more pronounced long
form; many white horses are formed. (Chance of 2 2.5
some spray.)
6 24 22-27 Strong breeze Large waves begin to form; the white foam crests
are more extensive everywhere. (Probably some 3 4
sorav)
7 30 28-33 Near Sea heaps up and white foam form breaking
gale waves beings to be blown in streaks along the 4 5.5
direction of the wind.
8 37 34-40 Gale Moderately high waves of greater length; edges of
crests being to break into spindrift The foam is
blown in well-marked streaks along the direction 5.5 7.5
of the wind .
* These columns show roughly what may be expected in the open sea, remote from land. In enclosed waters, or when
near land with an off-shore wind, wave heights will be smaller, and the waves steeper.
t The scale actually extends to Force 17 (up to 118 knots), but Beaufort Force 12 is the highest that can be identified
visually from the state of the sea.
NOTES:
1. It may be difficult to estimate wind force by the sea criterion. The wind force & direction may therefore be estimated by
other means, e.g., the 'feel' of the wind or the smoke, making due allowance for course and speed of ship.
2. The lag effect between the wind getting up and the sea increasing should be borne in mind.
3. Fetch, depth, swell heavy rain & tide effects should be considered when estimating wind force from appearance of sea.
53
[7 - PRESSURE GRADIENT, WIND & WAVES]
[7 - PRESSURE GRADIENT, WIND & WA VESJ
(2
(3) The prefix "i" denotes intermittent e.g., if= intermittent fog, ir =
intermittent rain. • The state number is not generally used in bridge
(4) The prefix "p" indicates "shower of' e.g., pR = shower of heavy logbooks or weather logbooks on Indian ships.
rain.
(5) Repetition denotes continuity e.g., ss = continuous snow, dd =
continuous drizzle.
(6) A solidus distinguishes present weather from that of the -o0o-
previous hour e.g., o/do = overcast after slight drizzle.
(7) *Gale = Beaufort force 8 or 9 maintained for not less than 1O
minutes.
(8) Storm = Beaufort force 1O maintained for period of not less
than 10 minutes
55
54
[8 - TRUE AND APPARENT WIND]
[8 - TRUE AND APPARENT WIND]
Worked example 1:
Course 045° speed 15 knots. Apparent wind 100°
at 20 knots. Find the direction and speed of true wind.
Draw a line representing North-South and take Worked example 1
any point A on it. At A, draw an angle equal to the
course (045° in this case) and cut off AT equal to A
ship's speed (15 knots in this case), using any
convenient scale. AT now represents the course and
speed of the vessel.
At A, draw an angle equal to the apparent wind 0
(100° in this case) and cut off AO equal to the
apparent wind speed (20 knots in this case), using the
same scale. OA now represents the apparent wind. Worked example 2:
Join OT and this represents the true wind. Using Course 200° speed 14 knots. True wind 300° at 18
the same scale as before, convert distance OT into k11ots. Find the direction and speed of apparent wind.
knots. To obtain the direction of true wind, draw a
Draw a North-South line and take any point A on
North-South line through T and read off the angle
11 Draw AT equal to course and speed of vessel (200°
between it and OT.
;it 14 knots), using any convenient scale.
The true wind in this case is 147° at 17 knots. At T draw a North-South line and insert the true
wind OT (300° at 18 knots), using the same scale.
Note: North-South lines are to be drawn through A
Join OA, which now represents the apparent wind.
and T, never through 0.
l Jsing same scale, convert distance OA into knots.
58
59
[8- TRUE AND APPARENT WIND] [8 - TRUE AND APPARENT WIND]
The angle that OA makes with the North-South line at Draw AT = Course & speed = 160° at 10 knots. At
A is the direction of the apparent wind. I , draw a North-South line and insert direction of true
Apparent wind in this case is 258.5° at 20.8 knots. wind, 270°. Centre A, radius= apparent wind speed of
17 knots, cut off the arc AO. OA now represents the
apparent wind and OT, the true wind. Distance OT
converted into knots is the speed of true wind.
I og entry for wind in this case: West, Force 5.
A
{,,o
0
Worked example 3
60 61
[8 - TRUE AND APPARENT WIND]
[8 - TRUE AND APPARENT WIND]
Worked example 4:
Draw AT= course and speed (320° at 12 knots).
Course 320° speed 12 knots out in open sea.
/\t A draw a North-South line and then an angle of
Wind force 4 (16 knots), estimated by appearance of
:'10° to it, to represent the direction of the apparent
the sea surface. Smoke from the funnel was observed
wmd. With centre T, radius equal to the true wind
to be blowing to 030°. What entry is to be made in the
•;peed of 16 knots, cut off arc TO. OT now represents
weather report regarding wind direction and speed?
111e true wind and OA, the apparent wind.
At T, draw a North-South line and the angle
NOTE: (1) Wind speed/force obtained by appearance
I :,,tween it and OT is the direction of true wind.
of the sea is true wind speed/force.
The angle between QA and the North-South line at
(2) If smoke from the funnel is blowing to 030°,
/\, 1s the direction of the apparent wind but this is not
apparent wind is coming from 210°.
, isked in this case.
I ntry in the weather log for wind is 165° at 16 knots.
T Worked example 4
Examples for exercise
1. On a vessel steaming 346° at 15 knots, the
apparent wind was observed to be NW at 22
knots. Find the direction and speed of the true
wind. (Answer 275° at 12 knots).
62
63
[8 - TRUE AND APPARENT WIND]
[8 - TRUE AND APPARENT WIND]
65
64
[9 - SEVEN ISOBARIC PATTERNS] [9 - SEVEN ISOBARIC PATTERNS]
2. Cyclone or low
CHAPTER 9
Cyclone or low is an area of low pressure
surrounded by areas of high pressure. The isobars
I< >r rn closed shapes. The winds blow spirally inwards,
THE SEVEN BASIC a11t1-clockwise in the northern hemisphere and
dockwise in the southern hemisphere. The pressure
or ad,ent is usually high, resulting in strong winds. A
ISOBARIC PATTERNS lc>w ,s an area of convergence of air. On reaching the
c< mtre, the air moves up as a strong upward current,
insulting in cumulus or cumulonimbus clouds of very
1. Straight isobars l11qh vertical extent and heavy precipitation. Over the
Straight isobars are said to exist when the isobars nctual centre of the low, a thin downward stream of air
run straight and nearly parallel for a few hundred ox1sts, where a patch of blue sky may be seen.
miles. The pressure gradient is usually low, resulting
in low wind speeds. Wind direction and force remain
constant so long as the isobars remain unchanged.
The weather associated with straight isobars cannot
be defined as it depends on the properties of the air
mass in which these isobars exist.
NORTHERN HEMISPHERE
:::--=-_..... -==-- -= ...... :::=- -e:::! 1000
__,
=-- ::::::=-= _..,
--=-- 1004 NORTHERN HEMISPHERE SOUTHERNHEM~PHERE
=--- _....... ;::> ~ 1008
----
;:....= __,
....... =- :::> «:':: 1012
SOUTHERN HEMISPHERE
_ ___,.....,__e::::-..-<...:o::::::---~!::::,,,:::,,.._--~--..!::!;,,,,,--c::::::,,..----.!!o'f----..,......__-100-1
66 67
[9 - SEVEN ISOBARIC PA TTERNSJ
[9 - SEVEN ISOBARIC PATTERNS]
4. Anticyclone or high
Anticyclone or high is an area of high pressure
•;1irrounded by areas of low pressure. The isobars
torm closed shapes. The winds blow spirally
t iutwards, clockwise in the northern hemisphere and
depression if the wind speed is 33 knots or less, a :~1~n of good weather - light winds, no clouds (blue
cyclonic storm if the wind speed is from 34 to 47 :;ky), no precipitation, good visibility, etc. However, as
knots and a severe cyclonic storm if the wind speed the subsiding dry air reaches sea level and blows
is 48 knots or over. For further details, see Chapter spirally outwards, quick evaporation takes place and,
titled 'Tropical Revolving Storms'. II the temperature of the sea surface is quite low, mist
68
69
[9 - SEVEN ISOBARIC PA TTERNSJ [9 - SEVEN ISOBARIC PA TTERNSJ
or fog may form on the outer fringes of the One example of a cold anticyclone is the high over
anticyclone. Even in such cases, visibility at the Siberia during northern winter (see map in chapter
centre will be good. titled 'General pressure and wind distribution').
If the descending air originally came from a warm
~;ource, it would be warmer than the surrounding air,
luvel for level, and also at sea level - it is then called a
1 1 warm anticyclone. Examples of warm anticyclones
, ire the permanent highs of 30°N and 30°S at the
l ll l cfmtres of large oceans (see map in chapter titled
·c .,eneral pressure and wind distribution').
l il 1
5. Col
E .JJ~ \. A Col is an area between two highs and two lows
11:A IUIIFACl
situated alternately (see accompanying figure). Light
NORTHERN HEMISPHERE SOUTHERN HEMISPHERE
variable winds are experienced but not for long.
Sudden change of weather is likely. Relative humidity
1s fairly high and lightning may be seen. A Col may be
•;1tuated between a primary low and secondary low as
~;llown in the figure under 'Secondary Low' or it may
t >(1 situated at the boundary between two different air
111asses. In the latter case, the change of weather,
, ispecially temperature, will be even more drastic. No
dd1nite pattern of weather is associated with a Col.
I og may be experienced in autumn. In summer over
I; ind, thunderstorms are frequently experienced.
6. Ridge or wedge
A ridge or wedge is an area of high pressure
111tt1ng into areas of low pressure. The isobars are
, :rnved, with the high pressure inside, and are
Warm and cold anticyclone: If the descending , 1rn1eraliy far apart. They do not necessarily form
air originally came from a very cold source, it would , :losed shapes. A ridge may form by itself or it may be
be colder than the surrounding air, level for level, and the outer fringes of an anticyclone far away.
also at sea level - it is then called a cold anticyclone.
70 71
[9 - SEVEN ISOBARIC PATTERNS] [9 - SEVEN ISOBARIC PA TTERNSJ
--
NORTHERN couple of hours only.
Col
1018 mb
HEMISPHERE
H -~
r rL'
72 73
- -------- ~---------------------
SH, by Coriolis force. Bad weather is associated with ~)H. The "U" of the non-frontal trough always points
a trough. Before the trough, pressure falls and lowards the equator.
weather deteriorates. After the passage of a trough, Frontal trough: A frontal trough exists at the
pressure rises and weather improves. boundary between two different air-masses. The 'V'
formed by the isobars always points towards the
NORTHERN T •lquator. On crossing a frontal trough, the isobars
HEMISPHERE change direction suddenly by about 90° - veers in the
NH and backs in SH. Squalls may be experienced,
,1ccompanied by lightning and heavy precipitation.
Since one air-mass is replaced by another, a sudden
change of temperature also is experienced on its
passage. For further details see chapters titled 'Air-
rnasses and fronts' and 'Frontal depressions'.
-oOo-
NON-FRONTAL FRONTAL
SOUTHERN
HEMISPHERE
74 75
IIIJ
[10-GENERAL PRESSURE & WIND]
[10 - GENERAL PRESSURE & WIND]
CHAPTER 10
GENERAL PRESSURE
I
,!
AND WIND DISTRIBUTION l/)
0
z
3:
The ideal condition
~2
z ::I
...J ~
- u
~ 0
:z
LI.I .9
a: ~ 8
l/1
,. ,. / Q. ::,
-3
z
/ WESTERLIES / ~ a:
0
~
WESTERLIES'.
....
' '
"-
W
0:: z
::,
cl)
en
0
LLJ
a:
D..
~
co The actual situation
During summer, the temperature of the land
masses is high and hence the temperature of air in
contact with them is also high, resulting in low
pressure over them. During winter, the temperature of
the landmasses is low and the temperature of the air
..
........ in contact with them is also low, resulting in high
: ·: .. · ...
Cl) . :: ~<: :: : pressure over them. I
I I
0
z :(;;::( In short, over large landmasses there is low
3: 0 :: : : : . ;; :
pressure in summer and high pressure in winter (see
c., ::!
~..........,........,C-,~~f,i,;,;-,+-~~F-'-'.'~-;;:-----:-::-:I::':i7• the foregoing weather maps). The wind direction and
Zf force thus become modified accordingly.
- -<
::! a .... ;.
Over large oceans, however, there is not much
~ffi change in the temperature between summer and
LLI ID z winter and there is:-
~~ 8
o. SI Ill
z • A permanent low over the equator called the
o1 e 0
::E
doldrums or Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone
a:
Cl) la.I
I.I.I ~
(ITCZ);
a:- -.
I • Permanent highs at about 30°N & 30°S;
zz • Permanent lows at about 60°N & 60°S.
'"'
u~15a:
WO
a: z The foregoing statements can easily be confirmed
::, and understood by a glance at the foregoing seasonal
Cl)
en pressure and wind maps, one for Northern Summer
w (Southern Winter) and the other for Northern Winter
a:
EL (Southern Summer).
-oOo-
78
79
[11 - PERIODIC AND LOCAL WINDS]
[11 - PERIODIC AND LOCAL WINDS]
CHAPTER 11
(
~
. .. ld surface of : :
1. Land and sea breezes
Land and sea breezes are the result of the large
difference in diurnal range of atmosphere temperature
over land and over sea (see chapter1 ).
Over land, the diurnal range may be as high as
20°c whereas over sea, it is less than 1°C. Land and
sea breezes are experienced only where large
expanses of both water and land _meet. It is because SEA
of land and sea breezes that coastal regions do not
experience great heat or extreme cold. The effect of --··
. . . . . .... ....,__
.. . . ....
. ... ..
land and sea breezes may be felt upto about 20 miles
away from the coast. If the hinterland is steep and
high, their effect may be felt even beyond 20 miles.
The sea breeze is much stronger than the land ::·,f·.:·.
.. 0 .. .
:::::
. ....
breeze. Ideal conditions for strong land and sea . . . .-I . . . • ••..
the isobars from the HP over the sea, towards the LP high (about 1020 to 1025 mb). As shown in the earlier
over land. The sea breeze usually sets in by about chapter, the trade winds blow from the oceanic highs,
of 30°N & 30°S, towards the doldrums, being
1000 or 1100 hours local time, reaches a maximum
force of 3 to 4 by about 1400 hours and dies down doflected by Coriolis force. They are thus NE trade
about sunset. In rare cases, sea breezes have been winds in the Northern Hemisphere and SE trade
detected as far away as 100 miles from the coast. winds in the Southern Hemisphere.
Over large landmasses, the atmospheric pressure
1s low during summer and high during winter. This
seasonal change of atmospheric pressure over large
T t l T lundmasses results in seasonal winds, of which the
Monsoons of the Indian Ocean are a classic example.
Sea breeze t l T T In wea1ther bulletins, the India Meteorological
l>opartment describes the monsoon as weak (Force 3
& less - less than 11 knots), moderate (Force 4 & 5 -
RELATIVELY COOL
SE A 11 to 22 knots), strong (Force 6 & 7 - 22 to 33 knots)
_...._._ . . . . . . . . - .... .
nnd vigorous (Force 8 and over - 34 knots and over).
2.1. South West Monsoon:
During northern summer, the continent of Asia
oots very warm and the resultant low pressure over it
82 83
[11 - PERIODIC AND LOCAL WINDS]
[11 - PERIODIC AND LOCAL WINDS]
THE 5 W MO
.
•0
~
~
84
85
[11 - PERIODIC AND LOCAL WINDS] [11 - PERIODIC AND LOCAL WINDS]
The anticyclonic winds, around the Siberian high, are caused more by gravitational force than by
reach the Bay of Bengal and Arabian Sea as the NE pressure gradient.
Monsoon with a force of 3 to 4. Heavy rain falls on the They are frequently experienced in the Adriatic
East Coast of India. The NE Monsoon blows from Sea (e.g., Bora, Mistral), off Greenland, in the fjords
December to April. of Norway and many other places having a high
In the China Sea the pressure gradient, is larger, hinterland.
resulting in wind force between 5 and 7. The wind
direction in this region is between north and north-
east.
cc
3. Katabatic and Anabatic winds
x------ ----Y
COLD AIR RELATIVELY
These two types of winds are opposites. Katabatic , WARM AIR
winds blow downhill, at night, whereas Anabatic winds
· COL
blow up-hill, during daytime (see accompanying ·LAND
sketches). ~1:J~F~<;:E.
. . ....
3.1. Katabatic wind: LAND·
.. ......
On clear nights, the land surface radiates its heat .. , .....
.........
into space very quickly resulting in a cold layer of air
next to the land surface. !f the ground is sloping, the
air at point X in the figure is colder and hence denser
than at point Y, which is at the same horizontal level.
Air from point X at the top of the hill starts sliding
down due to gravitatronal force and is called a
'Katabatic wind' (in Greek 'Kata' means 'down' and X y
X
'Biano' means 'to move'). If the mountain is high and KELATIVELY
..
the slope is steep, Katabatic winds can reach sea COLD AIR
level with force 7 or more in a very short while.
... . .
.
. .. ..
· Because of their sudden onset and great force, they . . . .... .
. .. . . .
. . . . . .. .
are a menace to small craft and vessels at anchor. . . .· .· .· ·. .· .· . WARM AIR
. . .. .• ·. ·. .• .. . .
• • , •
The onset of Katabatic winds cannot be predicted 0 • I O • 0 0 • 0 0 I O 0
86 87
[11 - PERIODIC AND LOCAL WINDS] [12- TROPICAL REVOLVING STORMS]
88 89
----· [12- TROPICAL REVOLVING STORMS] [12 - TROPICAL REVOLVING STORMS]
passed in December 1944 in the China Sea, is Whenever a vessel is in an area where TRSs are
mentioned here briefly: likely to be encountered, careful watch should be kept
2.1. Visibility between 0 and 1 kilometre due to spray for the warning signs of an approaching TRS (given at
and torrential rain. the end of this chapter) and take early evasive action.
2.2. Inability of vessels to respond to rudder, due to
force of wind. 3. Local names and seasons
2.3. All deck structures and equipment such as masts, Local names of TRSs in various places, and their
aerials, funnels, davits, boats, ventilators, etc. likely seasons, are given below. For more detailed
carried away by wind and sea. information regarding their seasons, frequency of
2.4. Loss of all wireless communication facilities. Even occurrence etc., the appropriate 'Sailing Directions'
verbal communication between people on board (also called the 'Pilot Book') of that area should be
nearly impossible due to roaring noise of wind consulted. ·
and hammering noise of rain.
2.5. Vessels rolling over 70°, causing large quantities Area Name Season
of water to be shipped through varicus openings, North Atlantic:
flooding of compartments including the engine Western side Hurricane June to November
rooms, resulting in short circuits, fires and failure Faster side Do not occur
of electric power and failure of main engines.
2.6. Loss of 3 destroyers which capsized and sank South Atlantic: Do not occur
within a few minutes, taking all hands. North Pacific:
2.7. Loss of about 800 lives. Western side Typhoon or All the year round.
2.8. Damage to about 29 vessels, of which 10 were Baguios Worst period is from
serious. June to November.
2.9. Irreparable damage/loss to about 150 aircraft with Eastern Side Hurricane or June to November.
r~sultant fires. Cordonazo
90 91
------
[12-TROPICAL REVOLVING STORMS] [12- TROPICAL REVOLVING STORMS]
December. Ill u
~
>
,_e
4. Origin, movement and life span
TRS originate in latitudes between 5° & 20° and
travel between Wand WNW in the NH and between Aor~~TR"<:•
Wand WSW in the SH, at a speed of about 12 knots.
Somewhere along their track, they curve away from ---------EQUATOR--------
the equator - curve to N and then recurve to NE in
the NH; curve to S and then recurve to SE in the SH
(see following diagram).
The recurv.ing is such that the storm travels
around the oceanic high (which is situated at about >C
30°N and 30°S in the middle of large oceans). After UI
l-
a:
recurving, the speed of travel increases to about 15 to Ill
>
20 knots. Sometimes, a TRS does not curve or
recurve at all, but continues on its original path,
crosses the coast and dissipates quickly thereafter
due to friction and lack of moisture.
It is important to note that all TRSs do not follow
such definite paths and speeds. In their initial stages,
occasional storms have remained practically
stationary or made small loops for as long as four
days.
92 93
[12- TROPICAL REVOLVING STORMS]
[12 - TROPICAL REVOLVING STORMS]
5. Structure
NORTHERN I ! I~ I
- ·c1rna
A well-developed TRS has three distinct parts:
5.1 . The eye or vortex: A calm central area of lowest
pressure, having a diameter between 4 miles and.
-
OUTER ST0
30 miles, the average being about 10 miles.
5.2. The eye-wall: An inner ring of hurricane force
winds having a width usually between 4 miles and
30 ·miles. The winds in the eye-wall blow in a fu\ := :•·.=
t9
perfectly circular path with a speed as high as
130 knots with occasional gusts up to 150 knots. - -~ti/~
- - :.,
.. ..... ,tt:·- : ...
:·-· ,··•
The pressure gradient in the eye-wall is very PLAN VIEW OF A TRS AT SEA LEVEL
steep and, therefore, the barograph would NORTHERN HEMISflHERE
f...
Cl<
~
Ill
f"'
94
95
---- [12 - TROPICAL REVOLVING STORMS]
...
[12 - TROPICAL REVOLVING STORMS]
l
I
5.3. The Outer storm area: The area surrounding the 7. Weather
eye-wall, having a diameter between 50 miles / 1. Atmospheric pressure: The barograph trace,
and 800 miles, the average being about 500 typical of a well-developed TRS whose centre
miles. Winds in this region are strong (about force passes over a stationary observer, is as shown
6 or 7) and the pressure gradient is much less earlier in this chapter.
than in the eye-wall. In the outer storm area, the fall of pressure
ahead of the trough, and the rise of pressure
6. Definitions behind it, is slow. The semi-diurnal variation of
Track: The route over which the storm centre has pressure may still be visible on the trace of a
already passed. barograph.
Path: Predicted route over which the storm centre is In the eye-wall, the fall of pressure ahead of
likely to travel. the trough, and the rise of pressure behind it, is
Trough: The line drawn through the centre of the very sharp. The trace of the barograph is very
storm, at right angles to the track. Ahead of the steep, nearly vertical. Semi-diurnal variation is not
trough, pressure falls whereas behind it, pressure visible on it. The pressure gradient in this region
rises. can be as high as 11 mb in 15 miles.
Vertex or Cod: The westernmost longitude reached In the eye, the lowest pressure is reached. This
by the storm centre when recurving takes place. may be as low as 60 mb below normal. The
Right hand semicircle (RHSC): That half of the lowest recorded pressure at the eye of a TRS
storm centre that lies to the right of the observer who was on 24th September 1958, about 600 miles
faces along the path of the storm. East of Guam (13°27'N 144°35'E), in the Western
Left hand semicircle (LHSC): That half of the storm Pacific Ocean. The pressure, reduced to sea
centre that lies to the left of the observer who faces level, was 877 mb, whereas the normal there
along the path of the storm. should have been about 1010 mb. In the case of
Dangerous semicircle: RHSC in the NH and LHSC the Gopnath (Gulf of Cambay) cyclone of June
in the SH. 1976, the pressure at the eye was 980 mb,
Navigable semicircle: LHSC in the NH and RHSC in whereas the normal there should have been
the SH. about 1006 mb, resulting in wind speeds of over
Dangerous quadrant: The advance quadrant of the 100 knots in the eye-wall. A pressure drop of 20
RHSC in the NH and LHSC in the SH. When the mo is sufficient to cause a well developed TRS.
existence of a TRS in the vicinity has been If the storm centre passes near a stationary
established, evasive action has to be taken to keep observer but not over him, the barograph trace
the vessel out of this quadrant.
96 97
[12 - TROPICAL REVOLVING STORMS] [12-TROPICAL REVOLVING STORMS]
would have similar characteristics but the she is in a most dangerous situation. After a short
pressure will not fall as low as it does at the eye. while, as the vessel passes into the eye-wall -
7.2. Wind behind the trough, the sudden hurricane force
Wind direction: If a stationary observer is in the wind from the opposite direction as before, strikes
RHSC, the wind will veer steadily and if he is in the vessel and may cause it to heel over by as
the LHSC, · it will back steadily. This holds good much as 80° or more and would hold it like that,
for both NH and SH. If he is in the direct path of leaving practically no margin for rolling further.
the storm, wind direction Will remain fairly steady. Over and above possible extensive wind-damage
Angle of indraft: The angle of indraft, in the outer described earlier, cargo may break loose and
fringes of the storm, is about 45° and this many openings may go below water caL!sing the
gradually decreases until it is 0° in the eye-wall. vessel to capsize.
The application of Buys Ballot's law, therefore, is 7. 3. Atmospheric temperature: Since a TRS exists
appropriate. in one air-mass only, no drastic changes of
Wind force: The wind force will increase as the atmospheric temperature are experienced on its
atmospheric pressure falls al'ld after the trough, or passage. However, atmospheric temperature
eye as the case may be, has passed, the wind would decrease during rain. In the eye, a slight
force will gradually decrease as the atmospheric increase may be registered due to adiabatic
pressure increases. heating of the subsiding air.
The wind force in the outer storm area may be 74. Clouds & precipitation: The cloud sequence of
force 6 to 7, whereas in the eye-wall of a violent a typical TRS is as follows:
TRS it may be force 12 or over (see 'Terminology' In the outer fringes of the storm, cirrus in the
on the first page of this chapter). In the eye-wall, form of strands or filaments generally so aligned,
the strongest winds usually lie in the rear that they may be said to point towards the storm
quadrant on the polar side of the storm. In Indian centre. Then cirrostratus followed by altostratus.
waters, the strongest winds lie in that quadrant of Around the eye-wall, thick nimbostratus (giving
the eye, whose wind direction coincides with the continuous rain) and small patches of cumulus,
direction of the monsoon winds. may be seen. At the eye-wall, towering anvil-
Wind direction & force in the eye: As soon as shaped cumulonimbus gives torrential rain.
a vessel passes from the eye-wall into the eye, Directly above the eye, a small circular patch of
the wind dies down into light airs but tne swell is blue sky may be seen, indicating an absence of
mountainous and confused. It must not be cloud therein and consequent cessation • of
presumed that a vessel in the eye of a TRS is in a precipitation.
comfortable and safe position. On the contrary,
98 99
[12 - TROPICAL REVOLVING STORMS] [12-TROPICAL REVOLVING STORMS]
7.5. Visibility: In the outer fringes of a TRS, visibility 8. Warning signs of an approaching TRS
is usually excellent. In the middle of the outer B 1. Swell: The very violent winds of the eye-wall
storm area, it becomes good except in occasional send swell out in a radial direction. Swell can be
showers. Around the eye-wall, under the experienced as much as a thousand miles away.
nimbostratus clouds, it becomes poor due to rain. Swell travels much faster than the speed of travel
In the eye-wall, it is poor due to driving rain and of the storm. Swell, therefore, approaches from
spiay. In the eye, it is poor due to mist or fog. the direction of the storm centre. Swell is usually
· 7.6. Storm surge or tidal wave: The very violent the first indication of an approaching TRS.
winds of the eye-wall stir up mountainous waves, .
as high as 20 metres (from crest to trough). Since
the TRS moves comparatively slowly, the winds
'
act for a long time on the same area, setting up
strong currents of water as deep as 25 metres
below the surface. As these strong currents
approach the shallow water near the coast, the
water level suddenly rises well above the usual
level (as much as 5 metres) and floods coastal
areas. Such sudden rises of water level, caused
by TRSs, are called "storm surges" or "tidal
·waves". If these storm surges happen to occur at
the time of the usual high water, the havoc
created is much more. The storm surge may be
experienced from about 300 to 400 miles ahead
of the storm and may last until the storm passes.
8 2 Atmospheric pressure: Falls steadily.
Around 30th May 1961, a severe cyclone struck
The approach of a TRS should be suspected if:
the port of Chittagong. The storm surge flooded
local areas and the hurricane force winds pushed • The ship is in an area where TRSs generally
a fairly large British general cargo vessel, the occur;
'Clan Alpine', well inland. Soon afterwards, the • If the time of the year is within the season
water receded as the storm abated, leaving the when TRSs generally occur;
vessel high and dry in a paddy field, a couple of • The aneroid barometric pressure (corrected for
miles inland. The vessel could not be refloated index error & height above sea level), with due
and was subsequently scrapped. allowance for semi-diurnal variation time (for
the time of the day), is >3 mb below normal.
100 101
[12 - TROPICAL REVOLVING STORMS] [12 - TROPICAL REVOLVING STORMS]
· The presence of a TRS is confirmed if the 9. Acti_911 when approach of a TRS is confirmed
foregoing conditions are met and the fall of batometric ,__9X.J)btain the bearing of the storm centre .
pressure is more than 5 mb below normal. . ~_J\scertain in which semi-circle the vessel lies.
Note: A pressure drop of 20 mb is sufficient to cause M.Take avoiding action.
a well developed TRS. 9.1. Obtain the bearing of the storm centre.
8.3. Weather: 'Face the wind, and according to Buys Ballot's law,
8.3.1. Cirrus clouds in bands or filaments aligned the storm centre will lie 8 to 12 points on your right in
towards the direction of the storm centre. the NH, left in the SH'.
8.3.2. Unusually clear visibility may occur. If the pressure has fallen 5 mb below normal,
8.3.3. Sometimes peculiar dark red/copper colour allow 12 points as it means that either the vessel is in
of sky is seen at sunset before a TRS. the outer fringes of a well developed TRS, or that a
8.3.4. Increase of wind force as the pressure falls. new TRS is forming in the vicinity.
8.3.5. Threatening appearance of dense, heavy If the pressure has fallen 20 mb or more below
clouds on the horizon. normal, allow 8 points as it means that the vessel is
8.3.6. Frequent lightning may be seen. near the eye of a well developed TRS.
8.3.7. Succession of squalls, with or without rain. 9.2. To ascertain in which semicircle vessel lies:
8.4. Storm warnings: Weather reports based on For a stationary observer, if the wind veers,
satellite pictures and observations from other vessel is in the RHSC and if it backs, LHSC. This
vessels may contain storm warnings which give holds good for both NH and SH. While determining
the position and pressure of the storm centre and the semicircle, the following points should be noted:
also probable direction of movement of the storm. 9.2.1. Wind observations, though logged every
However, it should be noted that satellite pictures hour during bad weather, should be
are restricted to only a few per day and also that compared with that 2 hours earlier. This is to
observations from ships in that vicinity may be give time for significant veering or backing
few or even totally absent. Furthermore, a and hence weed out errors that may be
satellite picture cannot indicate the atmospheric caused by irregular gusts of wind.
pressure at the storm centre. It may thus happen 9.2.2. Veering or backing, onpe detected, should
that a vessel which notices the warning signs of a be continuous while the observer remains
TRS, is the first and only one to do so and must stationary, i.e. a veering wind should
warn others about it. She should first send out a continue to veer and a backing wind should
safety message containing the storm warning and continue to back. If the wind veers at first
thence increase the frequency of its weather and then backs, or if it backs at first and then
reports. veers, the vessel must have passed from
102 103
[12 - TROPICAL REVOLVING STORMS] [12- TROPICAL REVOLVING STORMS]
104 105
[12 - TROPICAL REVOLVING STORMS] [12- TROPICAL REVOLVING STORMS]
Out in open sea, the following action is 9.5. Fair amount of Coriolis force (latitude more
recommended to keep the vessel out of eye/eye-wall: than 5° Nor S).
9.3.1. If vessel is in the dangerous quadrant: 9.6. Weak prevailing winds (during change of
Proceed as fast as practicable with the wind season).
1 to 4 points on the stbd bow (port bow in
SH) - 1 point for slow vessels (less than 12 Foregoing points 9.1 & 9.2 ensure that a large
knots) and 4 points for fast vessels (more quantity of water vapour is present in the air.
than 12 knots) altering course as the wind Points 9.3 & 9.4 ensure that air rises continuously
veers (backs in SH). This action should be so that adiabatic cooling results in condensation that
kept up until the pressure rises back to liberates latent heat. This latent heat provides the
normal i.e., until vessel is outside the outer energy for the TRS.
storm area. Point 9.5 ensues that when the winds blow, from
If there is insufficient sea room, the vessel surrounding areas of HP to the LP area inside, they
should heave to with the wind on the stbd get deflected sufficiently to blow spirally inwards
bow (port bow in SH) until the storm passes (cyclonic).
over. Point 9.6 is important - if the prevailing winds are
9.3.2. If vessel is in the path of the storm or if strong, the air would not rise vertically. It would be
in the navigable semi-circle: carried off horizontally, thereby not allowing a TRS to
Proceed as fast as practicable with the wind form.
about 4 points on the stbd quarter (port
quarter in SH), altering course as the wind To summarise the foregoing, the ideal conditions
backs (veers in SH). This action should be for the formation of a TRS exist during day time over
kept up until the pressure rises back to large Tropical islands, in mid-ocean, between
normal i.e., until vessel is outside the outer latitudes 5° & 20°, during the chang~ of monsoon - in
storm area. Indian waters, mid April to mid June ·and from October
to December.
9. Ideal conditions for the formation of a TRS:
9.1. High relative humidity (open sea). -oOo-
9.2. High temperature (Tropical areas).
9.3. LP area surrounded by areas of HP (daytime
over large islands).
9.4. Convection current (daytime over large
islands).
106 107
// [13 - WEATHER REPORTING SYSTEM] [13- WEATHER REPORTING SYSTEM]
(f THE WEATHER
REPORTING SYSTEM
transmits them using the ship's terrestrial or space
radio communications facilities as soon as possible.
These are sent to any of the designated coast radio
stations listed in the Admiralty List of Radio Signa,ls
Volume 3 (ALRS 3) which forwards them to the
Regional Meteorological Data Collection Centre, on a
priority basis. The ship does not incur any expense at
( Efficient weather service to shipping depends on all. The respective National Weather Authority pays
ttte timely location and accurate tracking of weather all relevant charges and also provides for all
systems over the open sea, which covers three- necessary equipment, publications and stationery
quarters of the surface of the earth. used by the VOF.
Overland it is easily possible to establish weather The codes have been devised in such a manner
observation stations (observatories) but over sea, the that the messages can easily be electronically
establishment of ocean weather ships is a very major processed and stored to enable better forecasts to be
operation involving very great capital and recurring rnade.
expense. Because of this, it is necessary for merchant The Regional Meteorological Centre (RMC)
ships, on the high seas, to spend a few minutes per collates all the reports of that area and makes
day in sending out reports of the weather weather forecasts, which are transmitted to ships of
experienced. Even if the weather is normal, a report that area, as weather bulletins (described later in this
to that effect is very important. chapter), through selected stations, at fixed times,
using terrestrial or space radio communications
Reporting system facilities.
As recommended by the World Meteorological
Organisation (WMO), each government recruits a Times of observations
number of merchant ships called the Voluntary Under normal conditions of weather, the hours of
Observing Fleet (VOF). observation, called synoptic hours, are 00, 06, 12 and
The Indian VOF consists of Indian ships and also 18 UTC. In cases where there is disturbed weather,
such foreign vessels that frequently and regularly call additional synoptic hours are 03, 09, _15 and 21 UTC.
at Indian ports and hence treat an Indian port as their The coded weather messages should be
homeport. transmitted as soon as possible. In case of any
108 109
11
I
110 111
11
112 113
[13 - WEATHER REPORTING SYSTEM]
[13- WEATHER REPORTING SYSTEM]
116 117
[13- WEATHER REPORTING SYSTEM] [13- WEATHER REPORTING SYSTEM]
2.2. Time, date (UTC) and position of ship when contain similar information to that listed under the
the observation was taken. 1>;:iragraph but excluding the details concerning
2. 3. As much of the following information as is s(~a and swell.
practicable should be included in the ~ Sub-freezing air temperatures associated with
message: qale force winds causing severe ice accretion on
• Barometric pressure, preferably corrected •,uperstructures:
'> 1 Time and date (UTC).
(stating millibars, millimetres, or inches,
! > 2 Air temperature.
and whether corrected or uncorrected);
'> 3 Sea temperature (if practicable).
• Barometric tendency (the change in
'> 4 Wind force and direction.
barometric pressure during the past three
hours)_;
• True wind direction; Examples of messages
(given at the end of Regulation 32 of SOLAS 74)
• Wind force (Beaufort scale);
• State of the sea (smooth, moderate, Ice
rough, high);
l I fT ICE. Large berg sighted in 4506 N, 441 OW, at
• Swell (slight, moderate, heavy) and the 0800 UTC. May 15.
true direction from which it comes. Period Derelicts
or length of swell (short, average, long) . ' I TT DERELICT. Observed derelict almost sub-
would also be of value; merged in 4006 N, 1243 W, at 1630 UTC, April 21.
• True course and speed of ship. Danger to navigation
1 TTT NAVIGATION. Alpha lightship not on station.
Subsequent observations 1800 UTC. January 3.
3. When a Master has reported a tropical cyclone or Tropical cyclone
other dangerous storm, it is desirable, but not -1 lTT STORM. 0030 UTC. August 18. 2004 N,
obligatory, that further observations be made and 11 354 E. Barometer corrected 994 mb, tendency
transmitted hourly, if practicable, but in any case down 6 mb. Wind NW, force 9, heavy squalls.
at intervals of not more than 3 hours, so long as Heavy easterly swell Course 067, 5 Knots.
the ship remains under the influence of the storm. 'i ITT STORM. Appearances indicate approach of
4. Winds of force 10 or above on the Beaufort scale hurricane. 1300 UTC. September 14. 2200 N, 7236
for which no storm warning has been received. W Barometer corrected 29.64 inches, tendency
This is intended to deal with storms other than the down 0.015 inches. Wind NE, force 8, frequent rain
tropical cyclones referred to in paragraph 2; when squalls. Course 035, 9 knots.
such a storm is encountered, the message should
118 119
[13- WEATHER REPORTING SYSTEM] [13 - WEATHER REPORTING SYSTEM]
Weather Bulletins
Details of weather bulletins sent out in each area -
call signs of stations, radio frequencies and timings -
are given in the Admiralty List of Radio Signals
Volume 3 (ALRS 3).
A weather bulletin would consist of five parts:
Part I Storm warning in plain language. .
<i>
Part II Synopsis of weather conditions in the
forecast area, in plain language.
Part Ill Forecast in plain language.
Part IV Surface weather analysis synoptic chart in
the International Analysis Code (Fleet). :II
Part V Data of surface observations from ships and
selected land stations and upper-air reports,
all in WMO codes. -o0o-
120 121
[14 - WEATHER CODE] [14 - WEATHER CODE]
122 123
[14-WEATHER CODE] [14- WEATHER CODE]
3. The MAFOR Code (FM 61- IV) c li•;covered that communication charges incurred by
Some countries that experience difficulty in Mnteorological Departments in receiving weather
sending out weather bulletins in plain English, use the r c !ports relayed through land lines could be reduced
Maritime Forecast Code (MAFOR Code) given below: , ,~; much as 40% by a simple strategy. Charges for
MAFOR YYG1G1/ 0AAAam 1GDFmW1 and two limdline telegrams and telexes were levied per word.
optional groups. Ir 1ternationally, one word could consist of up to 10
Detailed explanations of each of the various letters characters. So it was decided, by some National
of this code are given in the ALRS 3. The information Weather Authorities, to join the first two groups, then
given by a MAFOR Code bulletin should be treated as ti 1e third and fourth groups, then the fifth and sixth
approximate only. qroups, and so on, and transmit them as a series of
10-character strings.
4. The International Analysis Code (FM 46 - IV) However, this strategy has now become obsolete
The International Analysis Code (IAC Fleet) is since Wireless Telegraphy has itself become
used to transmit surface weather conditions in the redundant. The messages should be sent with groups
form of a ready weather map, covering an entire of only five alpha-numeric characters each.
ocean. The bulletin gives the positions of pressure
systems, frontal systems, isobars, tropical weather, So.ne important points - ships' weather reports
etc. The bulletin may be an analysis (actual existing
conditions) or a prognosis (prediction). The details of 30 minutes is to be rounded off to the
the IAC (Fleet) are given ALRS 3. In the IAC (Fleet), earlier hour. For example, 0530 is to be
Part IV may consist of over 150 groups, and may coded as 05 not 06. The time denoted
require two to three hours to decode and plot on a here is the time at which the barometer
map. is read. The barometer should be read
The invention of the facsimile recorder (explained as close to the synoptic hour as
later in this book), which automatically receives an possible.
entire weather map, without the necessity of a code, <J9Lalala The last numeral of each of these
has made the IAC (Fleet) practically obsolete from the O,Lolololo groups should be the number of minutes
mariner's point of view. divided by six, omitting the remainder.
For example, latitude 38° 41' is to be
More about ships reports coded as 386 not 387 and longitude 86°
In the Ships Weather Code, each group consists 58' as 0869 not 0870.
of five characters and the total number of groups may 11 If the height of the base of the lowest
be as many as 20. After many years, it was cloud, above sea level, has a value that
124 125
[14- WEATHER CODE]
[14 - WEATHER CODE]
126
127
---- [14- WEATHER CODE] [14 - WEATHER CODE]
4PPPP Atmospheric pressure 1008.4 mb. AAXX Report from a land station.
40084 YYGGiw GMT 06d 18h. Wind speed
0 f1 1 8 3 estimated
5appp Barograph trace......__ ; Tendency In knots
56028 (-) 02.8 mb. 11-43 means India, south of latitude
7wwW1W2 Present weather: moderate, non- 20°N. iii-057 means Bombay
7 636 4 freezing, continuous rain. Past (Colaba). In cases where a student
weather: Rai,Ji, fog or haze. does not know which particular
Low cloud 4/8 of sky. Low clouds: area or station is indicated by lliii,
Cb, the summits of which lack he may state as follows:
sharp outlines, but are neither II 43 - Regional block number. iii
fibrous nor in the shape of an anvil. 057 - Station number (ALRS 4).
Medium clouds: Ac resulting from INlxhW Precipitation group not sent.
the spreading out of Cu or Cb. 41 798 Manned station. Group 7wwW1W2
High clouds: Ci in the form of is included. Base of lowest cloud
hooks or filaments, or both, 1500 - 2000 metres above sea.
progressively invading sky. Visibility 20 km.
222Dsvs Course made good last three Nddff Total cloud 5/8 of sky. Wind
2223 4 hours: SE @ 16 to 20 knots. b3628 direction from North, estimated at
0SnTwTwTw Sea temperature + 17.5°C. 28 knots.
00 1 7 5 1SnTTT Air temperature+ 32.4°C.
2PwPwHwHw Sea period: 08 seconds; sea 10 324
20 8 0 8 height: 04 metres. :lS11TdTdTd Dew point temperature+ 20.8°C.
3dw1 dw1 dw2dw2 First swell from 020°. No second :;o 2 o a
30 2 / / swell. 4PPPP Atmospheric pressure 1006.9 mb.
4Pw1 Pw1 Hw1 Hw1 First swell: period 10 seconds, 40069
41 0 0 6 height 03 metres. !,uppp Barograph trace _..- ; Tendency
!>1042 (+) 04.2 mb.
2. Decode the following report: /wwW1W2 Present weather: Rain in sight
/16 8 2 near, but not on, ship. Past
AAXX 06183 43057 41798 53628 10324 weather: Showers of rain; cloud
20208 40069 51042 71682 83262 22211 covering more than half sky
00282 20606 324// 41008 throughout the appropriate period.
128 129
{14 - WEATHER CODE] [14 - WEATHER CODE]
Low cloud 3/8 of sky. Cu of I 1rst copy down the groups from the Weather
moderate or strong vertical extent. c, ,cte book. Then fill In the numbers under each code
Medium cloud: Ac formed by the 1,,ttnr as appropriate
spreading out of Cu or Cb. High
cloud: Dense Ci. rmxx D ........ D YYGGiw 99LaLaLa OcloLoloLo
222Dsvs No course or speed - land station. UHXX 3FRK 0 8 0 63 99 2 7 5 7 09 8 4
222 / I
OSnTwTwTw Sea temperature+ 28.2°C. l,11,liVV Nddff 1SnTTT 2SnTdTdTd 4PPPP
00 2 8 2 4 1(,98 62416 10 2 8 5 20 2 0 8 40268
2PwPwHwHw Sea period: 06 seconds: Height:
20 6 0 6 f111ppp 7wwW1W2 8NhCLCMCH 222DsVs
03 metres.
b:?064 7165 2 84 5 2 4 222 7 3
3dw1 dw1 dw2dw2 First swell from 240°. No second
32 4 / / swell. OSnfwTwTw 2PwPwHwHw 3dw1 dw1 dw2dw2
4Pw1 Pw1 Hw1 Hw1 First swell: period 1O seconds, ()() 2 0 6 20 8 0 2 30 5 I I
4100 8 Height 04 metres.
41>w,Pw1Hw1Hw1
3. Code the following ship's report: 41 0 0 4
Ship: 3FRK, Position: 27° 35'N 98° 29'W, Course 4. Code the following ship's report:
made good last three hours: 320° at 15 knots :ait11p VHAN, Position: 00° OS'N 46°58'E, Course
Visibility: 20km, Wind: 240° estimated at 16 knots' 111,1de good past three hours: 170° at 1O knots, GMT:
Pressure: 1026.8 mb, Tendency: +6.4 mb, Barograph 1f ;cj OOh 20m, Wind: 052° estimated at 1O knots.
trace: _,.,.- GMT: 08d 06h 1Om. V1s1bility: 500 metres. Pressure 1008.8 mb, Tendency
Temperature: Dry 28.5°C, Wet 23.0°C, Sea 20.6°C. • ] 6 mb, Barograph trace: _,.,.-
Clouds: Total 6/8 of sky, low clouds 4/8 of sky, base I mnperature: Dry 28.5°C, Wet 23.0°C, Sea 20.6°C.
1000 metres above sea, Sc not resulting from Cu, C: louds: Sky overcast with a few blue patches. Low
Dense Ns, Ci in hooks progressively invading sky. clouds 4 oktas, base 600 metres above sea, Cu of
Weather: present - pre;cipitation near but not at •,trong vertical extent, Ac in a chaotic sky, Cc.
station. Past - Cloud covering more than 1/2 sky I 11 esent weather: Visibility poor due to dust in sus-
throughout and intermittent drizzle. pension in the air, not raised by wind at or near ship.
1
Sea: Period 08 seconds, height 01 metre. I ast weather: Thick haze, thunderstorm.
Swell: From 050°, period 10 seconds, height 02 Sea Period 04 seconds, height 0.4 metres.
metres. Swell: From 270°, Period 08 seconds, height 04m.
130 131
[14 - WEATHER CODE]
-oOo-
132
107
Principle
CURSOR WITH MARINE TUBE
In its simplest form, the mercury barometer consists
VERNIER SCALE
gl~ss tube about one metre long, closed at one end,
SCALE GRADUATED IN mb
Wit~ ~ercurr and inverted into a bowl containing
While mvertmg the tube, a finger should be placed O '
CURSOR CONT_R_Ol.
?pen end and r~moved only after the end has been i
m the mercury tn the bowl. It will be noticed that the
GIMBAL RING
CAPILLARY TUBE
TEMPERATURE PLATE
-r
VACUUM
GLASS
TUBE
'I I
1'l
1
Iii),;i
MERCURY
I STERN
marine barometer
Cl STERN
Ii (BOWU
'l'liis is also called the Kew-pattern m:irine barometer. It
I!
9011.ists of a glass tube sealed at its upper end, with its
level in th~ t~be will drop by a certain amount and then re '-'wrr rnd immersed in a bowl (cistern) of mercury. The bore
steady. This ts becaus~ atmospheric pressure, acting on
surface of mercury m the bowl, balances the weight 1111( further details regarding atmospheric pressure, see chapter 1.
[15 - PRESSURE MEASURING INSTRUMENTS]
CURSOR CONTROL
GIMBAL RING
CAPILLARY TUBE
TEMPERATURf PLATE
:4IR TRAP
C.OLO SLIDE
OUTER CASI NG
I STERN tSTERN
135
[15- PRESSURE MEASURING INSTRUMENTS] [15 - PRESSURE MEASURING INSTRUMENTS]
The lower end of the glass tube is immersed in a 4) Mercury has a uniform coefficient of expansion so
bowl (cistern) of mercury. The top of the cistern has temperature correction can easily be applied
one or more holes to admit air into it. These holes are accurately.
covered with a thin leather washer which is 5) Mercury cannot escape easily through the leather
permeable to air (air can pass freely through it) but washer on top of the cistern during transportation
impermeable to mercury or dust.
of the barometer, owing to its high viscosity (thick
The entire barometer is enclosed in a metal case nature~. whereas water or other such liquids would
to protect the glass interior from damage. The top part spill out easily.
of this metal case has millibar makings on it. A sliding G) Mercury has a low freezing point (about -39°C)
cursor, with a vernier scale on it, allows readings up
and a very high boiling point (over 350°C) and
to 0. 1 of a millibar. The vertical movement of the
hence is suitable for marine barometers.
cursor is controlled by a milled knob.
The barometer is attached to a horizontal Correction of barometric readings
suspension arm by gimbal rings. The other end of the'
For the sake of uniformity of climatic records and
suspension arm fits into a socket that is screwed on to
for forecasting purposes, all barometric readings
the bulkhead. The suspension arm keeps the
should be reduced to a common datum - sea level in
barometer well away from the bulkhead and the
latitude 45° with no error due to temperature. All
gimbals allow the barometer to remain vertical during
rolling and pitching. barometric readings should, therefore, be corrected
for height, latitude, temperature and index error
An attachment called a Gold Slide (described later before making entries in the Mate's Logbook,
in this chapter) is fitted on all modern mercury
Weather Logbook or weather reports.
barometers for easy and quick correction of
barometric readings. i1,
(a) Reason for height correction: As explained in I
chapter 1, atmospheric pressure decreases as height
Reasons why mercury is used in barometers
increases. The reading on the bridge will, therefore,
1) Mercury has a high relative density - 13.6. be lower than the reading at sea level. Since we have
Therefore, a mercury barometer is less than one 1·.
the reading on the bridge, but have to report the
metre high whereas a water barometer would pressure at sea level, we have to add a correction for
have to be over 10 meters high.
height to the bridge reading at the rate of 1 millibar for
2) Mercury does not wet the glass surface as other every 10 metres above sea level.
liquids would.
3) Mercury is easily visible.
(b) Reason for latitude correction: Since the earth's
polar radius is about 13 miles less than its equatorial
136
137
[15 - PRESSURE MEASURING INSTRUMENTS} [15 - PRESSURE MEASURING INSTRUMENTS]
radius, the gravitational force at the poles is greater ( 1:) Reason for temperature correction: Each
than at the equator. One c.c. of mercury, therefore. 11H!rcury barometer 1s constructed to show correct
weighs more at the poles than at the equator. , 1 !ad1ngs at a particular temperature called the
•;t;mdard temperature or fiducial temperature. which
1•; 0°C (273°K) for modern barometers and 12°c (285°
K) for those constructed before 1st January 1955. The
•-;t;1ndard temperature of the barometer is mentioned
1 >r 1 a brass plate attached to the metal case of the
those in latitude~ lower than 45° need a minus 11 ,, ltix error of the barometer, positive if the former is
correction to bring them to the uniform datum of 45° 11 ••,s and negative if the former is more e.g., if
1 1 Hr ected barometric pressure is 1004.8 mb and the
latitude. The rate of change is about 1 millibar for
every 12° of latitude. • 11 tual atmospheric pressure is 1005.2 mb, the index
, ,rr <>r Is +0.4 mb. Index error should always be
.11 ,plied. as per sign, to the barometric reading.
138 139
[15 - PRESSURE MEASURING INSTRUMENTS]
[15 - PRESSURE MEASURING INSTRUMENTS]
.....
.:::::::'
·········
::::::::: .....
EYE- -~- ::>
u
.......k;:::~
........ .
CORRECT
LEVEL
i0
7""""":"
j
[L ......... !
1
i
i .... 1 ..... ....,,.............. ;·
to first read the
thermometer as soon as the
barometer
attached
is approached. Other-
·········
·········
:::::::;:
. INEI'< GRADUATIONS
Nu r SHCWN HERE wise, the body warmth of the
·········
..... .... ..
.....,
,
·········
.........
.········ observer cm•!d affect the reading
::·········
::::::: .........
········· ·········
········· of the thermometer and thereby cause an error in the
total correction computed by the Gold Slide.
142
143
[15 - PRESSURE MEASURING INSTRUMENTS]
[15 - PRESSURE MEASURING INSTRUMENTS]
144
145
[15- PRESSURE MEASURING INSTRUMENTS] [15 - PRESSURE MEASURING INSTRUMENTS]
4) Avoid touching the graduated surfaces of the Gold 2. The aneroid barometer
Slide as fingerprints, perspiration or body oils Aneroid means without liquid. A sealed chamber
create smudge marks on them. mode of very thin metal, having a partial vacuum
5) Wipe the Gold Slide free of dust or dirt using a soft Inside it, is connected by a system of levers and
cloth. 1pr 1ngs to a pointer fitted over a circular, graduated
6) Never apply metal polish of any kind on the Gold ac:ale The thin metal has an elastic effect.
Slide as the abrasive action of the polish will first When the atmospheric pressure increases, the
remove the paint in the graduations making it chamber gets compressed and the inward movement
difficult to read and then it will wear down the face of its wall is transmitted mechanically to the pointer
of the scale, making the graduations thnt then registers a higher reading on the scale.
indistinguishable. Particles of metal polish will also When the atmospheric pressure decreases, the
clog moving parts. A little clock oil may be applied opposite happens. The expansion of the chamber is
as a thin film to prevent corrosion by salt air. assisted by a spring.
7) A drop of clock oil should be applied now and then fhe larger the chamber, the greater the accuracy
on all moving parts of the Gold Slide to ensure : ol ttie aneroid barometer.
free movement.
DIAL POINTER
Reading the mercury barometer
1 ) Note the temperature on the attached
thermometer, set the Gold Slide and obtain the HAIR SPRING
total correction to be applied, including index error.
2) Tap the barometer gently to ensure that the top of
the mercury column has a smooth convex shape -
if pumping is present, tapping is unnecessary. ANEROID BAROMETER ADJUSTMENT
146 147
[15 - PRESSURE MEASURING INSTRUMENTS] [15 - PRESSURE MEASURING INSTRUMENTS]
error is likely to change and should be obtained at (1v)/\s close to the centre line of t~e ship as
least once in three months. This could be done by pr. 1ct1cable. This would minimise fluctu~t1ons _caused
comparison with another aneroid barometer whose t,y 1 :hange of height above sea level during rolling.
index error is known. Representatives of port (v) /\t eye level for ease of observation.
meteorological offices in most ports usually bring their
aneroid barometer on board for comparison. free of Pn?cautions when using an aneroid barometer
charge, on a request from the ship. I ap the face of the instrument ligh_tly_ to release
The index error should be entered on a special nr1y sticking of levers or pointer due to friction.
card hung near the instrument. If the index error
becomes quite large, it can be reduced, if not Advantages of aneroid barometer
eliminated, by a small adjustment on the back of the It is a robust and compact instrument. . Changes
instrument, with the use of a screwdriver. ol pressure are easily detectable. For this purpose, a
(ii) Height correction: Since atmospheric pressure 1pq id pointer is provided, attached to the glass fa~e of
near sea level falls at the rate of one millibar for every 11": instrument. After tapping the instrument, the fixed
10 metres increase of height, the correction may be I)( ,inter is aligned with the dial pointer, taking care to
calculated as follows: 11vrnd error of parallax. After some time (about ha~f an
t t()llr or more) the instrument is tapped gently agaI_n. If
Correction 1111 • dial pointer now lies to the right of the fixed
(in mb) = Height above sea level in metres -,- 10 1)(,111ter, the pressure has risen and vice versa. The
(always additive) . unount of rise or fall can also be noted.
I Jarometric tendency
There is no correction to be applied for variation in
atmospheric temperature as the manufacturers allow Where a barograph is not working, or is not
for it during construction. 1>r, 1v1ded on board, barometric tendency ?8n easil~ be
1 ,t 1ta1ned by the aneroid barometer - align the f1~ed
Location of an aneroid barometer: 11111 nter to the _dial pointer every three hours, starting
The instrument should be so positioned as to be: r,()rn 00 UTC and note the change each time.
'
(i) Away from undue vibration or sudden jerks (which
would cause changes in its index error). :, The precision aneroid barometer
(ii) Away from draughts of air. This is a compact (small), robust (strong),
• 11 :curate, aneroid barometer that has replaced the
(iii)Away from places liable to experience abnormal or
sudden changes of temperature. 1. "~1e, delicate, mercury barometer that was_ fitted on
•,t11ps in the earlier days. It ha~ . a micrometer
• 11 r angement for reading to 0.1 of a m1ll1bar.
148 149
[15 - PRESSURE MEASURING INSTRUMENTS] [15- PRESSURE MEASURING INSTRUMENTS]
150 151
[15 - PRESSURE MEASURING INSTRUMENTS] 1
[15 - PRESSURE MEASURING INSTRUMENTS]
(ii) Height correction is necessary, as in the case of ,< itation is effected by an eight-day clock mechanism.
the ordinary aneroid barometer, to convert the I t1e clock is, therefore, wound whenever the chart is
reading at bridge level to that at sea level, at the 1hanged. The key of the clockwork mechanism can
rate of +0.1 mb per metre height above sea-level. t >(➔ reached by removing the lid of the drum.
0 R U M
Damping minor fluctuations due to gusts
To make the instrument insensitive to sudden
., ORIFIC.ES
:~ -~'----I-----+◄ _ \AOJUSTMENT
small changes of pressure caused by gusts of wind,
I
..
- \\ C::==t~:::::::::::\1-+RJGIO JOINT
rolling, pitching, heaving, etc., the outer casing is m
111
>
r Ill
airtight except for one small air-inlet that is fitted with
a damping device. _;'.l--~-----~===~~P~E;N~. . ~~~~~=~~}~~~H::=--
,., ARM ua
> 1----+--t---+--t Ill
~
The barograph is an aneroid barometer that gives 2
'b::-=~===:E===--_.llitwa._JUL___~~L...,
a continuous record of pressure on a paper chart.
Such a chart, with a continuous barograph trace on it, THE BAROGRAPH
is called a barogram. The barograph is so adjusted as
to allow for index error and also error due to height The tip of the stylus has a detachable pen that
above sea level. Comparison should be done once a (:ontains one drop of slow drying ink, specially
week, when the paper is changed and, if necessary, ~;upplied for this purpose. The ink needs to be
adjustment of error made. r tJplenished once a week and this is done by a
For climatic record purposes, the barograph is < lr opper and inkbottle provided. The pen should be
always set to UTC (GMT) not to ship's time. washed with water or cleaned with methylated spirit
, 1bout once a month to ensure that the trace is thin,
Construction of the barograph
clear and even. Excess of ink should be avoided as
The vacuum chamber consists of a series of metal tl1e ink will not only corrode the pen arm but also
boxes arranged vertically, resembling the bellows of (:;1use the normally detachable pen to stick fast to the
an accordion. Change of atmospheric pressure 1H:n arm.
causes the top of the chamber to ascend or descend The entire barograph is provided with a hinged
and this movement is conveyed by a lever system to qlass cover, to keep out gusts of wind and dust, and
a stylus (pen) that moves up or down on the chart. 1s mounted on springs and rubber pads to reduce
The chart is fixed on a cylindrical drum that rotates vibration.
at a uniform speed of one rotation per week. The
152 153
[15 - PRESSURE MEASURING INSTRUMENTS] [15 - PRESSURE MEASURING INSTRUMENTS]
154
155
[15-PRESSURE MEASURING INSTRUMENTS] [16 - OTHER METEOROLOGICAL INSTRUMENTS]
1. The thermometer
The thermometer is an instrument for
measuring temperature. Thermometers meant for
normal use, to measure temperature of liquids and
gases, contain mercury.
Description
A capillary tube of glass is attached
to a bulb containing mercury,
evacuated of air and sealed at its open
end. When heated, the mercury in the
bulb expands into the,ii capillary tube.
JO
When the temperature increases, the
20
mercury i11_..,the? b..ulb expands and the
10 length of mercury in the column gets
more. When the temperature
10
decreases, the mercury in the bulb
contracts and the length of mercury in
the column gets less.
The tube is graduated with two
reference points - the freezing point
and the boiling point of water. The
graduation differs from type to type.
156
157
..---
[16- OTHER METEOROLOGICAL INSTRUMENTS] [16- OTHER METEOROLOGICAL INSTRUMENTS]
The World Meteorological Organisation has 2. The hygrometer (also called psychrometer)
adopted the Celsius type where the freezing point of The hygrometer is an instrument for obtaining the
water is 0°C and its boiling point, 100°C. The length of relative humidity and/or dew point temperature of air.
the tube between O and 100 is divided into 100 equal r he type in use at sea on merchant ships is called the
parts. Since air temperature can fall below 0°C, the Mason's hygrometer or wet-and-dry-bulb hygrometer
thermometers on ships are usually graduated on the or psychrometer.
lower side of 0°C, down to about -20°C or so.
Description
There are two other types of graduation and they The hygrometer consists of two identical Celsius
are shown here for academic interest only. thermometers, one called the dry bulb thermometer
and the other, the wet bulb thermometer. The wet
Celsius· Kelvin# Fahrenheit bulb thermometer has a thin, single layer of muslin or
Freezing point of water 0°C 273°K 32°F cotton (starch free) tied around the bulb by a few
Boiling point of water 100°C 373°K 212°F strands of cotton wick. The extra length of the strands
* Formerly called Centigrade. # Formerly called Absolute. 1
of wick is immersed in a bottle of distilled water. Both
the thermometers are enclosed in a special,
Reasons why merc_ury is used ventilated, wooden box called the Stevenson screen,
(i) Easily visible. described later. Both, the Mason's hygrometer and
(ii) Large, uniform coefficient of expansion. the Stevenson's screen are shown in a sketch under
(iii) Does not wet the glass. "Stevenson's screen".
(iv)High boiling point (over 350°C)
(v) Fairly low freezing point (about -39°C). Principle
Because of capillary action, the muslin always
Reading a thermometer remains damp - water is drawn upwards, from the
( i) Stand as far away as practicable so that body bottle through the strands of wick. If the atmosphere
heat will not affect the thermometer. 1s dry, rapid evaporation takes place from the muslin.
(ii) Keep eye at same level as top of mercury Since evaporation causes cooling, the wet bulb
column to avoid error of parallax. thermometer will show a much lower reading than the
(iii)Read the thermometer by judging it to the dry bulb thermometer. If the atmosphere is humid,
nearest tenth of a degree. If this is not evaporation from the muslin will be slow, and less
possible, then read it to the nearest half of a cooling of the wet bulb will take place. The reading of
degree. the wet bulb thermometer will then be not much lower
than that of the dry bulb thermometer.
158
159
[16 - OTHER METEOROLOGICAL INSTRUMENTS]
[16 - OTHER METEOROLOGICAL INSTRUMENTS]
In other words, the difference between the (vi) In any case, the muslin and strands of wick
readings of the wet bulb and the dry bulb must be changed once a week. This is
t~ermom~te~s (called the depression of the wet bulb), because solid particles are left behind by the
gives an rndIcat1on of the relative humidity of the air. evaporating water. These particles subsequen-
The greater the difference, the lower the relative tly prevent free evaporation and the wet bulb
humidity and vice versa. reading will be higher than the correct reading.
That is why distilled water is used. Even then,
To find relative humidity and dew point the distilled water available is rarely as pure as
~eteorological tables, entered with dry bulb we would like it to be.
reading on one axis and the depression of the wet An entry should be made in the weather
bulb on_ the other axis, give the relative humidity or the logbook every time the muslin is changed.
dew point of the air. Separate tables are provided for (vii) The muslin should be only just damp. Too
relative humidity and for dew point. Separate tables much water on it, or too little, will cause the wet
are provided for use with the hygrometer and with the bulb reading to show higher than correct. This
whirling psychrometer. can easily be rectified by adjusting the number
of strands of wick leading into the water bottle.
Precautions when using a hygrometer (viii)The water bottle should be washed and the
(i) The Stevenson's screen should be on the distilled water in it renewed once a week.
windward side, in open air, away from artificial (ix) Whenever distilled water has been added or
sources of heat (heaters or blowers) and changed, or the muslin has been renewed, or
artificially heated draughts of air (from the Stevenson's screen has been shifted to the
accommodation, funnel, hold ventilators, windward side, at least half an hour must
skylights, etc., elapse before reading the wet bulb
(ii) It s_hould be about 1.5 m above the deck for the thermometer, so as to allow sufficient time for
convenience of the observer. evaporation.
(iii)Sunlight falling on the Stevenson's screen is (x) The dry bulb should be clean and clear of
permitted but not directly on the thermometers. drops of condensed water.
(iv) It should be far away from metal bulkheads (xi) Reading of a wet bulb thermometer inside a
etc., which will cause heat radiations that ca~ Stevenson's screen, when the wind speed is
affect the readings. less than seven knots, are not accurate
(v) The muslin should be clean - free of dust or enough, as d~scribed later in this chapter
salt particles carried by spray. If not, the wet under "Advantages of a whirling psychro-
bulb thermometer will give a higher than meter".
correct reading.
160 161
[16 - OTHER METEOROLOGICAL INSTRUMENTS] [16- OTHER METEOROLOGICAL INSTRUMENTS]
Wet bulb reading higher than dry bulb J. The Stevenson screen
This can happen only under the following !his is a wooden box specially constructed to
circumstances: t11111se a hygrometer. It was invented by Thomas
(i) Insufficient evaporation taking place from the 8tovenson (father of Robert Louis Stevenson).
wet bulb due to dust, salt or other impurities on It ,s a wooden cupboard with a hinged door. The
the muslin, or due to no water on the muslin. dt >or. the back and the two sides, are all fitted with
(ii) Insufficient time interval allowed after shifting of "lrn ,vers" or slats which let air circulate freely without
Stevenson's screen to windward, addition of : ltttt1ng in direct solar radiation or re-radiated heat from
distilled water, renewal of wick or water, etc. 1t11p's structure. The louvers also keep out rain and
(iii) Difference in the sensitivity of the 11pr <.1y There are various types of Stevenson's
thermometers whereby one of them is slow in 11c:r eens. The type found on ships is the portable type.
recording sudden changes of temperature. If sunlight is allowed to fall directly on the
(iv) Faculty or broken thermometers. thermometer it will get
very hot and the reading
Hygrometer readings below 0°C shown by it will be the
When the dry bulb reading is below 0°C, the film of temperature of the
water on the wet bulb freezes into a thin layer of ice instrument itself, not that
called frost. Once this has formed, the reading of the ~--¾l===l~:::d [ ::J of the atmosphere.
wet bulb thermometer will be below the reading of the 1=11=:::==fl~ C ) Inside the screen, the
dry bulb thermometer because evaporation takes J thermometer will show
place from ice as freely as from water. If the muslin the temperature of the
dries up, distilled water should be dropped on it and, atmosphere because of
after this has frozen, readings may be taken. the shade and the free
In rare cases, drops of water may be seen on the circulation of air.
wet bulb even though the temperature of the dry bulb During the night, if
is well below 0°C. Such drops of water are said to be the thermometer was
super-cooled and great error in reading will result. In IHE STEVENSON out in the open, its bulb
such a case, the wet bulb should be touched by a SCREEN would radiate out its
snow crystal, the back of a pencil or other cold object heat very quickly, much
and freezing will start. The reading should be taken , I' 11cker than the air and would thus show a lower-
only after about fifteen minutes or so, after freezing of , ti ,an-true reading of atmospheric temperature. The
the drops on the wet bulb is complete. ti 1ormometer will then show the temperature of the
111strument itself, not that of the atmosphere.
162 163
[16 - OTHER METEOROLOGICAL INSTRUMENTS] [16 - OTHER METEOROLOGICAL INSTRUMENTS]
While using the screen, the heat radiated by the THE WHIRLING
mercury is partially retained inside the screen and the
rf -----
reading shown by the thermometer will be closer to
the true reading than when in the open.
~ ------
Positioning of Stevenson screen METAL
This has already been described earlier in this HOLDER
Precautions when using a
chapter under 'Precautions when using a hygrometer'. g (J) whirling psychrometer
4. The whirling psychrometer
This is a very efficient type of hygrometer. Hence (i) The muslin should be clean
its basic principle is the same as that described, and free of dust or deposit left
earlier in this chapter, under "Hygrometer" behind by water during
evaporation. If not, the dirt or
Description and use deposit will not allow free
It consists of a light wooden frame, pivoted to evaporation and the wet bulb
revolve smoothly around a handle. The frame has two reading will be higher than the
identical Celsius thermometers mounted on it. One of correct reading. To ensure
them has a single layer of thin muslin tied firmly this the muslin should be
I
around its bulb, with string, and is called the wet bulb changed at least once a week.
thermometer.
w (ii) Only one drop of water
When required, the frame is held horizontal and, :li:
<I:
using a dropper, one drop of distilled water is made to a:: should be dropped on the
IL.
fall on the muslin to make it damp. :z
muslin and this should soak
The frame is then whirled in open air for at least
II.I
0 into it. If it does not readily
0
two minutes before reading off the wet and dry bulb 0 soak, it means that the muslin
~
temperatures. By entering meteorological tables with needs changing.
the dry bulb reading on one axis and the depression
of the wet bulb on the other axis, the dew point and/ (iii) Never touch the muslin with
or the relative humidity is obtained. a finger. If touched, body oils
Different tables are used for the whirling present on the finger would get
psychrometer and for the hygrometer in the DRY WET transferred to the muslin and
Stevenson's screen because of their different rates of
BULB BULB make it water-resistant.
evaporation.
164 165
[16 - OTHER METEOROLOGICAL INSTRUMENTS] [16 - OTHER METEOROLOGICAL INSTRUMENTS]
(iv) When the muslin does not soak water readily, i1pprec1able change i.e., when the wind speed past
officers have been known to coax the water in by 1111, bulb is seven knots or more, the reading of the
rubbing the muslin with a wet finger, instead of w, ,1 bulb can be relied upon.
renewing the muslin. This is wrong and only makes In the case of hygrometer inside a Stevenson
the muslin more and more water-resistant and results ,u:roen, the airflow depends entirely on the direction
in erroneous readings. nr 1d force of the wind outside the screen. If such wind
(v) Always swing the instrument in the open air on I• lnss than seven knots, the wet bulb reading cannot
the windward side of the ship, away from direct bo relied upon.
sunlight. In the case of the whirling psychrometer, a speed
(vi) While swinging the instrument care should be of one rotation per second equals to a wind flow of
taken to ensure that it does not strike against any more than seven knots past the bulb. Since the
obstruction, resulting in broken thermometers. The uvorage person would rotate it at about 2 rotations or
whirling psychrometer is the most frequently damaged more per second, the reading of the wet bulb
instrument on a ship's bridge, and that too, by tt1orrnometer is accurate.
carelessness.
(vii) The instrument should be swung for at least two -oOo-
minutes. The readings of the thermometers should be ,
made soon thereafter, while out in the open air, using
a torch if necessary. If was brought under the chart-
room light for reading, the reading would have altered '
by then.
166 167
[17 - VISU/lL STORM WARNINGS] [17 - VISUAL STORM WARNINGS]
I
experience severe weather
from a severe cyclone VIII eR
expected to move keeping the eR SURFACE CURRENTS -
port to the left of its track.
-- VtSH
PA
---
..... /
-...J ,.--
N
✓ /
sos•· / --- I ~
✓ / 1()0
.....___ J
'" " / .._
/
---
..v
e,'P
J~~
-
✓
I I i
<. c..
(
- -
00 tOOAN
<.
EIIUATORIAL COIINf
C.
a CUIIRENI-
- - - - ' 4 \.
t )J
/ 1
.
";
....
"I 0
";
ARABIAN SEA & BAY OF BENGAL .......
GENERAL SURFACE CURRENT CIRCULATION .....
0)
FEBRUARY TO APRIL I
(LATE NE MONSOON) ()
,,,,,.,..
~
~
0
.....
-...J
<.,)
/
(
r ( \ ...-
!
--
I/\ \ l
):,,
~
tx:J
5::
\ '-.. ✓ ~
-
MAO AAS
f\
...__ /~ j (/)
\
- - 11'.JO
\ ./
~
Qo
"
..._
- '---
-
,.__
-
'5 ........ ~
-<
" ..._ --
' - - ----=t -- - - -
......... - 00
- .,,0
tx:J
i
.t:
--- [18 -CURRENTS: ARABIAN SEA & BAY OF BENGAL] [18 -CURRENTS: ARABIAN SEA & BAY OF BENGAL]
'I
40•
174 175
-- [19 - CYCLOSTROPHIC FORCE]
e
R ,Al
") "
p
R At Q, cyclostrophic force has reached a certain
. unount and G-C is now less than before. as shown 1n
R l
lh<~ figure. The wind that blows at Q is the resultant of
< ; C and L and has an angle of indraft of about 22°.
At R, cyclostrophic force has increased to such an
oxtent that it is now equal to gradient force (G-C =
1oro}, and there is no inward force at all. The wind
NORTHERN HEMISPHERE that blows, as a resultant of G-C and L, hence blows
111 a perfectly circular path (i.e., with an angle of indraft
'!'.
of 0°)
p
176
177
[19 - CYCLOSTROPHIC FORCE] [20 - COMPARISON BETWEEN TRS & TLDJ
-oOo-
A tabulated comparison between tropical revolving
1tor ms and temperate latitude depressions is given
bttlow
TRS TLD
Diameter between 50 1000 to 2000 miles
nnd 800 miles average across.
usually less than 500
miles.
178 179
[20- COMPARISON BETWEEN TRS & TLD]
[21 - STABILITY OF AIR]
-----,
I
,'
I
iI
...,,
0"CE1sIus s•
ATMOSPHERIC TEMPERATUII[
p
180 181
[20 - COMPARISON BE7WEEN TRS & TLD]
[21 - STABILITY OF AIR]
-----,
I
i
,'.
I
...,,
0"CE1sIus s.•
ATMOSPHERIC TEMPERA1"U11£
p
180 181
[21- STABILITY OF AIR] [21- STABILITY OF AIR]
If wet, " " " " " " 10°C · II wet, ,, ,, ,, ,, ,, ,, 10°c
Present temperature of surrounding air at 1 km J>resent temperature of surrounding air at 1 km
height, as per ELR (1) in figure, is more than 10°C. t,011 1111 as per ELR (3) in figure, is between 5°C and
10 ·c
This means that the parcel of air is colder (and
hence denser) than the surrounding air at that level 1t11s means that if the parcel of air is dry, it is
and would thus try to return below, to its original Clllder (and hence denser) than the surrounding air _at
position. Because this happens regardless of whether tt1t• same level, and would try to return below to its
the parcel was originally saturated or not, this or 1q1nal position i.e., stable equilibriu~--
condition is referred to as absolute stability. lt the parcel of air is saturated, It Is warmer (and
t1rn1ce less dense) than the surrounding air at t~e
Absolute Instability .,, 11i 1(J level, and would try to continue upwards. in tne
If the environment is such that the actual lapse it 1,,ictIon of the original disturbance 1.e .. unstable
existent is more than SALR and DALR, absolute '"lLJ11ibnum. _. . .
instability is said to exist ( see ELR (2) in figure). 8ecause stability or instab1l1ty. In this case,
i.e., If dry, temperature of parcel at 1 km height is 5°C , ii . 1>ends on whether the parcel i~ .dry or s~~urated,
If wet. " " ., " " " 10°C 1111s condition is referred to as cond1t1onal stability.
Present temperature of surrounding air at 1 km
height as per ELR (2) in figure, is less than 5°C. Neutral equilibrium of air
If the ELR coincides with DALR when the parcel of
This means that the parcel of air is warmer (and • 111 1s dry or with SALR when the parcel is saturate?,
hence less dense) than the surrounding air at the tt ,en the parcel of air which is displaced up~ard~, Is
same level and would thus try to continue upwards in 1111 ! '.;ame temperature as that of the surrounding a,r at
the direction of the original disturbance. Because this 111-~ same level and would have no tendency to return
happens regardless of whether the parcel was 11, its original position or to continue u~~ar~s in the
originaHy saturated Gr not, this condition is referred to 1i11e of original disturbance. This cond1t1on Is called
as absolute instability. 111d1fferent or neutral equilibrium.
182 183
--- [21 - STABILITY OF AIR] [21- STABJL/TY OF AIR]
182 183
[22 - ICE AT SEA]
[22 - ICE AT SEA]
From Baffin Bay (about 75°N), they are brought 1. Calving (breaking off) into smaller pieces.
southwards by the Labrador Current. By the time they 2. Melting caused by warm ocean currents. Such
reach the Grand Banks, they are one to two years old. underwater melting will result in frequent
The volume of an average-sized iceberg in this toppling and calving.
region is about 20,000 cubic metres. Its rate of drift is 3. Melting due to warm air and sunlight.
erratic, being between 10 & 70 nautical miles per day. 4. Erosive action of wind and waves.
The International Ice Patrol advises shipmasters to
keep at least 100 miles off from the last reported Visibility of an iceberg
position of an iceberg. This may mean an eight-hour Day-time:
detour for a vessel bound for New York and a twenty- 1. On days with clear skies, about 18 M off from
four-hour detour for a vessel bound for Canadian or the masthead and about 12 to 15 M off from
Great Lakes ports. the bridge.
On meeting the Gulf Stream, whose temperature 2. On cloudy days with good visibility, about 2 M
is as high as 16°C, the average sized icebergs melt in less than on clear days.
one or two weeks. The larger ones may take as long 3. Light fog/haze/drizzle/rain - 2 to 3 M.
as two months. 4. Dense fog - not detectable more than 100
metres.
2.2. Icebergs of ice-shelf origin: Night-time:
These are common in high latitudes of the 1. On nights with clear skies and good visibility,
Southern Hemisphere. They are huge chunks broken about ¼ M to the naked eye. If bearing is
off from large ice-shelves. Some times, an entire known, then 1M using night glasses.
shallow bay of water freezes and, later on, breaks off 2. Difficult to detect in moderate or rough sea.
and floats free. 3. Moonlight has very strong but variable effect
Icebergs of ice-shelf origin are called tabular bergs on visual detection range, depending on the
because of their vertical sides and smooth, horizontal azimuth and altitude of Moon, bearing of the
tops. They are good radar targets. Many have been iceberg, etc.
measured and found to be 20 to 30 miles long and 10
to 35 metres high. The longest on record was 90 Probable indication of the proximity of an iceberg.
miles long and 35 metres high, seen in 1927. 1. Possible detection by radar. It should be borne
in mind that sub-refraction usually exists in the
Diminution of icebergs vicinity of icebergs. Icebergs may have smooth
Icebergs becomes smaller in size due to the sloping sides making them poor radar targets.
following reasons:
188 189
[22 - ICE AT SEA] [22 - ICE AT SEA]
The low profile growler* is the poorest form of In case the length of an iceberg and its height fall
ice target for radar - detection range not more 11110 different categories, the larger of the two classes
than 4 M. 1:.; used. For example, if the length was 70 metres and
2. Thundering noises as growlers calve from tic,ght was 1O metres, the iceberg should be classed
icebergs. ; ,s a medium berg.
3. Ice-blink (whitish glare on low clouds near
horizon). Some ice terms
4. Presence of smaller pieces of ice which may Brash-Ice: Small pieces of floating ice, (each less
have calved from the iceberg. The iceberg than 2 min length), broken off from larger pieces.
would probably be to windward. Fast-Ice: A large ice-field which remains stationary,
5. Noise of sea breaking over edge of the being stuck to the shore, rock, shoals or other
iceberg. obstruction.
6. A sudden drop of wind speed accompanied by Field-Ice: or Ice-field is a large area of floating ice,
a severe drop of air temperature. These are whose boundaries are not visible even from the
caused when the vessel comes into the lee of masthead. The floes in an ice-field can be of any size.
an iceberg. Floe: Or ice-floe Is the name given to each single
Echoes of the ship's whistle from an iceberg or a piece of floating sea-ice regardless of its size. Small
drop of sea temperature are not considered reliable floes may be as small as ten metres long, while a
indications. huge floe may be a few miles across (see also, ice-
cake).
Classification of Icebergs Hummock: An elevated part or ridge formed on a floe
Icebergs have been classified by the International due to pressure. When a drifting ice-field comes
Ice Patrol as follows: across a small obstruction, the rest of the ice-field
Height above Length in metres continues to drift but the obstructed part experiences
SL in metres the enormous pressure of the ice from behind and this
Growler Under 1 Under 6 results in the formation of vertical ridges or
1 to 6 6 to 15 hummocks.
6 to 15 15 to 60 Iceberg: A large mass of floating ice, having a height
15 to 45 60 to 120 of at least 5 metres above sea level. It could be of
La 45 to 80 120 to 215 glacier or ice-shelf origin.
Very large berg Over 80 Over 215 Ice-blink: A whitish glare on low clouds near the
horizon caused by reflection of light from a distant
* Description of growler is given under "Classification of iceberg or ice-field.
icebergs", at the bottom of this page.
190 191
[22 - ICE AT SEA] [22 - ICE AT SEA]
Ice-cake: The name given to a piece of floating sea- .1 In the Southern Hemisphere, roughly the
ice, which is less than 10 metres in length (see also parallel of 50°S, except in longitude 20°W,
brash-ice) where it is about 40°S. (Cape Horn, Tasmania
Ice-edge: The boundaries, of an ice-field, beyond and New Zealand are clear of the ice limits).
which open sea exists.
Ice-limit: The estimated position of the ice-edge -oOo-
during any given month or period, based on past
observations.
Land-Ice: Ice of land origin - formed either on land on
attached to land.
Pack-Ice: Or drift-ice means an area of any kind of
sea-ice except fast-ice.
Pancake-Ice: Circular pieces, of newly formed ice,
having diameter's between 0.3 and 3 m. The edges of
the pieces may be raised due to collision with
adjacent pieces.
Rotten Ice: Pieces of ice in the final state of melting,
whereby they appear riddled with holes.
Sludge or Slush: The name given to a grey, gummy
appearance of the sea owing to the presence of
freshly formed ice-crystals on the surface.
Approximate ice-limits
The approximate ice-limits are shown on the
. charts in the chapter titled "Ocean currents". After
studying the map, the following thumb rule, for
academic purposes only, may be convenient to
remember:
1. Off the coast of Newfoundland, the easterly
limit is 40°W and the southerly limit is 40°N.
2. In the North Pacific, a line drawn from the NE
tip of Japan, passing just north of the Aleutian
Islands, to approximately 60°N 160°W.
193
192
[23 - THE INTERNATIONAL ICE PATROL]
[23 - THE INTERNATIONAL ICE PATROL]
194
195
[23 - THE INTERNA T/ONAL ICE PATROL]
[23 - THE INTERNATIONAL ICE PA TROLJ
Necessity
The cold Labrador Current carries some icebergs cl"i ir and seas were calm, the loss of life was
south to the vicinity of the Grand Banks and into the ,mmrnous - more than 1,500 of the 2,224 passenge~s
great circle shipping lanes between Europe and the ,md crew perished. The TITANIC, brand new flagship
major ports of the East Coast of the US and Canada. of the White Star Line, was the largest passenger
In this area the Labrador Current meets the warm llnor of its time displacing 66,000 tons and capable of
Gulf Stream and the temperature differences between Iustained speed in excess of 22 knots: The vessel
the two water masses of up to 20°c, produces dense hnd been built with the latest safety design, featuring
fog. The combination of icebergs, fog, severe storms, trnnsverse subdivision and such innovations as
fishing vessels and busy transatlantic shipping lanes rn itornatically closing watertight doors. It is ironic that
makes this area most dangerous. p11bl1city regarding these features had given 1t the
While traversing this area, ships try to make their roputation of being unsinkable.
voyage as short and as economical as possible.
Therefore, ships in the vicinity of the "limit of all known Objective .
ice" (abbreviated to LAKI) normally will pass just to The objective of the International Ice Patrol (IIP) 1s
the south of this boundary. to monitor the extent of the iceberg danger near the
For vessels crossing the North Atlantic, the farther c;rand Banks of Newfoundland and provide LAKI
south the ice limits are, the farther the ship must (limits of all known ice) to the maritime community.
travel to avoid the icebergs. For example, the
Area of coverage
difference between a route that cuts through the
iceberg area and one that avoids it can be as great as The area of coverage the Ice Patrol is clearly
340 nautical miles for a vessel going from northern defined in the Appendix to chapter V of SOLAS 7 4, as
Europe to New York. At 14 knots, this would add 24 ;unended in 2000, and does not extend North of 48°N
hours to the voyage. 111 the North Atlantic Ocean. The total area of
A vessel passing through Ice Patrol's published ice coverage is about 500,000 square nautical miles.
limit, runs the risk of a collision with an iceberg. This Contributors
fact was grimly brought to light with the sinking of the
· In recent years, the cost share has been based on
R.M.S. TITANIC in 1912, after it struck an iceberg.
nach participating nation's percentage of_ the t~tal
R.M.S. Titanic cargo tonnage transiting the patrol area during the ice
On her maiden voyage from Southampton to New ~eason. As of 1998 the governments contributing to
York, the R.M.S. TITANIC collided with an iceberg the Ice Patrol included Belgium, Canada, Denmark,
just south of the tail of the Grand Banks and sank Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Italy, Japan,
within two-and-a-half hours. Although the night was Netherlands, Norway, Panama, Poland, Spain,
Sweden, UK and the USA (17 in all).
196
197
(23 - THE INTERNATIONAL ICE PATROL] [23 - THE INTERNATIONAL ICE PATROL]
Annual budget
1111los While using Forward Looking Airborne Radar
IIP's annual budget averages around US $3.5 (I I AR) and Side Looking Airborne Radar (SLAR), IIP
million (as in 1998).
fliqt1ts allow for 200% coverage of the interior portion
Headquarters of the IIP ol a standard parallel track search pattern. Typically, it
tnkes about four flight days to cover LAKI.
The United States Coast Guard (USCG) has been
entrusted with the responsibility of the IIP service. Source of ice information
Hence the headquarters of the IIP is at the Coast Information concerning ice conditions is collected
Gu_ard Research and Development Centre, Avery pr unarily from air surveillance flights and ships
Point, Groton, Connecticut, U.S.A. oµerating in or passing through the ice area. Ships
Ice reconnaissance unit me requested to report the position and time of all ice
H1ghted and make sea surface temperature and
During the ice season, an ice reconnaissance
weather reports to the IIP Operations Centre in
d~tachment (~ECDET), usually comprising of 11
<~roton, Connecticut, every 6 hours when in the
aircrew and 4 ice observers, is deployed at St. John's,
v1c1nity of the Grand Banks.
Newfoundland so as be closer to the ice area.
Data processing
The period of ice patrol
All the iceberg data is fed into a computer model
As per the Appendix to chapter V of SOLAS 74 as .it the IIP Operations Centre along with ocean current
amended in 2000, the ice season is from
st
th15 ;md wind data. Using this information, the model
February to 1 July each year. The Grand Banks are predicts the drift of the icebergs.
normally free of icebergs from early August to end
January.
Predictions
Aircraft reconnaissance Every 12 hours, the predicted iceberg locations
are used to estimate the limit of all known ice (LAKI).
A fixed wing Coast Guard aircraft conducts the fhis limit, along with a few of the more critical
primary reconnaissance work for the Ice Patrol on the
predicted iceberg locations, is broadcast as an "Ice
average of five days every other week during the ice Bulletin" from radio stations around the U.S., Canada,
season. The Hercules HC-130 aircraft has been the lurope and over the World Wide Web. This is for the
mainstay of the IIP flights for the past 20 years.
benefit of all vessels transiting the North Atlantic. In
A normal reconnais~ance flight is about 1700 M addition to the Ice Bulletin, a radio facsimile chart of
long, lasts about 7 hours and covers an area of about the area, depicting the limits of all known ice, is also
30,000 square nautical miles. The flights are at about broadcast t:-,vice daily.
2000m height with a track spacing of 30 nautical
198 199
[23 - THE INTERNATIONAL ICE PATROL]
[23 - THE INTERNATIONAL ICE PATROL]
-oOo-
200
201
[24 - AIR-MASSES AND FRONTS] [24 - AIR-MASSES AND FRONTS]
202 203
~
Classification of air-masses
Based on their properties, air-masses are divided VERTICAL SECTION THROUGH A FRONT
into four main classes: (VERTICAL SCALE EXAGGERATED>
C
0
- -
Air-masses o L------~,&~0:--:-t:-O"",-~ji~);;;O~O-;;to~801'01MMtil"LEEss=--.::--
~
Polar (cold)
* i
1 100 I
1MILES1
.
+ +
Polar Polar Tropical Tropical
Continental Maritime
(cold & d cold & moist
Continental
warm & d )
Maritime
warm & moist
FRONTAL ZONE
·- - - - -- - --
ll.J
Front '2
COLD AIRMASS 8
The boundary between two adjacent air masses is
well defined by their different characteristics and is
oL.:....~-----i-:-::----~
-600 00~---:J~o;•c;:-;E;L~S;,u~s--
-;ioo
204 205
[24 - AIR-MASSES AND FRONTS]
[24 - AIR-MASSES AND FRONTS]
WARM COLD
FRONT FRONT
206
207
0
[25 -FRONTAL DEPRESSIONS]
[25 -FRONTAL DEPRESSIONS]
CHAPTER 25 ,..
:::c ,.. .. '4 0
::c ...S?
N
•
J
N N N
z ·o z
l it i
N
5! 5!
5! I- S?
FRONT AL DEPRESSIONS t l I
! I
! it
A frontal depression is a low pressure area formed
at the boundary between two different air-masses.
{
t
Frontal depressions occur in middle or high latitudes. J \
I
Quite often, a series of them follow, one after another,
and they are referred to as a family of frontal
111.111
t ! I~ t
depressions.
Frontogenesis
I cc
1111111
z ::r
-·-
IX IX
t
I
"'1"':z
0
.J. ~
The formation of a frontal depression is called
frontogenesis. The warm air should be travelling ~
N
LL ! 3 ~ (
faster than the cold air, or they should be travelling in :::c
z
I
opposite directions. The following description is for
the northern hemisphere. J t
I
COLD AIR COLD AIR !
►
---------------------- Or ◄
---------------------- i t \
iI
111
Ill Ill
UI
► ► + C
:,'E. 'S
◄
l ~ cq•
JIt
.%
The frontal depression begins as a small bulge of ...e.... 0
S? u 3t
a: ,..
~
0
0
N
~
warm air in the cold air (see following figures 1 and 2).
The bulge increases in size and the isobars in the
I I
-t l en
en CII
C C
111
208
209
FIG4
1028
....0I\J ,/
A
1028
COLD AIRMASS
·-·-·-•-· ·-·-·-·-·-·-·-·-·
WARM Al RMAS S
1024
X
- -
FIG 5
/- ...,----------- -- ,---....
- ~
.-
~ --\
111H
~ ~ y
!-..
I
fiNV1L SHAPEO-<:b
t,_' \, _) lr
6
f\\_f
I
('-
\
'
/
I I I
Y-J ~ C
~THI
r/2 ~
........I\J COLO
\J C WARM
(, COLD
Kl
>
t.i
i'r-ii
AIR AIR
3 MASS MASS ~ 3
0 Cu
C
cu
I
I II I
I
I i
ii
.!!J
I I I I I
IPITATION
1 d_'t 1
E f 1'1
: l I
200 0 0 200 4 800
DISTANCE IN MILES I 60TOl20 I DISTANCE FROM FRONT IN MILES
~MILES-f
VERTICAL CROSS SECTION THROUGH POINTS ABCOE OF FIGURE 4
VERTICAL SCALE EXAGGERATED
[25 -FRONTAL DEPRESSIONS] ' [25-FRONTAL DEPRESSIONS]
a front passes over a place, the wind will suddenly ;::, 1ii
::::,
veer in the NH (back in the SH) by about 90°. ... g
'O
The entire system will move in the same direction Oc:
0 ·-
0.. ~
and at approximately the same speed as the warm
...
air. Figure 5 shows a cross-sectional view along
ABCDE as seen from position X in figure 4.
Note: The accompanying figures and explanations
-
0
u
Q)
CllO 'E ;z...
0
given herein are all for the NH. In the SH, the cold air e ca
1ii
>,
"O
aJ
::,
-oo
.....
~
C:
0 (I) 01ij
will be south of the warm air, the 'V' of the bulge will u u5 0·-
0.. E
be towards south and the winds blowing spirally
inwards will be clockwise. ~
E
Since the prevailing winds in these latitudes are
the Westerlies, frontal depressions move from west to
C:
0
i
'a
-0
Q)
::::,
east in both hemispheres. TS "O 0)
(1)
... 0
1/)
a. o .E
0 '-
,
I
Cl. 1ii Cl. 0 i
Weather sequence
On the passage of a frontal depression over a
stationary observer situated along ABCDE in figures 4 >,
and 5 of this chapter, a warm front, followed by the 1/) ~ i
1- a:s Q)
I iij Q)
warm sector and then by a cold front will be IIJ. U) ci5
experienced. The weattter sequence is summarised in
the following page, iri a tabular form for easy
reference. The student is advised to read each
horizontal line fully (i.e., pressure at A, then at B, C, D
& E respectively) and consult figures 4 & 5 of this
chapter. The weather sequence is thus so simple that
there is nothing to be learned by heart.
212 213
[25 -FRONTAL DEPRESSIONS] [25 -FRONTAL DEPRESSIONS]
0
..J formation of occlusions.
(,)
► a
... ffi g• Occlusions: The cold air, in front of and behind the
N >u ◄
2 warm sector of a frontal depression, soon manages to
undercut the warm air and lift it completely above sea
~
...
!2 level. The depression is then said to be occluded. The
1hree stages of the decay of a frontal depression
(formation of an occlusion) as seen on a weather map
are shown in figures 6, 7 & 8 of this chapter.
On weather maps, an occlusion is indicated by a
purple line or by alternate red and blue dashes.
On facsimile charts, the symbols shown on the next
page are used.
215
214
[25 -FRONTAL DEPRESSIONS] ~6-0CEANCURRENTS]
1. Drift:
Drift is the direct effect of wind blowing over long
stretches of ocean for long periods. The frictional
effect of the wind, on the sea surface, causes the sea-
surface to move. However, Coriolis force deflects the
-oOo- drift current to the right in the northern hemisphere
(left in the southern hemisphere) by about 30° to 45°.
216
217
[26-0CEANCURRENTS] [26-0CEANCURRENTS]
218 219
[26 -OCEAN CURRENTS] [26 -OCEAN CURRENTS]
.
,
PACIFIC Ot[A.fl
CU1'RlKTS
~OUlH "'Tl 4Nit(. ~C[ll.llil
!i[PARATf'LY
\ ~
- -
SOUTHlRN OC[A.ff tUllR(Nl6
. -.
----- -- --
_...
220
221
----------------~
PACIFIC OCEAN
CUR'lENTS SHOWN
SEPARATELY
/
~1 ~ INDIAN OCEAN
~
[26-0CEAN CURRENTS] I.
{26-0CEANCURRENTS]
-~
u
224 225
[26 -OCEAN CURRENTS] [26-0CEAN CURRENTS]
A gradient current, therefore, flows eastwards (latitude 70°N) are not ice-bo~nd ~~~ Labrador
along the surface through the Strait of. Gibraltar, and current and Norwegian current in adJ0Irnng chart).
on entering the Mediterranean, it is deflected to its J Callao (latitude about 12°S), in Peru, is a~out 6°~
right by Coriolis force and flows along the north. coast ' cooler than Salvador (similar latitude) in Brazil
of Africa. Though it reaches a rate of 2 to 3 knots in (see Humboldt current and Brazilian current in
the SW part of the Sea, the current is generally weak adjoining chart).
and hugs the coast forming a complete anticlockwise
cycle (see adjoining chart). -o0o-
The water of the Mediterranean Sea is more saline
and hence denser (because of the high rate of
evaporation) than the water of the Atlantic and also of
the Black sea. It therefore flows as a sub-surface
gradient current, westwards through the Strait of
Gibraltar.
In the Black Sea, the circulation is generally
anticlockwise. The denser Mediterranean water flows
in through the Dardanells and Bosporus as a sub-
surface gradient current while the .surface current
flows continuously from the Black Sea into the
Mediterranean Sea.
226 227
[27 - THUNDERSTORMS] [27 - THUNDERSTORMS]
228 229
[27 - THUNDERSTORMS}
[27 - THUNDERSTORMS]
230
231
llllllr" . ....
[27 - THUNDERSTORMS} [28-MORE LOCAL WINDS]
2. Elephanta
Towards the end of the SW Monsoon (late MORE LOCAL WINDS
September), frequent thunderstorms are experienced
from ~ or from E, between Mumbai and Kanya
Kuman. These thunderstorms are called Elephantas 1. Tornado and waterspout
and are regarded by the local people as an indication A tornado is a violent whirlwind of the cyclonic
of the end of the SW Monsoon. type - anticlockwise in the NH and clockwise in the
SH. Its axis is nearly vertical, extending from the
-oOo- could-base downward and often reaching ground
level. Its width is anything between 50 and 500
metres but the wind is often of hurricane force at the
centre - up to 200 knots have been recorded in very
severe cases. It generally travels at a speed of about
10 to 30 knots. It may last from a few minutes to a few
days (most of them last a few hours), covering a track
between a few hundred metres and a few hundred
miles.
The hurricane force winds, of such a small
diameter, cause an intense upward current at the
centre, capable of lifting heavy objects into the air,
uprooting trees, destroying buildings, etc. Buildings
disintegrate in a few seconds with explosive sounds,
when a tornado passes over them. The destruction is
two fold - one due to the tornado itself and the other
due to the falling down of lifted objects and debris.
Tornadoes are associated with isolated Cb clouds.
The conditions favourable for the formation of a
tornado are similar to those for a thunderstorm - great
instability, high humidity and convergence at low
levels. The precise reasons for their formation is still
not known to man.
232 233
[28 -MORE LOCAL WINDS} ~8-MORELOCALWINDS]
234 235
.
[28 -MORE LOCAL WINDS] [29-0PTICAL PHENOMENA]
9. Scirocco CHAPTER29
. Is any southerly wind in the Mediterranean Sea.
Since such a wind originates from the desert of North
Africa, it is a dry warm wind. It may blow across the
Mediterranean Sea and reach the north coast as a
OPTICAL PHENOMENA
wa~m. moi~t wind where the local people dislike it
owin_g to its energy-sapping humidity and its fog
forming nature. 1. Corona
Corona is the name given to a series of coloured
10.Shamal rings, seen though thin lenticular douds such as Ac,
Is any NW wind in the Persian Gulf and the Gulf of Sc or St, surrounding the Sun or Moon. The space
Oman. It is a warm, dusty, dry wind from the deserts next to the Sun or Moon is bluish white and this is
of Arabia. It may change direction due to the trend of called the 'Aureole'. The outer circumference of the
land features and can blow from W or even SW. No aureole has a brownish red ring around it. In most
indication is given by barometric pressure, of the cases, only the aureole is seen but a complete corona
approach of a Shamal, though the wind force in winter has a set of coloured rings surrounding the aureole -
can reach Beaufort force 8 or 9 sometimes violet on the innerside and red on the outer side, in
accompanied by rainsqualls, thunder and lightning. the order violet, indigo, blue, green, yellow, orange
and red (VIBGYOR).
11. Southerly buster The series of colours may be repeated more than
Is the name given to the passage of a sharp cold once but the colours are not usually very clear. The
f~o~t over south or south-eastern Australia. It is quite angular radius is generally small (less than 10°). The
s1m1lar to the Pampero of South America. It blows corona is produced by diffraction of light by water
mainly between October and March. droplets. Pure colours mean that the droplets are of
uniform size. The smaller the droplets, the larger the
12.Sumatra radius of the corona and vice-versa.
Is a t_hunderstorm that usually occurs at night over
the Strait of Malacca, from a direction between SW 2. Halo
and NW, most frequently between April and Halo is the name given to a luminous ring, of 22°
November: A sudden drop of temperature, radius, seen around the Sun or Moon through Ci or
accompanied by thunder, lightning and torrential rain Cs clouds. The space inside the halo is less bright
from Cb clouds are characteristic of a Sumatra. than outside it. The halo usually appears white but if
properly developed, it will have the seven colours
-oOo-
236 237
1W
~9-0PTICALPHENOMENA] ~9-0PTICALPHENOMENAJ
VIBGYOR, with red on the inside and violet on the bow and the larger and fainter one, the secondary
outside. bow. The secondary bow is only about one-tenth the
. A halo is produced by refraction of light through intensity of the primary bow. The colours of the
ice crystals. Ice crystals of clouds are usually secondary are in reverse order (red inside, violet
hexagonal in shape and hence have angles of 120° outside).
each, resulting in a halo of 22° radius (proof of this Rainbows are the result of total internal reflection
can be easily derived). and dispersion of light through raindrops. The colours
. Sometimes a halo of 46° radius may be seen. This of solar rainbows are clear whereas those of lunar
1s caused by refraction of light by the faces of two rainbows are faint and not separately discernable to
different hexagonal prisms being at right angles to the human eye. Lunar rainbows hence appear white.
each other. Primary bows cannot be seen if the altitude of the
Sun/Moon is over 42° whereas secondary bow cannot
Note: The differences between a halo and a corona form if the altitude is more than 54 °.
may be summarised as follows:
4. St. Elmo's fire
HALO CORONA St. Elmo's fire is a fairly continuous, luminous,
Bri htness Darker inside Bri hter inside electrical discharge of weak or moderate intensity in
Radius 22° or 46° Less than 10° the atmosphere, emanating from elevated objects at
Colours - From outside From inside the earth's surface (lightning conductors, wind-vanes,
VIBGYOR inwards outwards masts of ships, etc.) or from aircraft's in flight (wing-
Cause Refraction through Diffraction by tips, propellers, etc).
ice-crystals droplets of St. Elmo's fire is usually blue or green in colour,
water. sometimes white or violet and is accompanied by a
crackling sound. It occurs when the electrical field in
3. Rainbow the vicinity of the glowing object becomes very strong,
A rainbow is a bright, multi-coloured band about as when a Cb cloud is overhead. St. Elmo's fire is
0
1~ in width, in the shape of an arc, seen by observer also termed Corposant (ghost-like) because it was
with his back to the Sun or Moon. The external radius considered supernatural, in the old days.
of this is about 42°. Its seven colours, VIBGYOR
have violet on the inside and red on the outside. ' 5. Mirage
Sometimes a second and larger rainbow is also Mirage is the name given to an optical illusion
seen about 3° broad and about 54° external radius. resulting from a phenomenon catled "Total internal
The smaller and brighter one is called the primary reflection". When a ray of light passes from one
238 239
[29-0PTICAL PHENOMENA]
[29-0PTICALPHENOMENA]
- - - -- COl.DAJR 0
-- -- -
WARM SURFACE
Ill
- - -- w
CJ
"'~
EYE ...
0
w
-,
WARMAIR ID
0
COLD SURFACE
SUPERIOR MIRAGE
242 243
[30 - FACSIMILE RECORDER] [30 - FACSIMILE RECORDER]
245
244
- [30 - FACSIMILE RECORDER]
f
[31 - ROUTEING OF SHIPS]
9
Facsimile coverage
Most of the oceans of the world are not yet CHAPTER 31
covered by facsimile transmissions. However, the
situation is improving. The North Atlantic Ocean, the
North Pacific Ocean and European Waters are well ROUTEING OF SHIPS
covered. Many stations in other areas send out only
weather analysis maps for their limited areas of 1 IMO reference: The International Convention for
coverage. the Safety of Life at Sea 1974 (SOLAS 74), as
Though the facsimile recorder is a boon to the amended in 2000, includes 'Ships' routeing' in its
shipmaster, a sound knowledge of the International Regulation 10.
Analysis Code, the appreciation of a weather map
and ability to make reasonable predictions based on 2 Definition: Routeing is the art of achieving a safe,
the same, are essential. The fact that the facsimile economic passage across an ocean, taking into
recorder went out of order should not make a consideration all available meteorological and
navigator helpless on an ocean passage. He should oceanographical factors.
pull out a pencil and plot the whole weather map by
decoding the bulletin transmitted in the International 3. Advantages
Analysis Code and make his own predictions. Even if The following advantages of routeing add up to
it is tedious, it is still worth the trouble as the greater safety and more economy in ship operation:
shipowner, crew and passengers are all relaying on 3.1. Less chances of heavy weather damage.
his competency and efficiency. 3.2. Less chances of shift of cargo.
3.3. More comfort for people on board.
-000- 3.4. Faster passage resulting in time and fuel
savings.
4. Influencing factors
The factors to consider while routeing are:
4.1. Distance: The shortest distance (the great
circle track) is not necessarily the best route
to follow because of other factors.
Unnecessary deviation from the shortest
route is, however, to be avoided.
4.2. Ocean currents: Adverse currents mean
more passage time. A route covering greater
246 247
[31 - ROUTEING OF SHIPS]
• [31 - ROUTEING OF SHIPS]
9
distance but having a following currents may density e.g., the English Channel, Dover
result in a quicker passage. Strait, Malacca Strait, etc.
4.3. Wind and waves: Strong adverse winds Where the deviation is not too much, it
result in high head seas that cause the would be preferable to avoid the fog area.
vessel's speed to drop considerably. This However, as fog prediction is not available on
drop in speed may be due to: facsimile charts, the Master cannot decide
4.3.1. Wave resistance to ship's progress. too much in advance.
4.3.2. Less propelling power - the axis of the 4.6. Very low temperatures: Where a great circle
propeller keeps shifting out of the track passes through very high latitudes, the
horizontal, due to pitching, and vessel is likely to experience very low
sometimes the propeller even comes atmospheric temperatures which should,
out of the water. when practicable, be avoided. Some of the
4.3.3. Wind resistance caused by hull, super- problems associated with extremely cold
structure, etc. weather are:
4.3.4. Slamming (pounding) which not only 4.6.1. Fresh water, sanitary water and deck
resists the vessel's progress but also service water tend to freeze in the pipes,
causes severe structural stresses. preventing flow of water through them,
4.3.5. Voluntary reduction of engine RPM, by sometimes bursting them.
the Master, to reduce slamming. 4.6.2. Ice accretion on deck makes it very
4.4. Ice at sea: The vessel would, as far as dangerous for crew to go about.
possible, have to keep out of pack-ice and 4.6.3. Severe ice-accretion can be due to
iceberg-infested waters. If she has to pass supercooled water particles in persistent
through such areas, the risk ,s great and fog, freezing rain, snow and spray.
speed would have to be considerably Steam hoses, sledge-hammers, and
reduced. A detour, where possible. would shovels have often been tried out, to rid
increase the distance but would also increase the decks of ice, but in vain.
safety and allow full speed. 4.6.4. In very cold, gale force winds, the spray
4.5. Fog: is the Master's greatest threat at sea freezes during transit and strikes any
because, in fog, he has not only to combat objects in its path as solid ice, shattering
natural dangers but also rely on the port-hole glasses, denting plates and
judgement and discretion of the Masters of injuring human beings.
other vessels as well. The worst situation is 4.6.5. Persistent snow-fall can reduce visibility,
fog, in confined waters, with high traffic making speed reduction necessary.
248 249
9
[31-ROUTEING OF SHIPS]
[31 - ROUTEING OF SHIPS]
250
251
[31-ROUTEING OF SHIPS]
•
[31 - ROUTEING OF SHIPS]
0
z
~
~
Cl •
w
w
a.
(I)
13
12
11
"' "'
'~ ~
\ ~
'''
' 'lo
.
improving steadily. (I)
0..
:i:
"' 10 \ '' ''
9. Ship's performance curves
It has been established that, other tharJ ocean
9 \ \
\
' \
\
currents, waves are the biggest factors that cause a 8 \.
.
reduction of a vessel's speed. The waves can be sea, \
swell or a combination of both. It is therefore 7 \ I\
252
253
"""'
[31 - ROUTEING OF SHIPS]
[31 - ROUTEING OF SHIPS]
10. Weather routeing by shipmaster route to follow, subject to daily amendments based on
The shortest possible track is first drawn on a fresh information received.
gnomonic chart or polar stereographic chart of that
ocean. This track is then transferred to a transparent, 24-hour surface prognosis chart
plastic sheet placed over the 24-hour prognostic
(For worked example)
facsimile wave chart. The possession of a facsimile
recorder on board is a necessity for weather routeing.
Radial lines, 10° apart, are then drawn from the
starting position, on either side of the shortest track
(see worked example).
Each such radial is a likely course to steer. On
each of these likely courses, the relative bearing
(head, following or beam) and wave height Is read off
from the 24 hour prognostic wave chart. The
performance curves are consulted and the ship's
likely position at the end of 24 hours run on each
likely course i~ plotted. To each such likely position,
the set and drift of current for the 24-hour period
(taken from monthly current charts) is applied and
series of estimate positions are obtained. A smooth
line, curved as necessary, drawn through all these
estimated positions, is called locus 1 (see worked
example).
The transparent plastic sheet is then placed over
the 48-hour prognostic wave chart and 10° radial lines
are drawn again at each estimated position on locus
1. Those radial lines that now go goo far off, from the
shortest possible track, are left out and locus 2 is 11. Worked example
drawn in. lf more prognostic wave charts are available The following calculations were made to arrive at
more locii are drawn. points A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H & I, which form locus 1,
A line drawn through the convex parts of _each and are shown here for illustrative purposes. For the
locus (viewed from the destination) Is the optimum sake of clarity, a "no current" situation has been
assumed.
254 255
. ,
[31 - ROUTEING OF SHIPS] [31 - ROUTEING OF SHIPS]
1h
70 nil 16.0 4.4
85 2½8 15.1 5.6
55 3½8 14.4 3.9
55 4½H 11.6 4.7
- ...
20 S½H 9.5 ~ i
285 20.7 !
I
256 257
[31 - ROUTEING OF SHIPS] [31 - ROUTEING OF SHIPS]
7. 70 Nil 16.0 4.4 experts and experienced Master Mariners and give
90 2½8 15.1 6.0 routeing instructions radio on a request from a ship.
60 3½H 13.2 4.5 Though the routeing procedure is the same as that
55 4½H 11.6 4.7 described earlier, the meteorologist, aided by a
275 19.6
42 +-- 5½H 9.5
computer, has a better idea of the reliability of the
+-- +-- 4.4
317 24.0 prognosis. After studying various facsimile charts
8. 75 nil 16.0 4.7 (analysis and prognosis) such as charts showing
100 2½H 14.6 6.8 isobars of 100, 200, 300, 500, 700 & 850 mb values,
70 3½H 13.2 5.3 thickness charts, change of pressure charts,
245 +-- 4½H +-- 11.6 16.8
84 temperature lapse rate charts, infra-red photographs
+-- 7.2
329 24.0 of clouds from satellites and sea-temperature charts,
9. 80 nil 16.0 5.0 the meteorologist has a good idea of what possible
120 2½H 14.6 8.2 deviation of the weather may occur from the
200 13.2 prognosis. The experienced Master Mariners are
143 ~3½H ~ 13.2 ~ 10.8
343 consulted and routeing instructions are given to the
24.0
*F =Following, H =Head, B =Beam. ship by terrestrial or space radio communications,
amended as necessary, daily.
It is important to note that the route should be Routeing of "selected ships" of the Voluntary
selected only after as many locii as possible have Observing Fleet is easier and more economic as the
been drawn in. It can sometimes happen that the regular weather reports sent by the ship, containing
route that appears most favourable from the starting its position, course and speed, transmitted free of cost
poi_~t to locus 1, may not be the best one denoted by by the ship, are available to the shore-based routeing
loc11 2, 3, 4, 5 etc. as illustrated in the figure below. organisations.
258 259
[31 - ROUTEING OF SHIPS] [31 - ROUTEING OF SHIPS]
account in the performance curves of the man's deep study of the subject. However, it
ship. It is not practical to expect ships to be is very rarely entirely wrong.
able to maintain similar trim from voyage to 14.5. On eastbound voyages on the North Atlantic
voyage. & North Pacific, the general movement of
13.3. Methods of estimating wave heights at sea wind is towards east and the current also
depend on Theobservafiona1capac1ty of sets easterly. Hence the speed of a ship is
individual officers under various patterns of increased automatically when it follows the
ship behaviour (rolling, pitching, etc.) and great circle track. Hence weather routeing is
hence performance curves made, using generally more effective on westbound
them, are not as accurate as we would like voyages than on eastbound voyages, in
them to be. these areas.
13.4. Data of speed made good under various
conditions o f waves"'are not always 15. Weather routeing advisable
accurately available when making the In spite of the Imitations of weather routeing listed
performance curves. above, it is till strongly recommended as weather
routed ships are averaging quicker crossings with less
14. Other inaccuracies may result from weather damage to ship and cargo, than others.
Wave "-Fv'""-~
14.1. ,.-..._.... oeriods also affect speer.l of sh,p, as Weather routeing is more for economic than for
different from wave heights. These cannot safety reasons. The wind force, in the worst part of a
as yet be predicted and are hence not taken temperate latitude depression, rarely exceeds 9 or 10
into account. of the Beaufort scale (less than 55 knots). In rare
142. The prognosis wave charts are mainly for cases, if it does exceed force 10, that area is very
sea waves. Some allowance for swell is small and can easily be avoided by watching weather
included but precise swell predict1onis still reports and taking suitable early action. An average
not available. ship, well maintained and properly loaded, should be
14.3. During the period covered by the prognosis able to weather a temperature latitude depression
wave chart, the ~y__e R.-aJt~ns _are well, without undue fear of disaster. Speed however,
considered ~ant. This is not strictly will be reduced by wave action directly or indirectly by
correct. The analysis condition would voluntary reduction of engine RPM by the Master, to
gradually change to the prognostic condition relieve excessive structural stresses.
(assuming that the prognosis is right).
14.4. Owing to the vagaries of weather, the 16. Master's decision
prognosis is not always right in spite of At all times, the Master retains full command of the
ship and may disregard the advice of shore-based
260 261
(31 - ROUTEING OF SHIPS]
-oOo-
262 i
J
:
'