NAPOLEON’S FOREIGN POLICY

The Treaty of Amiens(1802)- Britain remained the only power fighting against France.
The war was causing great distress due to trading difficulties. Addington replaced Pitt as
Prime Minister of Britain and negotiations for peace began. The terms were as follows:
1. Both countries to stop rearmament.
2. Britain to restore the cape to the Dutch and Malta to the knights of Saint John.
3. Britain to retain Ceylon and Trinidad and restore captured French colonies.
4. France to evacuate Rome and Southern Italy and to restore Egypt to Turkey.
5. Britain recognized the boundaries of the French republic as they existed in 1802.

The treaty was a breathing space for France against the 2nd Coalition of Britain, Russia,
Turkey, Austria, Portugal and Naples. However, Britain did not surrender Malta and
France did not evacuate Southern Italy. Both countries began to rearm.

The formation of the 3rd Coalition- Britain succeeded in forming the coalition of Britain,
Austria and Russia. The main purpose was to drive the French back to their original
boundaries out of German states, Italy and Belgium. The causes of the renewal of war
were as follows:
1. British suspicions of French activities in Egypt-The French continued to send
spies in Egypt. Britain was alarmed by these developments and refused to
evacuate Malta.
2. Napoleon’s determination to defeat Britain- Napoleon seized Hanover in North
Germany, a state belonging to the British crown. He declared the whole
European coastline from the Baltic round the Mediterranean closed to British
trade. A great military camp of 180 000 was set up near the coast of Bologne and
a huge fleet of flat bottomed boats was prepared for an invasion of Britain.
(i) The Battle of the Trafalgar (1803)- The French were assisted by Spain against
the 2nd Coalition because the British had seized Spanish treasure ships. The
French navy attempted to lower the British navy in the West Indies. What
followed next was heavy fighting between France and Britain, Russia and
Austria which became the 3rd Coalition. In the Atlantic at the Battle of
Trafalgar at the Cape of Trafalgar a joint French and Spanish navy under the
French Admiral Villeneuve was crushed by a powerful British navy under
Admiral Nelson. The French and Spanish ships numbered about 33 as
compared to 27 ships of the British. The importance of the Battle of Trafalgar
was that the victory of Britain saved her from the French invasion, Britain
continued to dominate the other powers in naval superiority and the French
initiative to defeat Britain was not achieved.

3. Russian suspicion on French ambitions in the Middle East and Turkey

4. Austrian desire to regain lost territory in Italy- Austria wanted to regain their
controlling position in Italy and wipe out defeats of 1796 and 1800 by France.

The Battle of Ulm and Austerlitz (1805)- On December 2 Napoleon defeated a

combination of Austrian and Russian armies at Austerlitz. At the end of the battle the
French had lost 9000 men out of 73000 men against 27000 Russians and Austrians in an
army of 87000. The rest of the Russian and Austrian forces were demoralized and the 3rd
Coalition collapsed.

The Treaty of Pressburg (1805)- It was agreed that Austria would leave Venetia, Istria,
and Dalmatia to the kingdom of Italy. Austria lost 3000 000 of her foreign population.
Austria also ceded territories along the Adriatic coast, Tyrol and Venice to Napoleon and
Napoleon recognized Bavaria, Wurttemburg and Baden as independent kingdoms.
Austria lost her last foothold in Germany.

Napoleon’s dynastic policy – The Treaty of Pressburg greatly increased Napoleon’s

power in Germany. The Free cities and the purely ecclesiastical states along the Rhine
were handed over to the princes prepared to support him. The rulers of the German states
renounced their allegiance to the Holy Roman Emperor Francis II of Austria. They
formed the German Confederation of the Rhine and pledged to support Napoleon. To
consolidate his power, Napoleon made use of his family by marrying his sisters to Italian
princely families and enthroned his brothers, Joseph Bonaparte made king of Naples and
Louis Bonaparte made king of Holland. Napoleon made himself king of Italy.

The Treaty of Tilsit (July1807)- After the decisive victory over Russia and Prussia at
Friedland in East Prussia (June 1807) the Czar Alexander decides to pursue peace with
Napoleon. The terms of the treaty were: Napoleon would not oppose the Czar’s seizure
of Finland from Sweden and was free to pursue his own policy in the Balkans.
Alexander recognized Napoleon’s control of Europe and promised that if Britain refused
to make peace he would enter Napoleon’s continental system against her. Russia
recognized territorial changes made by Napoleon in Holland, Germany and Italy. Russia
created the Grand Duchy of Warsaw out of Prussian-Polish lands. Prussia was forced to
pay an indemnity, lose territory and accept French army of occupation.

The Continental System (1806-1810)-The economic power of Britain posed a real source
of danger to Napoleon. He therefore aimed at ruining Britain’s overseas trade and
bringing about unemployment, financial chaos and general suffering in Britain that the
people would force the government to make peace. Napoleon issued the Berlin decrees
in November 1806 where he declared a blockade of the British Isles. He forbade any
French allies to trade with Britain or her colonies and announced the immediate
confiscation of all British goods on the continent. The British government replied by
Orders in Council (1807) which declared a blockade of all continental ports accepting
Napoleon’s decrees. In December 1807 Napoleon added to his system by issuing the
Milan decrees while the British government issued further Orders in Council. Between
1807 and 1810 Napoleon made efforts to make his decrees effective. The economic war
between Britain and France continued with increased violence.

The Results of the Continental System- Trade declined and unemployment spread widely
especially in North Germany. Opposition hardened against Napoleon from the European
merchant class. This led to nationalist uprisings against Napoleon. The British traders
smuggled goods into Europe through unprotected sports on the immense coastline for
example, Heligoland, Portugal and Sicily.

The reasons for the failure of the continental system

1. The European coastline from the eastern Mediterranean to the furthest

reaches of the coast was too long. The honest and competent customs
officials and military officers were not always available to apply the
system effectively. There was constant smuggling of British goods.
2. The success of British blockade meant that French trade declined sharply.
It led to the financial ruin of many French ship owners and merchants. In
1807 Marseilles had 330 sea-going vessels but 4 years later there were
only 9 vessels.
3. Napoleon undermined the continental system. By 1809 the system was
working badly that Napoleon decided to issue licenses for trading with
Britain and by 1813 the system had been abandoned.
4. Napoleon lost the support of the bourgeoisie. This group which had
brought Napoleon to power blamed the continental system for the
economic depression of 1810-1811.
5. Neutral shipping suffered greatly from the system as those ships which
failed to obey British regulations were liable to seizure on the high seas by
British warships. If they complied, they were liable to seizure on arrival at
European ports and this led to dissatisfaction from neutral countries such
as the USA who were alienated from Napoleon for this reason.
6. Britain found it easier to implement her orders in council than Napoleon’s
imperial decrees because of her sea power. Britain possessed more ship
owners, sailors and merchants than any other country. Moreover she was
the leading nation in the industrial revolution of the 18th century. The
decrees of the continental system were of no effect to the cheaper and high
quality goods in large quantities in Europe.
7. The nations under the control of France became dissatisfied with the
system as the huge demand of British cheap goods was overwhelming.
Most nations were not yet industrialized and hence heavily relied on
British manufactured goods. On December 31 1810, Czar Alexander
opened Russian ports to neutral shipping and therefore sealed the fate of
the continental system.

The peninsular war (1808)- Portugal revolted against the Continental System because it
disturbed her trade with Britain. French goods were double the price of British goods
which forced Portugal and Russia to smuggle British goods thus trading with Britain.
The French and Spanish troops invaded Portugal in 1808 and the royal family of Portugal
fled to Brazil. Napoleon also decided to gain complete control of Spain and persuaded
Charles IV and his family to attend a conference at Beyonne and bullied the royal family
into resignation. In 1808 Britain intervened in the peninsular war to support the Spanish
peasantry guerrillas which inflicted heavy losses on the French. At Baylon the French
forces of 200 000 men were forced to surrender to Spanish soldiers. This defeat stirred
Napoleon to take command of the French forces himself and he entered Madrid at the end
of 1808 with 200 000 men. A British force under Sir John Moore attacked Napoleon’s
line of communication from the North in order to avert French advance towards Portugal.
Eventually the British army retreated towards Caruna and Moore was killed by Napoleon.
However, British offensive registered a measure of success against the French.

Importance of the peninsular war

1. It brought plain the futility of Napoleon’s position in Europe.

2. Every victory and attempts at complete control of the peninsular seemed
to add to his difficulties and brought in more wars.
3. With regards to the position of the throne of Spain, Napoleon made the
greatest blunder because he failed to realize the strength of Spanish
nationalism and Spanish hatred of foreigners.
4. Napoleon underestimated the strength of the Spanish army which had
encouraged him to control the peninsular.

The Moscow Campaign (1812)- In 1811 Russia broke away from the Continental system
because he could not do without British goods and that Napoleon had married an
Austrian instead of a Russian princess. In 1812, Napoleon crossed the Niemen River
with 610 000 troops and marched into Russia. He recorded initial victories at the Battle
of Borodino but lost 30 000 horses and 50 000men on 07/09/1812. Napoleon entered
Moscow on 14/09/1812 but the city was abandoned and he established his headquarters at
Kremlin. The campaign was a disaster for France because the Russians used the scotched
earth policy and also guerrilla tactics as they retreated. Buildings, crops, animals and
medicines were destroyed and the Czar did not surrender as Napoleon anticipated forcing
him to retreat. The Russians attacked with the army of General Katasov and the guerrilla
bands of the Cossacks. The French fought under the command of Marshal Ney but
success was eluded as soldiers died of severe winter, disease and starvation. At the
crossing of the River Beressina, the bridges thrown across by French engineers were
raked with fire by the Russians. Thousands of Napoleon’s troops died in the river and
upon reaching the frontier at the River Niemen, Napoleon had only 20 000 soldiers fit for
battle. Napoleon’s army also suffered from desertion and the failure of the Moscow
campaign inspired other countries to rise against Napoleon. In May 1813, Prussia
declared war against France and Russia remobilized another army of 500 000 soldiers.

Reasons for the failure of the Moscow campaign

1. Russian winter was unbearable for the French army

2. Russians used the scotched earth policy and guerrilla tactics against France
3. Desertion of French soldiers from the army
4. The great distance from France and resulting shortages of food, medicine and
ammunition.

The battle of the nations (1814)- By the end of 1813 a coalition of Britain, Russia,
Prussia, Portugal and Sweden was formed. The numerical superiority of the Allies and
their determination led to their victory at Leipzig. This defeat forced Napoleon to
withdraw back to France. The success of the Allies resulted in the outbreak of an
uprising in France. Napoleon refused to accept peace from the Allies and this led to the
invasion of France on 06/04/1814. Napoleon was exiled to the Mediterranean island of
Elba.

The factors leading to the fall of Napoleon

1. The Continental system

2. The Moscow campaign
3. The British naval superiority
4. The desertion of Napoleon’s allies due to the ineffectiveness of the continental
system.
5. Nationalism versus Napoleon’s dynastic policy. For example, in 1808 Napoleon
installed Joseph Bonaparte as King of Spain which proved to be a fatal blunder in
the long run. The proud Spanish nation felt insulted and a powerful kind of
nationalism which combined the crown and the church developed in Spain. The
juntas (people’s committees) were formed everywhere with the central junta in
Madrid to lead the rebellion against France. The British were invited to assist the
rebels to liberate the peninsular. The guerilla warfare and the mountainous nature
of Spain and Portugal proved very difficult for Napoleon to control the rebellion
against his system in Spain. The Spanish rebellion drained Napoleon’s troops and
resources and had an inspiring influence on the Germans.
6. The empire had become too large to keep together. The whole of the European
continent lay at Napoleon’s feet. His empire stretched from the North Sea
(Holland) to the River Ebro in northern Spain and from the English Channel to the
Bay of Naples. He was also king of Italy and the patron of the confederation of
the Rhine which by 1810 included all German states. His brothers Joseph and
Jerome were kings of Spain and Westphalia respectively and his brother in law,
Murat was king of Naples.
7. The contribution of the fourth coalition, Britain, Russia, Prussia and Austria in
defeating France.
(i) Britain- The victory at Trafalgar kept the hope of defeating Napoleon
alive. She used her naval power to defeat Napoleon and destroyed
the Danish fleet that Napoleon had hoped to use. She destroyed
the continental system by issuing the Orders in Council in which
Britain imposed trade embargos against Napoleon’s allies. When
she realized that Napoleon’s allies needed her trade the most,
Britain used its navy effectively to ensure that trade was carried
out with those allies of Napoleon. Hence, the continental system
was counter-productive for Napoleon. At the battle of Waterloo
French attacks could not penetrate the thin British lines whose
rifles were so deadly forcing Napoleon to surrender.
(ii) Russia- She contributed to the breakup of the Russo-Napoleonic
alliance where Russia secretly continued to trade with Britain. Their
victory in the Moscow campaign signaled the final defeat of Napoleon.
 They also took part in the Battle of the Nations in which they defeated
Napoleon and forced him to flee to the confederation of the Rhine who
in turn turned against him. Along with Prussia, Russia entered Paris in
1814 forcing Napoleon to abdicate.
(iii) Prussia- Prussia scored significant victories against Napoleon after it
underwent a revival of its army and reorganization of its society.
Serfdom was abolished, elected councils under the control of the
middleclass and land owners were established. A new land
distribution that benefited the peasants was introduced and a large
professional army was created. Military reforms were introduced in
which there was universal military service and training. This revival
resulted in the rise of Prussian nationalism which called for the
removal of Napoleon in Germany. Prussia also encouraged other
nationals under the dynastic system to fight against napoleon
promising them independence. She also took part in the Battle of the
nations which resulted in Napoleon’s defeat.
(iv) Austria- As a member of the 4th Coalition she scored significant
victories against Napoleon. At the Battle of Dresden in August 1813
Austria defeated Napoleon. She also took part in the Battle of the
Nations which resulted in the defeat of Napoleon.