Introduction to Science, Technology and Society
impact society.
Science
- From the Latin word Scientia, meaning knowledge
- The framework of knowledge of the natural word
learned through the scientific method.
- It leads to the creation of concepts, methods,
principles , theories, laws and procedures which
seek to describe and explain nature and its
phenomena
It can be defined as
- idea
- includes ides, theories and all available
systematic explanations and
observations about the natural and
physical word .
- body of knowledge
- subject, discipline, filed of study that
deals with the process of learning about
natural and physical world .
- personal and social activity
- done by human beings to develop better
understanding of the world around them
Technology
- From the Greek word techne, meaning art, skill or
cunning hand.
- It is the application of scientific expertise, laws and
principles to the development of services,
products, instruments and machines built to solve
real problems.
- It is a material product, the results of a scientific
investigation.
- A complex system of expertise , skills, personnel,
techniques, equipment , materials and resources
that are used and allocated to the production ,
operation and manufacture of a new or enhanced
product , process or service
Society
- Derived from the Latin word societas, it typically
refers to individuals belonging to a particular
group.
- A community of people engaging with each other
through persistent relationships, or abroad social
grouping occupying the same geographical or
social territory, normally subject to the same
political authority and dominant cultural
expectations.
- A complex of mutual relationship classes,
communicating with each other, allowing human
organisms to carry on their life activities and
helping each person, in association with their
fellows, to fulfill their wishes and fulfill their
interests
The Meaning of Science, Technology and Society
- The study of how social, political and cultural
principles influence scientific research and
technological progress, and how they, in turn,
- Refers to the relationship of science and
technology with the socio cultural, political and
economic environments that form and shape them;
concrete examples of scientific and technological
advances throughout human history.
- A relatively young field which brings together
previously independent and older disciplines, such
as science history, science philosophy of science
and sociology
As an academic field, STS according to Harvard University’s
Kennedy School (2018), traces its root from interwar period
and start of the Cold War.
- The growth of STS as an academic field resulted
from the realization that many schools today do
not really prepare students to respond to the
challenges raised by science and technology in
the current term objectively, reflectively and
proactively.
- As an interdisciplinary field, the advent of STS was
the product of concerns about the complex
relationship of science and technology with
different facets of society, which was seen as a
socially embedded community
THE INTERACTIONS BETWEEN SCIENCE,
TECHNOLOGY AND SOCIETY
- Science is characterized as the systematic study
of nature, of the material and physical world,
based on observation, experimentation and
measurement, as well as the formulation of laws to
explain these facts in general terms. It is the
analysis of information that can be turned into a
method, which typically relies on the observation
and checking of facts. The term science is used by
scientists, the curious seeker of answers to the
unknown in a methodical and orderly manner.
- Technology, on the other hand, refers to the body
of structured science, instruments and devices
used by man to control his environment for the
sake of his general good. It includes the adoption
of scientific knowledge or innovations to create
and manufacture products and services that are
useful to man, thereby solving daily problems or
promoting tiresome human activities. It is a
realistic problem-solving enterprise that is
motivated by scientific discovery or social needs.
There is no question that our needs are numerous,
and we must be motivated by the same scale.
Technology can be traced back historically to the
beginning of time to be a man's journey to better
his way of life and quality of life.
TEN EMERGING ETHICAL DILEMMAS AND POLICY
ISSUES IN SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY (2020) FOR
THE NINTH CONSECUTIVE YEAR, DR. JESSICA BARON,
IN COLLABORATION WITH THE JOHN J. REILLY CENTER
FOR SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY AND VALUES AT THE
UNIVERSITY OF NOTRE DAME, HAS RELEASED THE
ANNUAL LIST OF EMERGING ETHICAL DILEMMAS AND
POLICY ISSUES IN SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY FOR
2021.
- Battle for the Arctic
- the race to create new technologies to
explore commercial gains in the Arctic.
- Your Digital Twin
- a virtual copy of the person that can be
analyzed without his or her presence.
- MIT’s Version of “Inception”
- a sleep-tracking device that can alter
dreams by tracking hypnagogia and
then delivering audio cues based on
incoming physiological data, at precise
times in the sleep cycle, to make dream
direction possible.
- Robot Abuse
- humans all over the world have been
caught mercilessly harming robots “for
fun.”
- “Stalkerware” Apps
- a commercially available software used
to spy on another person via their device
and without their consent.
- The Data Void Left by Search Engines
- search engine spit out a small amount of
information during searching
- Telemedicine
- use of electronic information and
telecommunication technology to get the
health care you need while practicing
social distancing.
- App Profits off Foreclosures
- a “gig economy” app company
developed Civvl, a service that contracts
eviction crews to secure foreclosed
residential properties.
- Doomscrolling
- the act of constantly consuming
negative online content (or content that
makes you feel bad).
- Facebook - Facebook has 2.45 billion monthly
active users, has been involved in dozens of ethics
violations, and shows no signs of stopping in the
foreseeable future
Historical Antecedents that changed the course of science
and technology
The Agricultural Revolution
- The agricultural revolution gave birth to civilization.
- Agriculture, being the primary keystone of human
existence, has played an important role in global
economic development
Nomads
- Nomadism, way of life of peoples who do not live
continually in the same place but move cyclically
or periodically.
- Nomadism does not imply unrestricted and
undirected wandering; rather, it is based on
temporary centres whose stability depends on the
availability of food supply and the technology for
exploiting it.
- The term nomad encompasses three general
types: nomadic hunters and gatherers, pastoral
nomads, and tinker or trader nomads.
- nomadic hunters and gatherers-Nomadic hunters
and gatherers are usually organized into small,
isolated bands that move through a delimited
territory where they know the water holes, the
location of plants, and the habits of game.
PASTORAL NOMADS, WHO DEPEND ON
DOMESTICATED LIVESTOCK, MIGRATE IN AN
ESTABLISHED TERRITORY TO FIND PASTURAGE FOR
THEIR ANIMALS.
- Some nomadic groups are associated with a larger
society but maintain their mobile way of life. These
groups include tinker or trader nomads, who may
also make and sell simple products, hunt, or hire
out as labourers. The diverse groups that are
loosely termed Gypsies are the best-known
example of this type of nomadism.
Characteristics of Nomadic people are :
- (i) In contrast to other subsistence farmers
pastoral nomads depend primarily on animals
rather than crops for survival.
- (ii) Most nomadic people follow a barter system
though some use money also. They exchange
animals for food or grains.
- (iii) The size of the herd is both an important
measure of power and prestige and their main
security during adverse environmental conditions.
- (iv) The animals provide milk; butter and their
skins and hair are used for clothing and tents.
Civilization
- describes a complex way of life that came about
as people began to develop networks of urban
settlements.
Characteristics
- All civilizations have certain characteristics. These
include:
- large population centers;
- monumental architecture and unique art
styles;
- shared communication strategies;
- systems for administering territories;
- a complex division of labor;
- and the division of people into social and
economic classes
Urban Areas
- Large population centers, or urban areas, allow
civilizations to develop, although people who live
outside these urban centers are still part of that
region’s civilization
Monuments
- All civilizations work to preserve their legacy by
building large monuments and structures. This is
as true today as it was thousands of years ago.
 For example, the ancient monuments at Great
Zimbabwe are still consistently used as a symbol
of political power in the modern nation of
Zimbabwe.
Shared Communication
- Shared communication is another element that all
civilizations share. Shared communication may
include spoken language; alphabets; numeric
systems; signs, ideas, and symbols; and
illustration and representation
Infrastructure and Administration
- All civilizations rely on government
administration—bureaucracy. Perhaps no
civilization better exemplifies this than ancient
Rome. The word “civilization” itself comes from the
Latin word civis, meaning "citizen." Latin was the
language of ancient Rome, whose territory
stretched from the Mediterranean basin all the way
to parts of Great Britain in the north and the Black
Sea to the east.
Division of Labor
- Civilizations are marked by complex divisions of
labor. This means that different people perform
specialized tasks. In a purely agricultural society,
members of the community are largely
self-sufficient, and can provide food, shelter, and
clothing for themselves.
Class Structure
- The last element that is key to the development of
civilizations is the division of people into classes.
This is a complex idea that can be broken down
into two parts: income and type of work performed
Development of Civilization
- Civilizations expand through trade, conflict, and
exploration. Usually, all three elements must be
present for a civilization to grow and remain stable
for a long period of time
Trade
- The Khmer maintained vibrant trading
relationships throughout East Asia, the Indian
subcontinent, and even Europe and Africa through
the Silk Road, a collection of both overland and
maritime trade routes. The Silk Road linked the
spice and silk markets of Asia with the merchants
of Europe
Fall of Civilization
- Internal Change
- Population dynamics are the most
pervasive forces of internal change to a
civilization. A sudden population shift or
a shift in demographics may force a
civilization’s infrastructure to break
down.
External Pressure
- The clearest example of external pressure on a
civilization is foreign invasion or sustained warfare.
Protecting a civilization’s borders can be extremely
expensive and demand a strong military at the
expense of developing or maintaining other
aspects of a civilization
Environmental Collapse
- Some anthropologists think that both natural
disasters and misuse of the environment
contributed to the decline of many civilizations.
Natural hazards such as drought, floods, and
tsunamis, become natural disasters as they impact
civilizations.
Lost Civilizations
- History and myth are rich with “lost civilizations,”
entire ways of life that seemed to flourish and then
disappear from the historical record.
Science and Technology before Scientists: through 599 BCE
The best rocks for tools
Flint
- A type of chalcedony closely related to semi
precious stones like carnelian and jasper, is the
preferred material for making stone tools due to its
hardness and stability
Chalcedony
- A form of quartz, often forms veins in limestone or
chalk through solutions containing silica
Quartz
- rocks infused with silica, and petrified wood were
used as alternatives to flint when it wasn't
available
Obsidian
- a natural glass produced from volcanic activity, is
another early material for stone tools, known for its
sharp edges
Opal
- A glassy form of quartz, and volcanic rocks were
also used for tools
Quartzites
- were utilized for axe and adz heads, with quartzite
axe heads being particularly useful due to their
crack-resistant structure
Microliths
- Involving cutting edges embedded in wood,
emerged as a technique to conserve flint and
obsidian as their demand increased
Stone technologies of the old stone
Oldowan industry
- Produced pebble tools by breaking off flakes with
minimal retouching, with the core being the main
tool.
Acheulean industry
- Based on bifaces like hand axes or cleavers, with
cores and larger flakes retouched into
recognizable tools, persisted for at least a million
years.
Mousterian assembly
- Associated with Neandertals, used side scrapers
and projectile points, introduced the prepared core
or Levallois technique where the flake becomes
the primary tool.
Perigordian industry
- Early part of the next stage after Mousterian,
followed by the Aurignacian, tools like blade knives
and burins. featuring better-made
Gravettian industry
- Used smaller blades than the Aurignacian, lasting
from about 32,000 BP to 18,000 BP.
Solutrean industry
- Known for laurel-leaf blades, characterized by
symmetrical and thin blades
The first Immigrants
- Stone tools found in Japan dating back to 100,000
BP suggest early human migration by raft or boat,
possibly from the mainland inhabited by Homo
erectus.
- Early Homo sapiens likely crossed water to reach
central Australia around 50,000 years BP, possibly
using island hopping across the Indian Ocean
during periods of lower sea levels.
- Some evidence suggests early human migration
across the Pacific to South America 20,000 to
40,000 years ago, but most authorities believe
other regions were populated via land routes
New materials
Tooth (ivory)
- The word "tooth" in this context alludes to ivory, a
substance made from the teeth of animals.
Because it is simpler to work with and has a higher
density than bone, ivory—especially mammoth
ivory—has become more popular. Mammoth ivory
was a significant resource for making tools and
decorations since it was abundant in the northern
areas. Mammoth ivory was important in many
industries because of its durability and fine
carvings.
Bone
- Bone tools, known for their benefits, gained
prominence in industries like Perigordian,
Aurignacian, and Gravettian. Around 17,000 BP,
the Magdalenian culture saw a significant change
in bone technology, leading to the development of
a wide range of tools like spear points and
arrowheads. Bone's versatility allowed for the
creation of specialized tools, showcasing the
progress in craftsmanship during these eras.
Horn
- Early humans used horns from various animals,
including antelope, cattle, giraffes, deer, and
rhinoceroses. Antlers from reindeer were abundant
and crucial in the Aurignacian and Solutrean tool
industries. With the Agricultural Revolution and
Neolithic era, cattle horn became valuable.
However, as metal tools became more common,
the technological significance of bone and horn
decreased. Modern material technology allows for
frequent reuse or disposal of spare bone and horn.
The first Machine
Simple machines
- machines as devices that alter the direction,
duration, or magnitude of a force. It mentions that
simple machines include pulleys, levers, and
inclined planes, with examples such as the wheel
and axle being a rotary lever, and the screw being
a helical inclined plane
Use of simple machines by early humans
- It suggests that early humans utilized simple
machines such as wedges (seen in stone tools),
levers (found in hafted axe heads), and possibly
other tools like awls, spear throwers, and points
made from bone or antler. These tools served
various purposes such as hunting, crafting, and
possibly symbolic or social functions.
Construction techniques
- It discusses archaeological findings at Mezhirich,
Ukraine, where storage pits near mammoth-bone
dwellings suggest unequal resource distribution
among family units. Additionally, it mentions the
construction of huts made from mammoth bones,
showcasing early human architectural skills and
adaptations to the environment
Invention of the Spear Thrower
- The passage highlights the development of the
spear thrower (atlatl) around 15,000 years ago as
an application of the lever, enabling humans to
increase the velocity and momentum of thrown
spears for hunting and defense.
Compound Pulleys and Hellenistic Inventions
- It briefly mentions the compound pulley, a
sophisticated form of the pulley system, believed
 to have been invented in Hellenistic times around
200 BCE, demonstrating advancements in
mechanical engineering.
Trade with distant people
Early Evidence of Long-Distance Trade:
- In the 14th century BCE, evidence suggests
long-distance trade involving marine seashells far
inland and the importation of obsidian into Greece
from the island of Melos by the 11th century BCE.
This indicates early connections between regions
such as Greece, Melos, and possibly more distant
areas
Trade Routes in Mesopotamia, Persian Gulf, and Indian
Subcontinent:
- Around 6,000 years later, during the third
millennium BCE, Mesopotamia actively engaged in
trade.
- Ports along the Persian Gulf and the west coast of
the Indian subcontinent, including the island of
Ceylon, were involved in trading activities. This
suggests a network of trade routes connecting
Mesopotamia with regions along the Indian Ocean.
Egypt's Role in Eastern Mediterranean Trade:
- By the third millennium BCE, Egypt became
actively involved in trade within the eastern
Mediterranean. This indicates a flourishing trade
network connecting Egypt with neighboring
regions in the Mediterranean
Exploration of Atlantic Waters
- Over time, explorers from Europe gradually
expanded their maritime activities from the eastern
Mediterranean to coastal Atlantic waters along the
western parts of Europe and northern Africa. This
expansion signifies a broader exploration of trade
routes and cultural exchanges in the
Mediterranean and beyond.
Indian Ocean Trade
- Trade across parts of the Indian Ocean is
mentioned, with regular exchanges between
Arabia and Africa and between Mesopotamia and
India. Some of these voyages may have ventured
across the open sea, facilitated by reliable
monsoon winds. This highlights the development
of maritime routes connecting the Arabian
Peninsula, Africa, and the Indian subcontinent
Chinese Maritime Advancements
- Chinese ships and navigation tools are noted to be
more advanced than any others on Earth until at
least the European Renaissance. While the text
doesn't specify specific trade routes, the advanced
maritime capabilities of the Chinese suggest
potential early exploration and trade across open
seas.
Irrigation and the rise of civilization
Deep ditches
- In Mesopotamia, farmers faced the challenge of
low stream levels during the fall planting season.
To overcome this, they employed the technique of
digging deep ditches to redirect water to
agricultural fields. These ditches were likely
excavated using basic tools such as shovels and
possibly wooden or primitive metal implements
Silt Deposition
- The seasonal rise in river levels not only facilitated
irrigation by watering crops but also deposited
fertile silt in the canals. However, this created a
need for ongoing maintenance. Farmers had to
engage in repeated deep digging to clear the
canals from silt buildup, a labor-intensive process
that likely involved manual excavation tools.
Canal Systems
- The maintenance and building of canal systems
required organization and state control. Central
planning was necessary for constructing and
managing the canal networks to ensure a reliable
flow of water to agricultural fields.
- The construction and maintenance of extensive
canal systems were crucial for irrigation in
Mesopotamia, requiring significant organizational
efforts and coordination of labor, resources, and
planning. State control was essential for
overseeing water resource allocation, preventing
disputes, and ensuring efficient irrigation
infrastructure functioning
Aerial Irrigation Systems
- In the case of the Maya civilization, which
developed in regions with regular rainfall but also
faced challenges due to immediate soil absorption,
aerial studies revealed large irrigation systems.
These systems likely involved the construction of
canals or other structures to distribute water
across agricultural areas.
Sinkholes and Rainwater Harvesting
- In Mayaland, the Maya civilization adapted to the
absence of large rivers by utilizing sinkholes filled
with water and regular rainfall. The construction of
elaborate systems to capture and channel
rainwater likely involved materials like stones and
clay. The Maya demonstrated a high level of
engineering skill in developing these large-scale
irrigation works to combine available natural
resources effectively.
Challenges in Rainforest Environments
- In the lowland rainforests where the Olmec
civilization originated, the lack of hard rock and
obsidian posed challenges. While the text doesn't
explicitly detail the irrigation techniques used by
the Olmec, it suggests that the state might have
 arisen to facilitate long-distance trade, which was
crucial for sustaining the civilization in this
environment
Inventing in writing numbers
Tally System
- Tally systems were among the earliest forms of
numeration. They involved simple marks or
strokes to represent numbers. This system was
widely used, and evidence of its existence dates
back to prehistoric times. The tally system could
represent numbers even in the absence language.
of developed numerical
Token System
- Tokens were small clay objects used to represent
specific quantities of objects being counted. This
system evolved into cuneiform writing in
Mesopotamia, where tokens were eventually
replaced by markings on clay envelopes.
Egyptian Numerals
- In ancient Egypt, tallies were grouped in tens,
hundreds, and thousands, similar to the modern
decimal system. The Egyptian numerals were
based on powers of ten
Greek and Roman Numerals
- The Greeks adapted their alphabet for numerals,
with each letter representing a specific value. The
Roman numerals originated from tally marks and
evolved into a sophisticated system. Roman
numerals were widely used but have largely been
numerals. replaced by Arabic
Hindu Arabic Numerals
- The Hindu-Arabic numeral system, which
originated in India, eventually replaced other
numeration systems. It employs place value,
where the position of a digit determines its value.
This system also includes the concept of zero,
which was crucial for operations. advanced
mathematical
Mesopotamian Numerals
- Mesopotamians developed a place-value system
based on sixty instead of ten. While this system
did not survive in its original form, it influenced
modern time and angle measurements, such as
minutes, seconds, and degrees
The invention of the wheel
Predecessors to the wheel
- Before the invention of the wheel, humans were
creating various tools for millions of years. The
earliest wheels were actually potter's wheels, used
for pottery making rather than transportation.
Evolution of the Wheel
- The earliest wheeled vehicles resembled sleds
with wheels attached. The transition from sleds to
wheeled carts was relatively straightforward,
symbolized by the evolution of pictographic
symbols.
First Uses of the Wheel
- The first use of the wheel was likely ceremonial,
transporting effigies of deities and important
people. Eventually, the wheel was used for
practical purposes like transporting goods and in
warfare
Spread of the Wheel
- The wheel spread from Mesopotamia to other
parts of the world, including Europe, India, and
China. However, it remained unknown in many
regions, such as Southeast Asia, Africa, and
Polynesia, until much later.
Mechanical uses of the Wheel
- The wheel found various uses beyond
transportation, including in mechanical devices like
cogs, gears, and pulleys
Mesopotamian Mathematics
- Mesopotamian mathematics, preserved on clay
tablets, reveals a sophisticated system with dual
bases of 60 and 10. Their contributions include the
origins of time and angle measurements and
practical algorithms for arithmetic. Despite lacking
zero, Mesopotamian algebraists excelled in
solving quadratic and cubic equations, possibly
influencing Indian and Arab mathematical
traditions. Contrary to prior beliefs,
Mesopotamians also demonstrated proficiency in
geometry, including knowledge of the Pythagorean
theorem. Criticisms regarding their use of an
approximate value of π have been revisited,
revealing more accurate approximations. Overall,
Mesopotamian mathematics remains a
foundational pillar in the history of mathematical
inquiry, influencing civilizations across time and
geography.
Early sailing
Pre-Oar Propulsion and Early Sailing
- Before the invention of oars, humans utilized wind
power to propel boats.
- The passage suggests that sails were in use at
least by 3200 BCE, based on known trade
patterns.
Evolution of Sail Designs
- Initially, any flat, stiff object could be used as a
sail, but adjustable fabric sails became necessary
for larger vessels.
 - The first sails were flat but were eventually
replaced by "bags for the wind," loose sails held at
their corners.
- The single bag-of-wind sail persisted for about
3000 years before the addition of a second sail,
leading to the development of ships with three
masts.
- By the time of the early Roman Empire, ships had
sails rigged more similarly to modern designs, with
large, fairly flat triangular sails.
Mediterranean vs. Northern Sailing Traditions
- Mediterranean ships initially used steering
paddles from the side, reflecting their canoe
heritage, before adopting side-mounted steering
paddles.
- In contrast, ships sailing the North Atlantic
developed their own rigging and construction
methods, including the adoption of a true stern
rudder.
- The passage notes that while the idea of the stern
rudder may have originated from Chinese sailing
traditions, it became a key innovation in Northern
shipbuilding
Integration of Mediterranean and Atlantic Traditions
- During medieval times, sailing traditions from the
Mediterranean and the Atlantic were combined,
leading to the development of efficient sailing
ships that laid the foundation for Renaissance-era
vessels
The calendar
Measurement of Time
- Time was the first quantity that people could
measure with some degree of accuracy.
- The daily and annual motions of Earth and the
moon provided natural indicators of time.
- However, measuring time accurately was still
challenging, especially for smaller units like days
Establishment of the Year
- The ancient Egyptians were among the first to
establish a reliable length for the year.
- They likely based their calendar on the annual
flooding of the Nile, which coincided with the
heliacal rising of Sirius.
- The Egyptian calendar initially had 365 days but
gradually fell out of alignment with the seasons
due to the slight discrepancy in the length of the
solar year.
Development of Leap Years
- Hellenic astronomers addressed the discrepancy
by introducing leap days, adding an extra day
every four years.
- The Roman calendar, under Julius Caesar in 46
BCE, officially adopted the leap year system.
- However, initial misunderstandings resulted in
errors, prompting a reset of the system in 8 CE.
- The modern Gregorian calendar, introduced by
Pope Gregory XIII in 1582 CE, further refined the
leap year system to correct inaccuracies.
Modifications to the Calendar
- The Gregorian calendar introduced rules for leap
years, excluding certain centennial years unless
they are divisible by 400.
- This adjustment ensures greater accuracy in
aligning the calendar with astronomical
phenomena
How did the Egyptians build the pyramids?
- The construction of the Egyptian pyramids,
particularly the Great Pyramid of Khufu, remains a
marvel due to its antiquity, massive stones, precise
orientation, and hidden chambers.
- Contrary to ancient claims, there is no evidence
supporting the use of massive workforces or
advanced machinery like those described by
Herodotus.
- The prevailing theory of moving stones on tree
trunk rollers lacks evidence and faces
circumstantial challenges.
Based on wall paintings, texts, and artifacts, the likely
construction process involved:
Quarrying
- Limestone and granite were cut using notches,
wooden wedges, and wetting to induce stone
fracture. Copper wedges or pounding with a
harder stone might have been used for granite.
Transporting
- Wall paintings depict heavy objects moved on
sledges rather than rollers or wheels. Sledges
were aided by a lubricating liquid, possibly
vegetable oil, poured on their path.
Leveling
- Shallow ponds, enclosed by brick or mud walls,
were used to create a level surface. Holes drilled
to a fixed depth below the water marked the
desired level.
Orienting
- Achieving a precise north-south orientation was
challenging without a pole star. Egyptians likely
used a semicircular wall with a level top as an
artificial horizon
Squaring
- The exceptional squareness of the Great Pyramid
suggests the use of accurate methods, such as a
knotted rope to form a 3-4-5 triangle or inscribing
angles in a semicircle.
Slanting
- Maintaining a consistent slope over the pyramid's
large area was achieved by using diagonals of the
square to locate the center and erecting a vertical
pole to determine the correct slope
Lifting
- Stones were moved up long ramps to the working
level on sledges, and levers/wedges were
employed to put stones in place.
Lowering
- Outer blocks were cut in final form and carefully
lowered, likely through a series of wooden braces,
with each set slightly lower than the one above, to
avoid damage to the facing.
Early units of measure
- Ancient civilizations developed moderately
accurate measurement systems for quantities like
time, length, area, volume, weight, capacity, and
angles.
- Time was often used to measure large quantities,
while smaller measures relied on body parts, such
as the yard being the distance from the tip of the
nose to the fingertips when the right arm was
outstretched.
- Challenges arose due to variations in body sizes,
leading to attempts like using the king's body as a
standard.
- The Egyptian system built up from the smallest
unit, with four digits making a palm and seven
palms forming a cubit standardized at 52.37
centimeters (20.62 inches).
- Over time, standards could be lost, as seen in the
burning of the English Parliament in 1834, which
destroyed the standard yard and pound.
- The U.S. adopted a customary system in 1832 by
averaging different weights and measures from
various custom houses.
Egyptian medicine
- Before 2000 BCE, Egyptian priests developed one
of the world's earliest sophisticated medical
practices, attracting the rich and noble from the
Middle East and the Mediterranean.
- Imhotep, around 2600 BCE, is considered an early
scientist, renowned as a physician and architect of
the step pyramid.
- The priests likely gained anatomical knowledge
through mummification, but medical treatments
often relied on trial and error.
- Moldy bread, with penicillin-like properties, was
used on wounds, and castor oil and poppy juices
alleviated pain.
- Radishes, garlic, and onions were consumed for
disease prevention.
- Less effective remedies included Nile mud, dung,
and urine, sometimes mixed with wine or beer for
a sense of well-being.
- For diseases with unknown causes, priests treated
patients in a religious context, associating body
parts with specific gods.
- However, surgeries for wounds and broken bones
were approached differently, as seen in the Edwin
Smith Surgical Papyrus, dating back to about 1550
BCE.
- This document details bone-setting, the heart's
pumping function, and pulse analysis. The
Papyrus Ebers from the same era outlines
prescriptions and diets.
- While Egyptian medicine declined around 1200
BCE, its reputation as the ancient world's best
persisted even after Egypt became a Roman
province in 30 BCE.
Medieval Science and Technology: 530 through 1452
The Decline of Science in Europe (530 to 1000)
- During the first centuries after the fall of the
Roman Empire the standard of living in Europe
returned to levels comparable to those just after
the Agricultural Revolution. Poverty was endemic
and people suffered from wars, piracy, famine, and
epidemics. Inevitably, science retreated as well.
Some reasons for the decline:
- Little interest towards theoretical science by the
Romans
- Christianity (There seemed to be little reason to be
concerned about learning how nature worked
when most expected the Earthly world to come to
an end soon)
The exception to the decline is the field of medicine. It
survived the Dark Ages because Christians felt it to be their
duty to take care of the sick
The Revival of Science in Europe
- During the last centuries of the first millennium, a
reversal of the decline of Western science and
technology gradually took place. Trade and food
production started to increase, starting in the
northern part of Europe. Water was more
abundant in the north than in the Mediterranean
countries, and the soil was more fertile.
- In 787 emperor Charlemagne, who learned as an
adult to read and tried unsuccessfully to learn to
write, decreed that every monastery must
establish a school. These cathedral schools
became the forerunners of the first universities
- The strongest factor in the revival of science
during that time in Europe was the establishment
of contact with the Islamic culture.
- A large number of Greek works became available
to European scholars from 1150 to 1270
- The Scholastics were Christian philosophers of
the 13th century. They set out to absorb the newly
 gained knowledge of the ancients and to reconcile
it with teachings of the church. St. Thomas
Aquinas, one of the founders of the Scholastic
school, argued that knowledge can be obtained
through both religious faith and natural reason.
- However, some Scholastics argued back. As early
as 1210, the Parisian Synod decreed that certain
of Aristotle’s works could not be taught at the
University of Paris. After all, they said, Aristotle’s
works imply that God did not create the world
- In 1277 the pope issued a condemnation of 219
proposition that were tainted with Aristotle’s views.
- The Scholastics were Christian philosophers of the
13th century. They set out to absorb the newly
gained knowledge of the ancients and to reconcile
it with teachings of the church. St. Thomas
Aquinas, one of the founders of the Scholastic
school, argued that knowledge can be obtained
through both religious faith and natural reason.
- However, some Scholastics argued back. As early
as 1210, the Parisian Synod decreed that certain
of Aristotle’s works could not be taught at the
University of Paris. After all, they said, Aristotle’s
works imply that God did not create the worldIn
1277 the pope issued a condemnation of 219
proposition that were tainted with Aristotle’s views
- Mathematics in Europe was at a very low level
during the early Middle Ages. Most calculations
were done on the abacus because, before the
advent of Hindu-Arabic numerals, mathematical
operations were difficult to perform
Some notable things from the revival of science in Europe:
- Landowners reintroduced the rotation of crops, as
practiced by the Romans, increasing food supplies
substantially.
- Roads were paved again and transportation
- Trade profited from important inventions, such as
the steerable carriage and the padded shoulder
collar for horses
- The water wheel became the most important
source of mechanical power throughout northern
Europe for many centuries.
- Viking ships, the first Western ships with centered,
rear-mounted rudders, and continued with
improvements in sail rigging and ship construction.
- Agriculture in Europe was improved by the
introduction of the iron plowshare, about 1000 ce
- The construction of canals started all over Europe
during the twelfth century, and the first European
locks to make rivers and canals navigable over
longer distances appeared by the 14th century
Cathedrals
- A technical revolution in construction that took
place during the years 1100–1270 in northern
Europe.
- Three technical innovations:
- The ribbed vault
- The pointed arch
- The flying buttress
Science in China
- In the medieval era, China witnessed substantial
strides in science. Progress in astronomy involved
the creation of precise calendars and intricate
instruments like the armillary sphere. Chinese
alchemists made significant headway in chemistry
and metallurgy by investigating diverse
substances and techniques. Among the era's
pivotal inventions was gunpowder, which not only
transformed warfare but also had extensive
impacts across various domains. China's scientific
pursuits during this time formed a cornerstone for
subsequent advancements and left a profound
imprint on worldwide technological progress
Science and Math in India
- India's medieval contributions to science and
mathematics were significant.
- Notable achievements include the invention of the
decimal system and the concept of zero,
foundational to modern mathematics.
- Scholars like Aryabhata and Brahmagupta
advanced trigonometry, algebra, and calculus.
- Indian astronomers made groundbreaking
discoveries in celestial studies, accurately
calculating planetary movements and celestial
events.
- In medieval India, profound contributions were
made to science and mathematics. Innovations
such as the decimal system and the revolutionary
concept of zero laid the groundwork for
contemporary mathematical frameworks.
Esteemed scholars like Aryabhata and
Brahmagupta propelled trigonometry, algebra, and
calculus forward, shaping the trajectory of
mathematical thought. Additionally, Indian
astronomers made significant strides in
understanding celestial phenomena, accurately
predicting planetary motions and celestial events,
contributing to a comprehensive understanding of
the universe.
Aryabhata
- an ancient Indian scholar, made significant
contributions to mathematics and astronomy
around the 5th century CE. He introduced the
concept of zero as a placeholder in the decimal
system, revolutionizing mathematics. Additionally,
Aryabhata accurately calculated the value of pi
and provided an approximate length for the solar
year. His works greatly influenced the fields of
mathematics and astronomy in ancient India and
beyond, laying the groundwork for future
developments in these disciplines.
Brahmagupta
- an esteemed Indian mathematician and
astronomer who lived in the 7th century CE, made
significant contributions to mathematics. His
 renowned work "Brahmasphutasiddhanta"
introduced rules for arithmetic operations involving
zero and negative numbers, which were
revolutionary at the time. Brahmagupta's
pioneering insights into arithmetic with zero and
negative numbers laid the foundation for further
advancements in mathematics. His contributions
greatly influenced mathematical thought and
played a key role in shaping the development of
the field
Arab Science
- During the medieval period, the Arab world
became a significant hub for scientific exploration
and scholarship, making notable contributions to
mathematics, astronomy, medicine, and optics.
- The House of Wisdom in Baghdad played a
central role in facilitating the exchange and
preservation of knowledge. Scholars such as
Al-Khwarizmi were pivotal in advancing
mathematical concepts like algebra, bridging
ancient wisdom with the Renaissance and leaving
a lasting impact on intellectual pursuits.
The House of Wisdom
- also known as the Grand Library of Baghdad, was
a major Abbasid-era public academy and
intellectual center in Baghdad. It was one of the
world's largest public libraries during the Islamic
Golden Age
Al-Khwarizmi
- a Persian mathematician and scholar, lived during
the 9th century CE. One of his most significant
contributions was the development of algebra as
an independent mathematical discipline. His work
"Kitab al-Jabr wal Muqabala" (The Compendious
Book on Calculation by Completion and Balancing)
laid the foundations of algebraic notation and
methods for solving equations. Al-Khwarizmi's
pioneering efforts in algebra revolutionized
mathematics and had a profound impact on
subsequent mathematical developments, earning
him the title "The Father of Algebra.
The Technology Revolution of the Middle Ages: Energy
- The Middle Ages, often depicted as a period of
stagnation, actually witnessed a profound
revolution in technology, particularly in harnessing
energy sources for various applications.
- From the 6th to the 15th century, innovations in
energy technology reshaped industries, facilitated
trade, and laid the groundwork for future
advancements.
Water for Power/Control
- Water emerged as a cornerstone of medieval
technological progress.
- Engineers crafted intricate systems of aqueducts,
canals, and water channels to direct its flow with
precision.
- Waterwheels harnessed the kinetic energy of
rivers and streams to power mills for grinding
grain, sawing lumber, and crushing ores
- During the Middle Ages, water emerged as a
fundamental element in driving technological
progress. Engineers of the time developed
sophisticated systems of aqueducts, canals, and
water channels to effectively harness the power of
water. These systems were meticulously designed
to direct the flow of water with precision, allowing
for optimal utilization of its energy potential.
- One of the most iconic innovations of this period
was the waterwheel, which capitalized on the
kinetic energy of rivers and streams to power
various industrial processes such as grinding
grain, sawing lumber, and crushing ores. The
mastery over water not only fueled industrial
growth but also facilitated the development of
efficient irrigation systems crucial for sustaining
agricultural productivity.
Waterwheels
- is an iconic innovation of the era, fueled industry
and enables efficient irrigation systems.
- Waterwheels were at the forefront of medieval
technological advancements, symbolizing the
mastery over water power. These innovative
devices played a pivotal role in driving industry
forward by harnessing the kinetic energy of flowing
water.
- Whether situated along rivers or man-made
channels, waterwheels were integral to powering
mills for grinding grain, sawing lumber, and
crushing ores. The illustration on this slide depicts
a typical medieval waterwheel in operation,
showcasing the ingenuity of engineers in utilizing
natural resources to fuel industrial progress.
Applications of water power
- Water power facilitated various applications,
including grinding grain, sawing lumber, and
crushing ores
- The applications of water power during the Middle
Ages were diverse and far-reaching.
Water-powered mills were crucial for various
industrial processes, including the grinding of grain
into flour, the sawing of timber for construction,
and the crushing of ores for metal extraction.
- These mills were essential to the functioning of
medieval societies, providing the necessary
resources for sustenance, shelter, and commerce.
The image accompanying this slide illustrates
medieval millstones in operation, powered by the
force of water, underscoring the importance of
water power in driving economic activities during
this period.
Wind power
- Wind emerged as another vital energy source
during the Middle Ages.
 - Ingenious windmills dotted the European
landscape, converting wind energy into rotational
energy for various tasks
- In addition to water, wind emerged as another
significant source of energy during the Middle
Ages. Windmills became iconic symbols of
technological innovation, dotting the European
landscape and harnessing the power of the wind
for various tasks.
- These structures were designed to capture the
elemental force of the wind and convert it into
rotational energy, which could be utilized for
grinding grain, pumping water, and performing
other essential functions. Wind power offered
versatility, particularly in regions where water
resources were scarce, contributing to the
decentralization of industry and agriculture.
Windmills
- captured the elemental force of the wind to grind
grain, pump water, and perform other essential
tasks
- Windmills played a vital role in harnessing wind
power and driving technological advancements
during the Middle Ages. These ingenious
structures were instrumental in various industrial
processes, from milling grain to draining
marshlands and pumping water for irrigation.
- The image on this slide showcases iconic
European windmills set against a scenic backdrop,
highlighting their significance in medieval society.
Windmills symbolized the ingenuity of medieval
engineers in utilizing renewable energy sources to
meet the growing demands of an evolving
economy.
Versatility of wind power
- Wind power offered versatility, especially in
regions lacking significant water resources
- One of the key advantages of wind power during
the Middle Ages was its versatility, particularly in
regions where access to water resources was
limited. Windmills provided a decentralized source
of energy, enabling communities to power
essential tasks such as grinding grain, pumping
water, and processing agricultural produce.
- This versatility helped to mitigate the reliance on
specific geographical features, fostering economic
resilience and adaptability. The accompanying
map highlights regions where wind power was
extensively utilized, showcasing the widespread
adoption of this renewable energy source across
medieval Europe.
Impact and Legacy of Water and Wind Power
- The mastery over water and wind power
revolutionized industries, facilitated trade, and
contributed to the decentralization of agriculture
and industry during the Middle Ages. These
technological advancements laid the groundwork
for future innovations in energy technology and
shaped the course of human history.
- The image on this slide depicts a medieval town
with waterwheels and windmills in operation,
symbolizing the profound impact of renewable
energy sources on medieval society. As we reflect
on this period of history, it is evident that the
innovations of the Middle Ages continue to inspire
and inform our understanding of sustainable
energy practices in the modern world.
Impetus and Inertia
- While not explicitly recognized as such at the time,
the concepts of impetus and inertia played pivotal
roles in medieval engineering.
- Artisans and craftsmen intuitively understood the
principles of momentum and resistance, applying
them in the design of siege engines, catapults, and
other war machines.
- The refinement of these technologies marked a
significant departure from earlier reliance on brute
force, emphasizing precision and efficiency in
warfare and construction alike.
Telling Time and Early Mechanical Clocks
- The measurement of time, essential for
coordinating activities and organizing society,
underwent a revolution during the Middle Ages.
- Early mechanical clocks, powered by weights or
springs, appeared in monasteries, cathedrals, and
town squares across Europe.
- These marvels of medieval engineering not only
marked the passage of hours but also symbolized
humanity's growing mastery over nature.
- With each tick and tock, mechanical clocks
ushered in an era of punctuality and precision,
laying the groundwork for modern timekeeping
Perpetual Motion
- The pursuit of perpetual motion, though ultimately
elusive, captivated the minds of medieval scholars
and alchemists.
- Inspired by the natural world's cyclical rhythms
and driven by a quest for eternal motion, thinkers
of the era speculated and experimented with
various contraptions and mechanisms.
- While their endeavors often ended in
disappointment or ridicule, the pursuit of perpetual
motion epitomized the medieval spirit of inquiry
and innovation, paving the way for future scientific
exploration
Early Surgery: From Ancient Practices to Modern Medicine
Trephining and Ancient Surgical Techniques
- Surgery has deep roots in human history, perhaps
one of the oldest forms of medical intervention.
Dating back to prehistoric times, the practice of
trephining, which involves making holes in the
skull, serves as one of the earliest recorded
surgical techniques. Evidence of this ancient
 practice can be found in various archaeological
sites. Additionally, the Edwin Smith Papyrus, a
medical document believed to be from around
1700 BCE, provides valuable insights into early
surgical techniques. It lists procedures such as
wound treatments and methods for managing
injuries, reflecting the medical knowledge and
practices of ancient civilizations.
Medieval and Renaissance Surgery
- During the medieval period, Medieval surgical
practices were often intertwined with other
professions, notably barber-surgeons.
- Barber-surgeons performed a variety of surgical
procedures, including bloodletting and minor
surgeries, alongside their primary role as barbers.
- Common techniques included cauterization, which
used heat to seal wounds.
- The Renaissance period saw significant
advancements in surgical knowledge.
- Andreas Vesalius revolutionized understanding of
human anatomy through meticulous dissections
and detailed drawings.
- Ambrose Paré introduced innovative wound
treatment methods, such as using boiling oil to
control infections.
- These Renaissance developments laid the
groundwork for modern surgical practices, shaping
the trajectory of surgical innovation and medical
progress.
Modern Surgery Emerges
- The mid-19th century marked a pivotal moment in
the history of surgery.
- Effective anesthetics were introduced during this
period, revolutionizing surgical practices.
- Prior to this breakthrough, surgical procedures
were limited by the absence of reliable methods
for pain management.
- The discovery and adoption of anesthesia allowed
surgeons to operate on completely anesthetized
patients without the constraints of pain.
- This breakthrough paved the way for a new era of
surgical innovation and progress.
- With the ability to perform complex and extensive
procedures safely, modern surgery emerged as a
distinct and rapidly advancing medical specialty.
- Anesthesia, alongside other advancements in
surgical techniques, continues to play a crucial
role in contemporary surgical practice
Alchemy from start to finish
The Essence and Origins of Alchemy
- Alchemy represents a fusion of science,
philosophy, and mysticism, originating in the
ancient civilizations of China and Greece. Unlike
modern chemistry, alchemy was deeply
intertwined with the spiritual and mystical pursuit of
transformation. This ancient practice embarked on
its journey from the philosophical endeavors of the
Taoists in China, who were in pursuit of the elixir of
life—a mythical substance granting immortality.
Concurrently, in Greece, the Pythagoreans'
mystical engagement with numbers and the
cosmos contributed another layer to the
alchemical tradition. This blend of cultural wisdom,
including the embalming practices of Egyptian
priests like Zosimus, who documented early
alchemical theories, laid the foundational stones of
alchemy. The discipline was not merely a
precursor to chemistry but a complex worldview
seeking to understand the principles of
transformation at both the material and spiritual
levels
Alchemy's Global Journey and Contributions
- Alchemy spread from East to West, incorporating
philosophical, astrological, and practical
knowledge.
- In China, alchemists pursued the elixir of life,
leading to remarkable preservation techniques like
those seen in the embalming of the Lady of Dai.
- This knowledge traveled to India, where it
influenced medicinal practices, and then to the
Arab world, merging with the Hellenistic alchemical
tradition.
- Arab alchemists developed a sophisticated
science, integrating astrological influences into
chemical reactions and introducing the concept of
the philosopher's stone.
- Despite its mystical aspects, alchemy contributed
significantly to practical tools and techniques,
including the creation of strong acids and
advancements in distillation, foundational to
modern chemistry.
The Transition from Alchemy to Chemistry
- The Renaissance marked a pivotal moment in the
transformation of alchemical traditions into a more
empirical and scientifically rigorous discipline. In
Europe, alchemists like Paracelsus began to apply
their knowledge to the field of medicine, making
strides in pharmacology and the understanding of
diseases. However, it was the work of scientists
such as Libavius, whose Alchemia laid the
groundwork for modern chemistry, that began to
demystify the alchemical practices. The shift from
alchemy to chemistry was solidified by the
contributions of Antoine Lavoisier in the 18th
century, whose scientific methodology and
discovery of the law of conservation of mass
dispelled the mystical elements of alchemy.
Despite the decline of alchemy as a practice, its
legacy lives on, reminding us of humanity's eternal
quest for knowledge and the transformation of the
natural world
Movable Type

Evolution of Movable Type

- Many credit Gutenberg with inventing printing, but
Chinese inventors had developed printing, paper,
and movable type from wood or ceramics.
- Gutenberg's innovations were twofold: the creation
of the first system for casting metal type, enabling
a flat surface for printing, and the development of
a metal compatible printer's ink.
- His arrangement, utilizing a modified wine press to
impress type held in wooden forms on paper,
remained relatively unchanged for about 300
years.
- From the start, Gutenberg produced printing
recognized for its quality, laying the foundation for
the evolution of movable type technology.

Johann Gutenberg and the Impact of Movable Type

- Little is known about Johann Gutenberg's
personal life. Born in Mainz, Germany, at the end
of the 14th century, he was a goldsmith who
transitioned to printing.
- By 1435, evidence suggests he had begun
working on developing printing technology.
- His background in goldsmithing, where he crafted
stamps to mark products, likely influenced his work
in developing movable type.
- Gutenberg's significant achievement came in 1460
when he printed the Catholicon, an encyclopedia,
marking a historic moment in the history of
printing.
- The use of movable type transformed the world of
communication and paved the way for the mass
production of printed materials, shaping the course
of human history