2.

6 Geometric Interpretation of a Derivative

For this section, we need to recall the following properties of a

line L:
A. The linear equation in two variables

Ax + By + C = 0,

where A, B, C are real numbers is a line on the Cartesian plane or

R2 plane. This equation is called the

standard form of equation of a line.

For any constant k, x = k is a vertical line, while y = k is a

horizontal line.

N.S.A MAT060 February 29, 2024 31 / 79

B. Let P1 (x1 , y1 ) and P2 (x2 , y2 ), x1 6= x2 , be any two different
points on the line L. Then,
1. Slope m of the line L is given by the fomula
y2 − y1 y − y2
m= or m = 1 .
x2 − x1 x1 − x2

2. The slope m of a horizontal line y = y0 , where y0 = y1 or

y0 = y2 , is m = 0, for y2 = y1
y2 − y1 0
m= = = 0.
x2 − x1 x2 − x1

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3. If x1 = x2 , then the line L is a vertical line x = x0 , where
x0 = x1 or x0 = x2 , and its slope m is undefined, for
y2 − y1 y − y1
m= = 2 .
x2 − x1 0

4. Lines are parallel if and only if they have the same slopes.
5. Lines are perpendicular if their slopes are negative reciprocal
of each other.

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Equation of a Line L
6. The equation of the line L is
y2 − y1
1 y − y0 = (x − x0 ), where x0 = x1 and y0 = y1 or
x2 − x1
x0 = x2 and y0 = y2 .
The Two-Point Form equation of a line
2 y − y0 = m(x − x0 ), where where x0 = x1 and y0 = y1 or
x0 = x2 and y0 = y2 .
The Slope -Point Form equation of a line
3 y = mx + b where m is the slope and b is the y-intercept.
The Slope-intercept Form equation of a line

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 Let the curve of a function f , defined by y = f (x), be
given. Draw a line Lh through the point P0 and P on the graph of
y = f (x) (see Figure 6 )

Figure : Line Lh through P0 and P

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The line Lh is a secant line (a line passing through two points on
a curve). Supppose the P0 has coordinates (x0 , y0 ) and P has an
abscissa x0 + h.

Figure : Line Lh through P0 and P

Then P0 is the point (x0 , f (x0 )) and P is the point having

coordinates (xo + h, f (x0 ) + h).

N.S.A MAT060 February 29, 2024 36 / 79

The slope of the line Lh is

f (x0 + h) − f (x0 )
mh =
x0 + h − x0
f (x0 + h) − f (x0 )
= .
h

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Now, as h tends to zero, the point p tends to the point P0 .

Figure : Line Lh through P0 and P

We see geometrically that the secant line Lh rotates about the

point P0 .

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Also, we find that the line Lh tends to a limiting position as h
approaches to zero. This limiting position is actually the tangent
line to the curve at P0 . Observe that if f is differentiable at x0 ,
the by definition of derivative,

f (x0 + h) − f (x0 )
lim = lim mLh
h→0 h h→0
= f 0 (x0 ).

This means that the slope mLh of the line Lh tends to a limiting
slope which is the derivative of f at x0 . Since the limiting
position of Lh is the line LT which is the line tangent to the curve
at P0 , it follows that f 0 (x0 ) is the slope of the tangent line to the
curve at P0 .

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2.6.1 Tangent and Normal Lines
Definition 2.6.1
Let f be a function such that f 0 (x0 ) exists. The tangent line to
the curve y = f (x) at P0 (x0 , y0 ) is the line through P0 having a
slope m = f 0 (x0 ).

Remark 2.6.2
Note that we may view a tangent line to a curve at a point P0 as
the line that ’best approximates’ the curve near P0 .

Definition 2.6.3
The normal line, denoted by LN , to the curve y = f (x) at
P0 (x0 , y0 ) is the line through P0 perpendicular to the tangent line
to the curve at P0 .

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1. From the definition of a normal line, it follows that the slope of
the normal line to the curve y = f (x) at P0 (x0 , y0 ) is
1
mLN = − ,
f 0 (x 0 )

provided f 0 (x0 ) 6= 0 (that is, the tangent line to the curve at P0 is

neither a horizontal nor a vertical line). An equation of the normal
line can then be obtained by using the point-slope form of a line.

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2. If the tangent line to the curve at P0 (x0 , y0 ) is the horizontal
line y = y0 = f (x0 ) (that is, f 0 (x0 ) = 0), then the normal line to
the curve at P0 is the line x = x0 , a vertical line. On the other
hand, if x = x0 is the tangent line, then y = y0 is the normal line
at P0 (x0 , y0 ).

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Example 2.6.4
1 Find the equation of the lines tangent and normal to the
curve f (x) = x2 − 1 at the point P0 (−2, 3).
2 Find the equations of the tangent and normal lines to the
curve y = 2 − x2 at x = −1
3 Find the equations of the tangent line and the normal line to
the curve y = 3x2 − 2x − 1 at the point P0 (1, 0).
4 Given the circle (x + 1)2 + y 2 = 4. Find the equation of the
lines tangent and normal to this circle at the point where
x = −1.

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Exercise
Determine as indicated:
1 Find the equation of the lines tangent and normal to the
curve given by the equation y 4 + 3y − 4x3 = 5x + 1 at the
point P0 (1, −2)
2 Find the equations of the tangent line and
 π the
 normal line to
the curve y = 5 sin(2x) at the point P0 ,5 .
4
3 Find the equation of the lines tangent and normal to the
graph of y = arcsin (x − 1) at the point (3/2, π/6).

N.S.A MAT060 February 29, 2024 44 / 79

2.6 Geometric Interpretation of a Derivative

For this section, we need to recall the following properties of a

line L:
A. The linear equation in two variables

Ax + By + C = 0,

where A, B, C are real numbers is a line on the Cartesian plane or

R2 plane. This equation is called the

standard form of equation of a line.

For any constant k, x = k is a vertical line, while y = k is a

horizontal line.

N.S.A MAT060 February 29, 2024 45 / 79

B. Let P1 (x1 , y1 ) and P2 (x2 , y2 ), x1 6= x2 , be any two different
points on the line L. Then,
1. Slope m of the line L is given by the fomula
y2 − y1 y − y2
m= or m = 1 .
x2 − x1 x1 − x2

2. The slope m of a horizontal line y = y0 , where y0 = y1 or

y0 = y2 , is m = 0, for y2 = y1
y2 − y1 0
m= = = 0.
x2 − x1 x2 − x1

N.S.A MAT060 February 29, 2024 46 / 79

3. If x1 = x2 , then the line L is a vertical line x = x0 , where
x0 = x1 or x0 = x2 , and its slope m is undefined, for
y2 − y1 y − y1
m= = 2 .
x2 − x1 0

4. Lines are parallel if and only if they have the same slopes.
5. Lines are perpendicular if their slopes are negative reciprocal
of each other.

N.S.A MAT060 February 29, 2024 47 / 79

Equation of a Line L
6. The equation of the line L is
y2 − y1
1 y − y0 = (x − x0 ), where x0 = x1 and y0 = y1 or
x2 − x1
x0 = x2 and y0 = y2 .
The Two-Point Form equation of a line
2 y − y0 = m(x − x0 ), where where x0 = x1 and y0 = y1 or
x0 = x2 and y0 = y2 .
The Slope -Point Form equation of a line
3 y = mx + b where m is the slope and b is the y-intercept.
The Slope-intercept Form equation of a line

N.S.A MAT060 February 29, 2024 48 / 79

 Let the curve of a function f , defined by y = f (x), be
given. Draw a line Lh through the point P0 and P on the graph of
y = f (x) (see Figure 6 )

Figure : Line Lh through P0 and P

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The line Lh is a secant line (a line passing through two points on
a curve). Supppose the P0 has coordinates (x0 , y0 ) and P has an
abscissa x0 + h.

Figure : Line Lh through P0 and P

Then P0 is the point (x0 , f (x0 )) and P is the point having

coordinates (xo + h, f (x0 ) + h).

N.S.A MAT060 February 29, 2024 50 / 79

The slope of the line Lh is

f (x0 + h) − f (x0 )
mh =
x0 + h − x0
f (x0 + h) − f (x0 )
= .
h

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Now, as h tends to zero, the point p tends to the point P0 .

Figure : Line Lh through P0 and P

We see geometrically that the secant line Lh rotates about the

point P0 .

N.S.A MAT060 February 29, 2024 52 / 79

Also, we find that the line Lh tends to a limiting position as h
approaches to zero. This limiting position is actually the tangent
line to the curve at P0 . Observe that if f is differentiable at x0 ,
the by definition of derivative,

f (x0 + h) − f (x0 )
lim = lim mLh
h→0 h h→0
= f 0 (x0 ).

This means that the slope mLh of the line Lh tends to a limiting
slope which is the derivative of f at x0 . Since the limiting
position of Lh is the line LT which is the line tangent to the curve
at P0 , it follows that f 0 (x0 ) is the slope of the tangent line to the
curve at P0 .

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2.6.1 Tangent and Normal Lines
Definition 2.6.1
Let f be a function such that f 0 (x0 ) exists. The tangent line to
the curve y = f (x) at P0 (x0 , y0 ) is the line through P0 having a
slope
m = f 0 (x0 ).

Remark 2.6.2
Note that we may view a tangent line to a curve at a point P0 as
the line that ’best approximates’ the curve near P0 .

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Definition 2.6.3
The normal line, denoted by LN , to the curve y = f (x) at
P0 (x0 , y0 ) is the line through P0 perpendicular to the tangent line
to the curve at P0 .

From the definition of a normal line, it follows that the slope of

the normal line to the curve y = f (x) at P0 (x0 , y0 ) is
1
mLN = − ,
f 0 (x 0 )

provided f 0 (x0 ) 6= 0 (that is, the tangent line to the curve at P0 is

neither a horizontal nor a vertical line). An equation of the normal
line can then be obtained by using the point-slope form of a line.

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 If the tangent line to the curve at P0 (x0 , y0 ) is the horizontal
line y = y0 = f (x0 ) (that is, f 0 (x0 ) = 0), then the normal line to
the curve at P0 is the line x = x0 , a vertical line. On the other
hand, if x = x0 is the tangent line, then y = y0 is the normal line
at P0 (x0 , y0 ).

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Example 2.6.4
1 Find The equation of the lines tangent and normal to the
curve f (x) = x2 − 1 at the point P0 (−2, 3).
2 Find the equations of the tangent line and the normalline to
the ccurve y = 3x2 − 2x − 1 at the point P0 (1, 0).
3 Find the equations of the tangent and normal lines to the
curve y = 2 − x2 at x = −1.
4 Find the equations of the tangent and normal lines to the
curve f (x) = 2x3 − 3x2 + 2x − 1 at the point where x = 1.

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Exercise:
Determine as indicated:
1 Find the equation of the lines tangent and noraml to the
curve given by the equation y 4 + 3y − 4x3 = 5x + 1 at the
point P0 (1, −2)
2 Find the equations of the tangent line and
 π the
 normal line to
the curve y = 5 sin(2x) at the point P0 ,5 .
4
3 Find the equation of the lines tangent and normal to the
graph of y = arcsin (x − 1) at the point (3/2, π/6).
4 Given the circle (x + 1)2 + y 2 = 4. Find the equation of the
lines tangent and normal to this circle at the point where
x = −1.

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2.6.2 Maximum and Minimum Values of Function

Definition 2.6.5
A function f is said to have a relative maximum value at x0
(the value is f (x0 )) if there exists an open interval I containing x0
on which f is defined and that f (x0 ) ≥ f (x) for all x in this
interval I. It has a relative minimum value at x0 (the value is
f (x0 )) if there exists an open interval I containing x0 on which f
is defined and that f (x0 ) ≤ f (x) for all x in this interval I. If the
function f has either a relative maximum or a relative minimum
value at x0 , then f is said to have a relative extremum at x0 .

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Theorem 2.6.6
If f (x) exists for all values of x in the open interval (a, b), and if
f has a relative extremum at x0 , where a < x0 < b, and if f 0 (x0 )
exists, then f 0 (x0 ) = 0.

Remark 2.6.7
A function may have one or more relative maximum (minimum)
values. Of course, it may have no relative maximum or a relative
minimum value.

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Critical Value and Critical Point of a Function

Definition 2.6.8
If x0 is a number in the domain of the function f , and if either
f 0 (x0 ) = 0 or f 0 (x0 ) does not exist, then x0 is called a critical
number or a critical value of f . A critical point is a point
(x0 , f (x0 )) on the function f corresponding to the critical number
x0 .

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Definition 2.6.9
The function f is said to have an absolute maximum value on
an interval if there is some number x0 in the interval such that
f (x0 ) ≥ f (x) for all x in this interval. In such a case, f (x0 ) is the
absolute maximum value of f on the interval. The function f is
said to have an absolute minimum value on an interval if there
is some number x0 in the interval such that f (x0 ) ≤ f (x) for all x
in this interval. The value f (x0 ) is the absolute minimum value of
f on the interval. An absolute extremum of a function on an
interval is either an absolute maximum value or an absolute
minimum value of the function on that interval.

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Remark 2.6.10
A relative maximum or relative minimum value of f is not
necessarily the absolute maximum or absolute minimum value of
f.

Theorem 2.6.11 (Extreme-Value Theorem)

If a function f is continuous on the closed interval [a, b], then f
has an absolute maximum value and an absolute minimum value
on [a, b].

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(Steps to find the Absolute Extrema)
1 Let f 0 (x) = 0 and solve for the critical values or numbers of f .
2 Find the function values at the critical numbers of f on (a, b).
3 Find the values f (a) and f (b).
4 The largest of the values obtained in (1) and (2) is the
absolute maximum value of f . The smallest of the values
obtained is the absolute minimum value of f .

Example 2.6.12
Given the function
 f (x) = x3 + x2 − x + 1, find the absolute
extrema of f on −2, 12 .


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Theorem 2.6.13 (Rolle’s Theorem)
Let f be a function such that
1 it is continuous on the closed interval [a, b];
2 it is differentiable on the open interval (a, b);
3 f (a) = 0 and f (b) = 0.
Then there is a number c in the open interval (a, b) such that
f 0 (c) = 0.

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Theorem 2.6.14 (Mean-Value Theorem)
Let f be a function such that
1 it is continuous on the closed interval [a, b], and
2 is differentiable on the open interval (a, b).
Then there is a number c in the open interval (a, b) such that

f (b) − f (a)
f 0 (c) = .
b−a

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2.6.4 Increasing/Decreasing Functions and the First
Derivative Test

Definition 2.6.15
A function f defined on an interval is said to be (strictly)
increasing on that interval if and only if f (x1 ) < f (x2 ) whenever
x1 < x2 , where x1 and x2 are any numbers in the interval. A
function f defined on an interval is said to be (strictly)
decreasing on that interval if and only if f (x1 ) > f (x2 ) whenever
x1 < x2 , where x1 and x2 are any numbers in the interval. If a
function is either increasing or decreasing on an interval, then it is
said to be monotonic on the interval.

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Theorem 2.6.16
Suppose the function f is continuous on an open interval I and
f 0 6= 0 on I. Then f 0 is either positive on all of I or negative on
all of I.

Theorem 2.6.17 [Intervals for Increasing or

Decreasing ]
Let the function f be continuous on the closed interval [a, b] and
differentiable on the open interval (a, b).
1 If f 0 (x) > 0 for all x in (a, b), then f is increasing on [a, b].
2 If f 0 (x) < 0 for all x in (a, b), then f is decreasing on [a, b].

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Theorem 2.6.18 (First Derivative Test for Relative
Extrema)
Let the function f be continuous at all points of the open interval
(a, b) containing the number x0 , and suppose that f 0 exists at each
point of (a, b), except possibly at x0 .
1 If f is increasing (f 0 (x) > 0) on some open interval to the
left of x0 with x0 as endpoint of this interval, and if f is
decreasing (f 0 (x) < 0) on some open interval to the right of
x0 with x0 as endpoint, then f has a relative maximum value
at x0 .
2 If f is decreasing (f 0 (x) < 0) on some open interval to the left
of x0 with x0 as endpoint, and if f is increasing (f 0 (x) > 0)
on some open interval to the right of x0 with x0 as endpoint
of this interval, then f has a relative minimum value at x0 .

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Steps to determine the intervals where a function is
increasing or decreasing:
1 Solve for f 0 (x).
2 Find the critical value/s of f , that is, the value(s) of x in the
domain of f for which f (x) = 0 or does not exist.
3 If a1 , a2 , · · · , ak are the distinct critical values of f and
a1 < a2 < · · · < ak , then consider (k + 1) open intervals
(−∞, a1 ), (a1 , a2 ), · · · , (ak−1 , ak ) and (ak , +∞) (provided
these intervals are in the domain of f).
4 Choose a value of x in each of these intervals. If f 0 (x) > 0,
then f 0 > 0 on this interval and hence, f is increasing on this
interval. Similarly, If f 0 (x) < 0 , then f 0 < 0 on this interval
and hence, f is decreasing on this interval.
5 Using step 4 and the previous theorem, determine the
relative maximum and relative minimum of f .

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Example 2.6.19
Given the function f (x) = x3 + x2 − x + 1.
Apply the
1 Mean-Value Theorem on [a, b] = [−2, 0];
2 Determine the intervals where the function
f (x) = x3 + x2 − x + 1 is increasing or decreasing.
3 Determine the relative maximum and relative minimum
point(s).

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3.6.5 Concavity and Points of Inflection

Definition 2.6.20
The graph of a function f is said to be concave upward on a
given interval I, if at each point of I the graph of f always
remains above the line tangent to the curve at this point. The
graph of a function f is said to be concave downward on a
given interval I, if at each point of I the graph of f always
remains below the line tangent to the curve at this point.

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Theorem 2.6.21 (Second Derivative Test for
Concavity)
[0.1in] Let f be a function such that f 00 (x) exists for every x in
some open interval I.
1 If f 00 (x) > 0 for all x on I, then the graph of f is concave
upward on I.
2 If f 00 (x) < 0 for all x on I, then the graph of f is concave
downward on I.

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Theorem 2.6.22 (Second Derivative Test for Relative Extrema)
00
Suppose that f (x) exists on I and suppose x0 ∈ I is a critical
value of f .
1 If f 00 (x) > 0 for all x on I, then x0 corresponds to a relative
minimum value of f .
2 If f 00 (x) < 0 for all x on I, then x0 corresponds to a relative
maximum value of f .

NOTE: If f 00 (x0 ) = 0, then the above second derivative test for

relative extrema does not apply.
Example 2.6.23
Use the second derivative test (whenever possible) to find the
relative extrema of
 
3 2 1
f (x) = x + x − x + 1 on −2, .
2
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Definition 2.6.24
A point (x0 , f (x0 )) is a point of inflection of the graph of the
function if the graph has a tangent line there, and if there exists
an open interval I containing x0 such that if x is in I, then either
1 f 00 (x) < 0 if x < x0 , and f 00 (x) > 0 if x > x0 , or
2 f 00 (x) > 0 if x < x0 , and f 00 (x) < 0 if x > x0 .

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Theorem 2.6.25
If the function f is differentiable on some open interval containing
x0 and if (x0 , f (x0 )) is a point of inflection of the graph of f , then
if f 00 (x0 ) exists, or f 00 (x0 ) = 0.

Remark 2.6.26
1 The converse of the theorem above is not true. That is, if
f 00 (x0 ) = 0, then it is not always true that (x0 , f (x0 )) is a
point of inflection of the graph f
2 From the definition and theorem above, it follows that a
point (x0 , f (x0 )) is a point of inflection if
f 00 (x0 ) = 0 or f 00 (x0 ) does not exist and
the graph of f is concave upward on one side of (x0 , f (x0 ))
and concave downward on the other.

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Intervals of Concavity:
1 Find f 00 (x).
2 Find the values of x in the domain of f for which f 00 (x) = 0
or f 00 (x) does not exist.
3 If a1 , a2 , · · · , ak are distinct values of x obtained in (2) and
a1 < a2 < · · · < ak , then consider the (k + 1) open intervals
(−∞, a1 ), (a1 , a2 ), · · · , (ak−1 , ak ) and (ak−1 , ak ) (provided
these intervals are in the domain of f ). If no such values of x
exist, then the critical values of f may be considered instead.
4 Choose a value of x in each of these intervals. If f 00 (x) > 0 ,
then the graph of f is concave upward on this interval.
Similarly, If f 00 (x) < 0, then the graph of f is concave
downward on this interval.
5 Using step 4 and the previous remark, determine which of the
values correspond to the point of inflection of the graph of f .

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Example 2.6.27
Given the function f , discuss the intervals where it is increasing
or decreasing, its relative maximum and minimum points, the
intervals of concavity, and the points of inflection. Construct a
sketch of the graph of the function.
1 f (x) = −x3 + 3x
2 f (x) = x3 + x2 − x + 1
3 f (x) = x4 − 2x2 + 3

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Exercise
Given the function f , discuss its relative maximum and minimum
points, the intervals where it is increasing or decreasing, the
intervals of concavity, and the points of inflection. Construct a
sketch of the graph of the function.
3
1 f (x) = x3 − x2
2
2 f (x) = x4 − 8x3 + 18x2 − 27
3 f (x) = (x − 1)3 (x − 3)

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