VAN LANG UNIVERSITY

FACULTY OF FOREIGN LANGUAGES

WRITING4
(selected & compiled)

FOR INTERNAL USE ONLY

Contents

Unit 1 Unity and Coherence 1

Unit 2 From Paragraph to Essay 25

Unit 3 Comparison Essays 52

Unit 4 Cause-Effect Essays 74

Uuit 5 Argumentative Essays 98

 <:-,--,.,

UNIT 1 UNITY AND COHERENCE

·., ,.,

To write academic/texts,
to master certain skills.
In this chapter, yell willle~rn to; .
• organize aurliti~Ciparagraph.
around oM central idea ..
i
•. Construct a coherent
paragraph by
II
o Repeating key nouns
II
o Using consistent pronouns.

! o

o
Using transition signal~ to
link ideas
Arranging ideas in
·

II
logical order
I!
I • Write, revise, and edit a
ru
paragraph about health
I and medicine

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II Medical advances have saved many lives.

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 In this chapter, you willlemn about the ilnportance of unity and coherence in
constructing a good paragraph. When a paragraph is unified, it _is focused exclusively
on one main idea. VVhen it is 'coherent, inforination flows logitally, and readers can
easily follow your ideas. Your final assignment V!ill be to.write a unified and coherent
paragraph about a topic related to health and medicine.

ANALYZING THE MODEl

The writing model is a unified, coherent paragraph on the topic of public health.
Read the model. Then answer the questions.

/Writing Model
~·:t:~%g;~ 1 1
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1
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1
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2 I ' I I I
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Public Health Successes

1 Although it is difficult to solve public health problems, great success has been achieved
with certain illnesses. 2 For example, the eradication 1 of smaUpoX was one of the most signifiQant
accomplishments of the 2oth century. 3 When the campaign against smallpox was launched in
1967, about 10 to 15 million people contracted the disease each year. 40fthese, two million died.
5 More than 10 million individuals were disfigured. 6 However, a little more than a decade later,
the smallpox program had met its goal; the lasJ case of this terrible illness occurred in Somalia
in 1977. 7 Following this important achievement, the World Health Organization tried to recreate
its success. 8 The focus of the riext campaign was polio, which can paralyze or kill its victims if
it is untreated. 9 The elimination of this disease is not yet complete, butthe number of cases has
greatly decreased. 10 As the battles against smallpox and polio show, remarkable advances can
be made in the field of public health. ··

Sou1'Ce: Paragraph adapted from Buckingham, Robert. A Primer on International Health.

1
eradication: completely getting rid of or destroying something, such as a disease or a social problem

Questions about the Model

1. What is the-topic sentence of this paragraph? Underline it.
2. What two examples develop and support the topic sentence? -.
--------------~~- \
3. Which senten-ce introduces the fust example?-Wh:idrsa:rtence----i:ntrudu-ce~the------
second example?
4. Are all the sentences related to the topic sentence?
5. VVhat is the purpose of the concluding sentence?

2
Developing a rich and varied vocabulary ca._rt help you become a stronger writer.
When you are writing about a complex topic, you want to be able to connect ideas and
information in a way that will make sense to your reader. Synonyms can help you
do this. Synonyms are words that mean the same or almost the same thing. You can
use synonyms in your writmg to discuss concepts, examples, and opinions without
being repetitious.

If you want to use a synonym in your writing, but you cannot think of one, consult
a print or online thesaurus. A thesaurus is a reference work that provides synonyms
for many different words. Remember, however, that synonyms can sometimes have
slightly different meanings from one another. When you choose a synonym to use in
your writing, be sure that it means exactly what you want to say.

Noticing Synonyms

(J) Find these words and their synonyms in the model. Write the synonyms.

1. eradication------~-
2. significant _ _ _ _ _ _ __

3. people----.,.-----
4. disease _ _ _ _ _ _ __

€) These words are also in the model. Write a synonym tor each word. Use a
dictionary or thesaurus as needed.

1. diliicult - - - - - -

2. problems----:-----
3. launched _ _ _ _ _ __

4. recreate ________

As mentioned earlier, a key element in a well-written paragraph is unity. A unified

paragraph focuses on one main idea. For example, if you are writing an essay about
the advantages of different kinds of pain medications, you might have a paragraph
about the advantages of taking aspirin. In your paragraph, you should discuss only the
advantages of aspirin. Do not discuss the disadvantages or begin to discuss other kinds
of medicine. If you are writing an entire essay about the advantages of taking aspirin,
then discuss only one advantage, such as heart health, in each paragraph. If you begin
to discuss another advantage, start a new paragraph.
 The second feature of unity is that every suppo1~ing sentence must directly explain or
prove the main idea. For example, in a paragraph about the high cost of prescdption
drugs in the United States, you could mention buying generic brands as an alternative
to brand-name drugs, but if you 'i·Vrite several sentences about how generiC drugs are
made, you are getting off topic, and your paragraph will not have unity.

~ Staying on Topic
These paragraphs contain one or more sentences that are off topic.
Underline the topic sentence. Cross out any sentences that are off topic.

PARAGRAPH 1

The cloning of genes' has made many medical advances possible.

Human growth hormone (HGH) is a good example. This hormone
stimulates the growth of bones and muscles during quldhood. Cloning
the gene for HGH has provided an increase in the availability of the
hormone. However, the availability of HGH and other products of
biotechnology2 raises an ethical question. The hormone is used widely to
treat children wifh dwarfism, a condition that results in aD adult height
of 4'10" or shorter. There have been several interesting television shows
recently about individuals with dwarfism. Many of fhese shows are very
popular. Should HGH be available to anyone who wants taller children
or only fhose who have children with dwarfism? Supposf' parents want
their average-size son to be taller so he will have a better chance of
making his high sChool varsity team? Doctors do not have any evidence
that exposure to HGH affects average-size children negatively, but' many
feel it is unethical to provide it to children with no serious medical need.

Ji'ARAGRAPH 2

Advances ill medicine can come from surprising places, including

water. Many scientists are interested in the medical uses of small
aquatic' animals. They believe these animals are useful for new medical
products. Some ancient civilizations used berries and grasses for medical
purposes. These plant-based medicines were often quite effective. In
the future, important drugs may be made from aquatic organisms. In
addition, theSe organisms may be used as models t.o understand human
diseases. Many years from now, sea creatures may help people tead
healthier and longer lives.

Source: Paragraphs 1 and 2 adapted £rom Thieman, William, and Michael Palladino,
Introduction to Biotechnology.

1
genes: a part of a cell in a living thing that controls whnt it looks like, how it grows,
and how it develops. People get their genes from their parents.
2
biotechnology: using living things for new purposes, such as making medicine
3 aquatic: growing or Hving in or ncar"-lNater
 This paragraph not only has sentences that are off topic but also discusses
more than one topic. Decide where the paragraph should be divided into two.
Underline each topic sentence. Then cross out any sentences that are off topic.

Polite or Not?

Even when you try to be polite, it is easy to do the wrong thing

accidentally in a new culture. For example, in the United States, when
someone offers you food or a beverage, accept it the first time it is
offered if you want it. If you say, "No, thank you" because it is polite
to decline the first one or two offers in your culture, you could become
very hungry and thirsty. In the United States, a host thinks that "no"
means "no" and will usually not offer again. Meals in the United
States are usually more informal than meals in other countries, and the
times of meals may be different. Although Americans are usually very
direct in social matters.. there· are a few_ occasions when they are not.
If an American says, "Please drop by sometime," he may or may not
want you to visit him in his home. Your clue that this may not be a real
invitation iS the word nsometime." In some areas of the United States,
people do not expect you to visit them unless you have an invitation
for a specific day and time. In other areas of the United States, however,
"dropping by" is a friendly, neighborly gesture. Idioms are often difficult
for newcomers to understand. ,

:poH'ERENOE . . . . .,
Although paragraph unity is important,it is not the only factor that you need to
consider in writing a successful paragraph. In order for paragraphs to be well-
structured, they must also be coherent. The word coherence comes from the Latin verb
cohere, which means "to hold together." For_ coherence in writing, the sentences must
hold together; that is, the movement from one sentence to the next must be logical and
smooth. There must be no sudden jumps. Each sentence should flow smoothly into the
next one.

Here are four ways to achieve coherence:

• Repeat key nouns.
1!1 Use consistent pronouns.

il'~ @ Use transition signals to link ideas.

I • Arrange your ideas in logical order.

'I
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 REPETITION OF KIEV NOUNS
The easiest way to achieve coherence is to repeat key nm.ms. In this paragraph, the
repetition of the noun fear smooths the flow of the sentences and creates coherence.

1P'ARAGR.Al:'H WITH COHERENCE

The Health Consequences of fear.

When worry escalates, the result is fear. Everyone has experienced fear. A
swimmer of only moderate skill might be afraid of swift waters; a child might
fear the dark. A hiker will probably feel fear when hearing the distinctive
warning of a rattlesnake; a jogger might experience it when confronted
with an angry dog. According to the author Norman Cousins, "Fear ...
create[s] negative expectations. One tends tomove in the direction of one's
expectations." Fear causes the heart to race, the head to spin,, the palms to

In this version of the paragraph, the word fear has been replaced by the pronoun it
after the firSt use. This oveJ"llse of the pronoun makes the paragraph confusing and less
coherent. The reader will forget what "it" stands for.

PARAGRAPH WITHOUT CoHERENCE

The Health Consequences of Fear

When worry escalates, the result is fear. Everyone has experienced it.
A swinriner of only moderate skill might be afraid of swift waters; a child
might fear the dark A hiker will.probably feel it when hearing the distinctive
warning of a rattlesnake; a jogger might experience it when confronted with an
angry dog. According to the author Norman Cousins, "It ... create[s] negative
expectations. One tends to move in the direction of one's expectations." It
causes the heart to race, the head to spin, the palms to sweat, the knees to
buckle, and breathing to become labored. Its physical effects are such that the
human body can't withstand it indefinitely.

There is no fixed rule about how often to repeat key nouns or when to use pronotms
as a substitute. You should repeat a key noun instead of using a pronoun when the
-------------------------- _meaning_is__nnclear_._ ,

Source: Paragraph based on Karren, Keith, Lee Smith, Brent Hafen, and Kathryn Frandsen. Mind Body Health:
The Effects of Attitudes, Emotim1s, and Relationships.
 ".
·~
,_ ., ,._ '

e Find problems with the pronoun it in this paragraph. Replace it with the key
noun English as necessary to make the paragraph more coherent.

English

English has almost become an international language. E.xcept for Chinese,

more people speak it than any other language. Spanish is the official language
· En9li>h
of more countries in the world, but more countries have-it-as their official or

unofficial second language. More than 70 percent of the world's mail is written

in it. It is the primary language on the Internet. In international business, it is

used more than any other language, and it is the language of airline pilots and

air traffic controllers all over the world. Moreover, although French used to be

the language of diplomacy, it has displaced it throughout the world. Therefore,

it is a useful language to know.

€) Find problems with the subject pronouns. Replace them with key nouns as
necessary to make the paragraph more coherent.

Dolphins

Dolphins display almost human behavior at times. For example, they

display the human emotions of joy and sadness. During training, when they

do something correctly, they squeal excitedly and race toward their trainer.

When they make a mistake, however, they droop' and mope' around their pool.

i· Furthermore, they help each other when they are in trouble. If one is sick, it

sends out a message, and others in the area swim to help it. They push it to the

surface of the water so that it can breathe. They stay with it for days or weeks

until it recovers or dies. They have also helped trapped or lost whales navigatP

their way safely out to the open sea. They are so intelligent, in fact, that the U.S.

Navy is training them to become underwater bomb disposal experts.

1
droop: sink down
2
mope: act depressed

7
 Key Noun Substitutes
Although repeating key words can make a paragraph more coherent, you don't want
to repeat the same word too often. As you learned in Noticing Vocabulary: Synonyms
on page 24, you can substitute synonyms or expressions with the same meaning if you
do not wish to repeat a key word again and again. Pronouns, when used correctly, are
also good substitutes for key nouns.

~ identifying Key Noun Substit11tes

Read the paragraph. Then answer the questions.

A Mardi Gras Custom

1 "Throw me something, mister," is the customary plea for a Mardi

Gras "throw." 2 In the final days of Mardi Gras-the season of parties,
parades, and revelry' that precedes the Christian period of fasting
and penance' called Lent-crowds of spectators line the streets of
New Orleans. 3 They hope to catch a Mardi Gras souvenir tossed fiom
parading floats. 4 Mardi Gras organizations called "krewes" build the
floats and sponsor the .parades, and, while cruising along parade routes,
these costitmed !crewe members throw plastic trinkets to the crowds
below. 5 The trinkets, which are called "Mardi Gras throws," consist of
bead necklaces, coins, cups; toys, Frisbees, and figurines stamped with
the krewe's symbol or the parade theme. 6 Mardi Gras throws are big
business for the companies that supply them. 7 Krewe members spend
an average of $800 on them, and some spend $2,000 or more. 8 By far the
most treasured of the Mardi Gras mementos are gaudy bead necklaces.
9 Originally made of glass, they are now made of plastic.

Source: Roach, John. "The Rich History of Mardi Gras's Cheap Trinkets."

1. How many times does the writer use the expresssion Mardi Gras throw in

the paragraph?-~-----
2. What three words does the writer use as substitutes for Mardi Gras throw?

(See sentences 3, 4, and 8.) ·_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ - - - - - - - -

3. What does the pronoun them refer to in sentences 6 and 7?

·-··--4-;-Whftl-tlees-Hte-]3FGRenn-tkgy-refedo_in.sentence..2?

1 revelry: celebration, festivities

2
penance: punishment -that you accept to say that
you are sorry for doing a bad thing

,,0
CONS~TENTPRONOUNS

When you use pronouns, make sure that you use the same person and number
throughout your paragraph. For example, don't change from you to he (change of
person) or from he to they (change of number).
Notice the changes the writer makes for consistency.

~ The root of a wor;is~~~~~-~:s~;··b-~sic part. A prefix is another word part. Prefixes

can be added to the beginning of words to changt~fneaning.Students who
· 5tvdent5
know a few Latin and Greek roots and prefixes have an advantage over a st~eeRI
do. not
who sees Rei know them. They can often guess the meaning of new words.
stvden.ts tJ.,ex
If, for example,.yet~-Know that the prefix omni means "all," "f<**'have a better
chance of guessing the meanings of words such as omnibus, omnipresent, and
omnidirectional. Furthermore, ~t~~~~IJ who ~~J:s that the root sci- comes from
scire, "to know," can guess that omniscient means "all-knowing."
l,,~~"~~·f<?t~~~-l\lll~~~:~iJ;_,,.,.•tJ~;;>-:,~f'4r.'-;7,~~~~~~~~~~'!$j:~~~h;:c;$',il*e-~","""'<!lf"'''1iO!?¢'

Using Consistent Pronouns

Find errors with pronoun consistency. Make corrections .

. Olympic Athletes

Olympic athletes must be strong both physically and mentally. First of all,

if you hope to compete in an Olympic sport, you must be physically strong.

Furthermore, those who want to compete in the Olympics must train for many

years. For the most demanding sports, they train several hours a day, five or

six days a week; for ten or more years. In addition to being physically strong,

athletes must also be mentally tough. This means that you have to be totally

dedicated to your sport, often giving up a normal school, family, and social

life, Being mentally strong also means that he or she must be able to withstand

the intense pressure of international competition with its accotllpanying media

coverage. Finally; not everyone can win a medal, so Olympians must possess

the inner strength to live with defeat.

TRANSiTION SiGNAlS
Another ele1nent of a Smooth and coherent paragraph is the use of transition signals.
Transition signals can be single Words such as first, finally, and however, or phrases such
as in conclus(on~ on the oHzer hand, and as a result. There are different kinds of transition
signals such as·subordinators (when, although), coordinators (and, but), adjectives
(another, additional), and prepositions (because of in spite of).
Transition signals are like traffic signs; they tell your reader when to go forward, turn
around, slow down, and stop. In other words, they tell your reader when you are
presenting, for example, a similar idea (similarly, and, in addition), an opposite idea (on
the other hand, but, in contrast),an example ifor example), a result (therejo1·e, as a result), or
a conclusion (in conclusion).
Transition signals give a paragraph-coherence because they guide your reader from
one idea to the next.

d#lmiBP llsing Transition Signals

Compare these paragraphs. Circle thetransition signals in paragraph 2:.How
do they make the paragraph more coherent?

~--------------------------------,----

! One difference among the world's seas and oceans is that the salinity'
varies in different climate z0 nes. The Baltic Sea in northern Europe is only one-
fourth as salty as the Red Sea in thie Middle East. There are reasons for this. In
warm climates, water evaporates2 rapidly. The concentration3 of salt is greater.
The surrounding land is dry and does not contribute much freshwater to dilute•
the salty seawater. In cold climate zones, water evaporates slowly. The runoff
created by melting snow adds a considerable amount of freshwater to dilute the
saline seawater. ·

------- ----------------------------- - - ·-· --- --· ---------------- --------------------1&

One difference among the world's seas ijlld oceans is that the salinity ~
varies in different climate zones. For example, the Baltic Sea in northern Europe ~-
is only one-fourth as saline as the Red Sea in the Middle East. There are two f.
reasons for' this. First of all, in warm climate zones, water evaporates rapidly; E;
therefo"re, the concentration of salt is greater. Second, the sun;ounding land is tl
__;___ary; cortsequerrtly,-it-do-es-nut-ccmtribllie-mueh-keshwater-h>-Qilute.tbe.salljl .... m•·--- ~' --

' seawater. In cold climate zones, on the other hand, water evaporates slowly. ~;,
Furthermore, the nmoff created by melting snow adds a considerable amount t'
of freshwater to dilute the saline-seawater. ~
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··",•,;co'?"•· ,_., ~::T"': '<? .''· ·:, 1'
, ' ' '"''' ,.,,:: ••••, • ;;
'~·:'· ~'~'i>'~·["_ ··'·!-~Fi~'i·:r.;c:~1 ·''' "~; >~·:' ,.~ ':! ""''':'·,:c.,.. ,·;~~~ ~tf1!)Fr''~:~~;~~~:~ ·:'' ·1i,;•;--c:1 ;: -~'-·<'-~,,· · ·,-· ·-~,'".~;c.;·:~:,,,~,-,, '~.';'C::'~ ~.,·y::l:r;c:r!~ ;•1>"'''7-''T"~-

1
sallnity: salt content
2
evaporates: dries up
-~concentration: percentage of
4
dilute: reduce the concentration

10
 Paragraph 2, in Practice 7, is more coherent because it contains transition signals.
Each transition signal has a special meaning; each shows hm:v a sentence relates to
the one that precedes it.
• For example tells you that an example of the preceding idea
is corning.
• Two tells you to look for two different reasons.
• First of all tells you that this is the first reason.
• Second and furthermore indicate that additional ideas are coming.
• Therefore and consequently indicate that the second statement is a
result of the first statement.
• On the other hand tells you that an opposite idea is coming.
Some transition signals are listed in the chart on page 33. Most groups of transition
signals have different rules for punctuation and their position in a sentence, so it's
good to examine these rules by groups.

See AppendixB, Transition Signals, pages 296-298, for a more complete list.

Transition Phrases and Conjunctive Adverbs

Most of the transition phrases and conjunctive adverbs in the Transition Signals chart
can appear at the beginning, in the middle, or at the end of an independent clause.
They are usually set off by commas. You may remember that an independent clause is
a group of words that contains a subject and a verb and expresses a complete thought.
For example, the Baltic Sea in northern Eumpe is only one-fourth as saline
as the Red Sea in the Middle East

The runoff created by melting snow, furthermore, adds a considerable

amount of freshwater to dilute the saline seawater.

The Mediterranean Sea is more sal1nethan the Red Sea, however.

EXCEP'UONS

• The words and phrases in the groups for listing ideas in order,
introducing a conclusion· or summary, and introducing a result
usually appear only at the beginning of a sentence, not in the
middle or at the end.
• Too usually appears only at the end of a sentence, sometimes
preceded by a comrn~.
e The time words then, now, and soon usually do not need commas.
 Meaning I Transi~ion Conjunctive Coordinating Subordinating Other
Functjon Phrases. Adverbs ConjUnctions Conjunctions Signals

To introduce an in addition furthermore and another

additional idea moreover (+ nonn)
besides an additional
(+ nonn)
also
too
To introduce an on the other however but although in spite of
opposite idea hand neverthe-less yet though (+ nonn)
or contrast m· conttast instead even though despite
(+noun)
still whereas
nonetheless · while
To introduce otherwise or if
a choice or unless
alternative

1 To introduce a in fact that is

:restatement or indeed
explanation
To list in order first,_second, the first,
third second,
next, last, third, etc.
finally (+ nonn)
the next, last,
final (+ noun)
To introduce an for example an example of
example for instance (+noun)
such as
(+noun)
To introduce a clearly
condusion or in brief
summary
in conclusioh
indeed

in summary

To introduce a accordingly therefore so

result as a result consequently
as a hence
consequence thus
... ----·-·-'"·--·-·-~ •••·--~·---•"••·•-•••••••--O·.----·--•• ,,,,,.,. -------------- ------ --··-----------~------ ·---·-·-- -----.. ---------·-"···--~---·- -----"-----------~------------~-----
The words in the Transition Phrases an¢ Conjunctive Adverbs columns of the chart can
also connect two independent clauses. In this case, use a semicolon and a cmrulLa.
,-------INDEPENDENT CLAUSE INDEPENDENT CU;USE - - - ,
In warm climate zones, water evaporates rapidly; therefore, the concentration of salt is greater.

,------------INDEPENDENT CLAUSE------------,
Both the Red Sea and the Mediterranean have narrow outlets to the ocean;
~INDEPENDENT CLAUSE-----,
however, the Mediterranean's is narrower.

; - - - - - - INDEPENDENT CLAUSE INDEPENDENT CLAUSE - - - ,

A few societies in the world are matriarchal; that is, the mother is head of the family.

,--~-------INDEPENDENT CLAUSE - - - - - - - - - -0
Some English words have no exact equivalents in other languages; for example,
;---------INDEPENDENT CLAUSE---------,
there is no German word for the adjective fair, as in fair play.

See Appendix B, Conjunctive Adverbs, pages 294--295, for more examples.

Coordinators
This group of transition signals includes the seven coordinating conjunctions and,
but, so, or, nor,for, and yet and the five correlative ("paired") conjunctions both . .. and,
not only . .. but also, neither . .. nor, either . .. or; and whether . .. or. When coordinators
connect two independent cla~es, use a co~a.
;-------INDEPENDENT C L A U S E - - - - - - - ,
In a matriarchy, the mother is the head of the family, and
;-------INDEPENDENT C l A U S E - - - - - - - ,
all the children belong to her extended family group .

.-------INDEPENDENT CLAUSE INDEPENDENT CLAUSE - - -0

In warm climate zones, water evaporates rapidly, so the concentration of salt is greater.

~INDEPENDENT CLAUSE~ .. ~ INDEPENDENT CLAUSE~

Children not only need love, but they also need discipline.

When coordinators connect two words or phrases, do not use _a comma.

Would you rather take a written or an oral exam?

Children need not pnly love but also discipline.

fuCEl"TION

Some writers use a comma before but and yet even when they do not connect
independent clauses to emphasize the contrast of the connected ideas.
The poem is solemn, yet optimistic in tone.

See Appendix B, Coordinators, page 291, for more examples.

Subon:iffnators
A subordinator (su)oordinating conjunction) is the first word in a dependent clause. As
you may remember, a dependent clause is a group of words containing a subject and a
verb th<rt does not express a complete thought. A dependent clause always begins with
a subordinator ·and mUst be conriected to an indepen~ent·clause to form a sentence.
The sentence may or may'not have a comma. The general rUle is this: Put a comma
after a dependent clause but not in front of one.
O!::.PENDENT CLAUSE jlNDEPI:NDENT CLAUSE --:1
Although the company's sales increased last year, its net profit declined.

,------INDEPENDENT CLAUSE ~DEPENDENT CLAUSE~

The company's net profit declined last year although its sales increa~ed.

See Appendix B, pages 292-294, for more information about subordinators.

Other Signals
The transition signals in this group include nouns such as example, adjectives such as
additional, prepositions such as in addition to, verbs such as cause, and adverbs such as
too. There are no punctuation rules for this group, but it is important to notice what
kinds of words follow these signals.

Additional is an adjective, so it is followed by a noun,

An addntional reason lor the company's bankruptcy was the
lack of competent management

In addition to is a preposition, so it is followed by a noun or noun phrase.

In addition to increased competition, the lack of competent
management caused the companY,'s bankruptcy.

Such as is followed by a noun or noun phrase and no comma.

Vocabulary differences between British and American English include
words such as bonnet I hood, petrol/ gasoline, windscreen I windshield, and lorry I true/(.

you are using.

- Recognizing Transit~on Signals

Read the paragraphs and circle the transition signals. Punctuate them
as needed.
~-··--- ·-

1 Genetic1 Engineering
Genetic research has produced both exciting and frightening possibilities.
Scientists are now able to create new forms of life in the laboratory because of
the development of gene splicing'.@n the one hanjj); the ability to create life in
the laboratory could greatly benefit humankind. Indeed agriculture has already
benefited from applications of, gene splicing. For example researchers have
engineered a more nutritious type of rice that could help alleviate the serious
problem of vitamin A deficiency. It is estimated that more than 124 million
children worldwide lack vitamin A, which puts them at risk for permanent
blindness and other health issues. In addition genetic engineers have created
larger fish, frost-resistant strawberries, and cows that produce more milk.
On the other hand some people feel that gene-splicing technology could-
have terrible consequences. In fact a type of com engineered to kill a certain
insect pest also threatened to annihilate' desirable monarch butterflies. In
another accident, a genetically engineered type of com that was approved only
for animal consumption because it was toxic to humans accidentally cross-
pollinated with com grown for humans. As a result many countries banned
imports of genetically modified com for several years. Furthermore the ability
to clone human bein,gs is a possibility that frightens many people. In 2004, two
South Korean scientists reported that they had successfully cloned a human
embryo (Dreifus). The embryo did not develop into a baby however it is
possible that one could do so in the future, a possibility that not everyone
is comfortable with.

S0:urce: Dreifus, Claudia. "2 Friends, 242 Eggs

and a Bmakthrough."

1
genetic: from gene, the unit of heredity
~.gene splicing: gene joining
5
annihilate: wipe out, destroy completely

/):)
0 Write the transition signal that best shows the relationship between the
sentences. Make punCtuation and capitalization changes as needed.

1. A recent article in Era maga~ine s~ggested Ways to reduce inflation. The article

suggested that the president reduce the federal budget ·furthermore

(however I in contrast I furthermore) it suggested that the government reduce federal,
state, and local taxes.

2. The same article said that the causes of inflation were easy to find

~-------(however I for example I therefore) the cure for inflation was not
so easy to prescribe.

3. Era also suggested that rising wages were one of the primary causes of inflation

- - - - - c - - - - - (however I therefore I for example) the government should take

action to control- W!lges.

4. In physics, the weight of an object is the gravitational force' with which Earth

attracts it; (moreover I therefore I for example) if a man weighs

150 pounds, this means that Earth pulls him down with a forceof 150 pounds.

5. The farther away from Earth a person is, the less the gravitational force of Earth.

-,--~~---(in conclusion I therefore I however) a man weighs less when he

is 50,000 miles from Earth than when he is only 5,000 miles away.

6. A tsunami is a tidal wave produced by an earthquake on the ocean floor. The

waves are very long and low in open water, but when they get close to land,

they encounter friction 2 because the water is shallow _ _ _ _ _ _ __

(on the other hand I as a result I for example) the waves increase in height and can
cause considerable damage when they finally reach land.

1
gravitational force~ the force that pulls things toward Earth
z friction: resistance
 @ Complete the paragraph. Use the transition signals from the box. Use each
V'.'ord once. Add punctuation as needed. In some cases, more than ·one answer
is possible ..

also for example in fact similarly

final and most convincing indeed second third

Time

One stereotype about Americans says that they are overly concerned

with time. One of the first things you notice is that for Americans, time seems

as valuable as money. -----:.----they even have a saying, "Time is

1.
money."---.....,,---- have you noticed how many verbs can be followed
2.
by both time and money? - - - - - ; ; ; - - - - - Y O U can spend time, save time, lose
3.
time, find time, make time, waste time, and.run out of time. -----;.----You
4.
can spend, save, lose, find, make, waste, and run out of money. -~~---::-----
5.
Americans seem to regard time as a "thing" that one can own. You can have time,

buy time, and take time. (One wonders how much it costs and where it is taken.)

A-----;;:---- piece of evidence that Americans are obsessed with

6.
time is their obsession With being on time. ------,..----people who are
7.
habitually late risk punishment ranging from frowning disapproval to losing

their jobs. The---~:----- proof is that these poor people sometimes

8.

take courses in time management! That is really overdoing it. Don't you agree?

iiltJiiioiWiN On a separate sheet of paper, write a paragraph-·using Topic Sentence 1 or 2.

Use the suggested transition signals, supporting points, and examples given or
your own idecls.

Topic Sentence l: There are some noticeable differences betwe~n British and
Amedcan English. '
'· "' ... , '!

TRANSITION SIGNALS

another difference such as for instance

for example finally in conclusion
 §url'OlltHNG POINTS EXAM¥l.l£S

Pronunciatim-1 Speakers of British English do not always pronounce r.

schedule: British= [shed-u-al]; American= [sked-u-al]
Spelling co~our I cOlor; -realise I -:realizej"defence I defenSe
Vocabulary petrol I gas; biscuit I cookie; pocket money I allowance

Topic Sentence 2: Sometimes I enjoy being alone.

'fRANSlTlON SIGNALS
for instance on the other hand
moreover therefore

Writing Tip i
-- --~----- --- - - -- - - -- - - - - "

Read your\J\/rifing alou~ i.nd pdyatterition to 'four own language. Are you.
using too manytra~"itionsign<'\ls? Too many can be distracting rather tha~
helpful. There isno' rule about ho"'! many to use in one paragraph. Use them
only when they 'Alii! h~lp yourreacier follow your ideas,

E!ij§@l\J!!il Correcting Too Many Transition Signals

Delete extra, unhelpful transition signals from this paragraph. Then rewrite
the paragraph on a separate sheet of paper. Change the capitalization and
punctuation as needed. Discuss your changes in a small group.

How to Grow an Avocado Tree

After you have enjoyed that deliciow; avocado, do not throw out
the seed! You can grow a beautiful houseplant by following these simple
steps. First, wash the seed. Second, dry it. Third, insert three toothpicks
into its thickest part. Then fill a glass or empty jar with water. After that,
suspend the seed in the water with the pointed end up and the broad
end down. The water should cover about an inch of the seed. Next, put
the glass in a warm place, but not in direct sunlight. Add water when
necessary to keep the bottom of the seed under water at all times. In two
to six weeks, you should see roots begin to grow. Furthermore, the seed
will crack open, and then a stem will emerge from the top. However,
wait until the stem is 6 to 7 inches long. Then cut it back to about 3
inches. Now wait until the roots are thick and the stem has-leafed out
again. Then fill an 8- to 10-inch diameter clay pot with enriched potting
soil. Plant the•seed, leaving the top half exposed. Then water it well.
-- - - ---------- - -- --- - --------- --- -- ---After-that;-water-frequently-bu-f-ligh-t1y;-a-lso-givcg.the-plant.an.okcasionaL __ ____ _ ______ _
deep soaking. Then place the potted plant in a sunny window and
watch it grow. Then, when the stem is 12 inches high, cut it back to 6
inches to encourage the growth of side branches. In just a few more
weeks, you will have a beautiful indoor plant. In conclusion, enjoy your
new plant, but do not expect it to bear fruit. Avocados grown from seed
occasionally flower and bear fruit; however, first you will have to plant
it outside and then wait anyvvhere from five to thirteen years.

Source: "Grow Your Own Tree." California Avocado Corrunission.

' ·I o
i)
lOGICAl ORDER
In addition to repeating key nouns and pronouns and using transition signals, a· fourth
way to achieve coherence is to arrange your sentences in some kind of logical order.

Your choice of one kind of logical order over another will, of course, depend on your
topic and your purpose. You may even combine two or more different types of logical
order in the same paragraph. The important point to remember is to arrange your
ideas in some kind of order that is logical to a reader accustomed to the English way
of writing.
Some common kinds of logical order in English are chronological order, the logical
division of ideas, and comparison /contrast.
• Chronological order is order by time--a sequence of events or steps
in a process. The paragraph "How to Grow an Avocado Tree"
(page 39) uses time order to organize the steps.
• In a logical division of ideas, a topic is divided into parts, and each
part is discussed separately. The writing model "Communication
Styles That Don't Work" on page 3 uses logical division of ideas.
First, it discusses passive communication and then it discusses
active communication.
• In a comparison I contrast paragraph, the similarities and/ or
differences between two or more items are discussed. The
paragraph about synonyms on page 6 compares and contrasts
word meanings.

i@ffliDNj(IJ Recognizing Kinds of Logical Order

Work with a partner. Read the paragraphs and decide which kind of logical
order is used in each. Discuss the reasons for your choice. Underline the
transition signals.

p ARAGRAI'H 1

The process of machine translation of languages is complex.

To translate a docUjllent from English inio Japanese, for example,
the computer first 'analyzes an English sentence, determining its
grammatical structure and identifying the subject, verb, objects, and
modifiers. Next, the words are translated by an English-Japanese
dictionary. After that, another part of the computer program analyzes
the resulting awkward jumble of words and meanings and produces
an intelligible sentence based on the rules of Japanese syntax1 and the
machine's understanding of what the original English sentence meant.
Finally, a human bilingual editor polishes the computer-produced'
lransla lion.

Kind of logical order:·-----~

1
syntax: sentence structure, grammar
 Although there has been some success in decreasing the spread
of polio, this campaign has not been as successful as the smallpox
campaign. TI1e slower progress against polio is due to differences
between the viruses. These differences can cause difficulty for polio
eradication. The main difference involves visibility of the disease. Unlike
smallpox, polio does not always show symptoms. Smallpox symptoms
were in1mediately visible to health professionals. For some cases of
polio, on the other hand, the disease is difficult to identify. Doctors
may have to do a lengthy examination to find it. Thus, some cases may
go unnoticed. Compared to smallpox, then, it is easier for poliovirus
to circulate.

Kind of logical order:-----------~--------

l'ARAGRA!'H 3
The many different calendars used throughout the world are all
based on the phases of the moon, on the revolution of Earth around the
sun, or on a combination of the two. The first kind of calendar is the
lunar calendar, based on the phases of the moon. A month is calculated
as the time between two full moons, 29.5 days, and a year has 354 days.
The Islamic calendar used in Muslin1 countries is a lunar calendar. It
has 12 months and a cycle of 30 years in which the 2nd1 5th, 7th, lOth,
13th, 16th, 18th, 21st, 24th, 26th, and 29th years have 355 days, and the
others 354 days. A second kind of calendar is the solar calendar, whim is
based on the revolution of Earth around the sun. The al).cient Egyptians
used a solar calendar divided into 12 months of 30 days earn, whim left
five uncounted days at the end of each year. A very accurate calendar
developed by the Mayan Indians in North America was also a solar
calendar. It had 365 days, 364 of which were divided into 28 weeks of 13
days each. The new year began on the 365th day. Because the solar year
is exactly 365 days, 5 hours, 48 minutes, and 46.seconds long, however, a
solar calendar is not totally accurate, so many cultUres developed a third
kind of calendar, the lunisolar calendar. In a lunisolar calendar, extra
days are added every so often to reconcile the lunar months with the
solar year. The Chinese, Hebrew, and Gregorian calendars used today
are lunisolar calendars.

Kind of logical order: _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

_ _______________________________ __ _____ ____ ------------~-~~-~~~~--~~::~Jr~~_r_h 2 adapted from Bucldngham, Robert. A Primer on Internatiotwl Henlth.

20
 In your writing assignment for this chapter, you are going to write a paragraph about
a topic related to health and medicine. You will probably want to use synonyms to
connect ideas without being repetitive.

Using Synonym~

e Write synonyms for the words. You may want to use some of these words and
their synonyms in your writing assignment.

1. doctor _ _ _ _ _ _ __

2. sick _ _ _--,-_ _ __

3. injured _ _ _ _ _ __

4. recover _________

On a separate sheet of paper, write four pairs of sentences. Use the words from
Part A in your sentences. Include one of the words in the first sentence of each
pair and then use a synonym in the second sentence.

EXAMPLES:

You r/,ould ree o doctor obouttJ,otcou9h.

Dr./ierkiWJeY 1-Vorkr oro pl,yrician ot MeWJoriolliorpitol.

Your assignment for this chapter is to write a paragraph of 10 to 15 sentences on a topic

related to health and medicine. Choose one of the topics to write about. Use the writing
model on page 23 to help you. Follow the steps in the writing process.

ToPICS

• Describe a medical advance that has been important to ~ociety.

o Compare and conhast two medical advances.
• Compare and contrast two types of illness or injury.
• Explain the process of recovery from an illness or injury.

[fij~jmK~!~~!l~' STEP 1: Prewrite to get ideas.

o Collect information and generate ideas about your topic.
One tedmique you can use is called clustering. Clustering is
a brainstorming_ technique in which you create a diagram of
related ideas:
o Write your topic in the center of your paper and circle it.

o Place any ideas that come to you about the topic in separate
circles around the topic. Draw lines from these ideas to
the topic.

2]
 o Think about each of these ideas and add further thoughts in
circles arot.md them. Draw lines frmn your new ideas to each
first idea.
o From the ideas that you have circled, choose at least three
points to .use in your paragraph. Thinl< of one example or piece
of support for each point ·

·no l"leed stapler

for 5'eWin9 require) very
skills little traini~9

made
surgery
ect)ier

sliP-~idJ,L .•.
.·. . s1APLEP>···

made
lovvered
surgery infection
faster

A student made a cluster diagram to prepare for her paragraph about the
effects of a medical advance.

l[l~i,{~[~~~l!> STEP 2: Organize your ideas.

• Choose one main idea from the prewriting that you think: will
be a strong focus for your paragraph. Use it to write a topic
sentence fo:r your paragraph. Be sure your topic sentence states
both your topic and controlling idea.
• Look back at your cluster diagram. Based on the ideas you
selected for your paragraph, decide which kind of logical
organizatjon your paragraph requires: chronological order, the
logical division of ideas, or comparison I conh·ast.

STEIP 3: Write the first draft.

o Organize your paragraph around one central idea.
e Include a topic sentence, supporting sentences, and a concluding
sentence. Use facts, examples, and details to support your
opinions.
0 Repeat nouns and use consistent pronm.ms to ensure coherence.
t,U~~~~~~!iP' STEP 4: Revise the draft.
• Review the content and organization ()f your draft. Do not try to
correct errors in format, mechanics (capitalization, punctuation,
and spelling), grammar, and sentence structure at this stage. You
will do this in Step 5.
• Read over your paragraph to get a general overview. As you
read, make sure that
0 all your supporting sentences relate to your topic sentence.

Delete any sentences that are off topic;

0 the paragraph is coherent. Add transition signals as needed.

• Make notes in the margin about anything you want to improve.

• Ask a classmate to read and give you feedback on your first
draft using the Chapter 2 Peer Review on page 323.
• Discuss your classmate's suggestions and decide which ones to take.

STEP 5: Edit and proofread the draft.

• Make sure that you have identified all of the changes you want to
make in content and organization. Then review your paragraph
for errors in format, mechanics,. grarrunar, and sentence shucture.
Use the Chapter 2 Writer's Self-Check on page 324 to help you.
• When you find an error, make a note on your paper using the
correction symbols from Appendix Don pages 309-311.

[B'I\\1}~~· STEP 6: Write a new draft.

• In your new draft, include the changes you identified in Steps 4
and5.
• Proofread your n<;w draft again carefully. Make sure it is neat
and error free.
• Hand in your paragraph to your teacher.

,- . : . _,-,
In this chapter, you learned to:
0 Organize ,a unified paragraph around one central idea
0 Construct a coherent paragraph by
o Repeating key nouns
o Using consistent pronouns
o Using transition signals to link ideas
o Arranging ideas in log.ical order
0 Write, revise, and edit a paragraph about health arid medicine

Which ones can you do well? Mark them®

Which ones do you need to practice more? Mark them r/iJ

• TiMED WRiTiNG
In this expansion, you will write a paragraph in class. As you write, focus on using
the techniques for cmity and coherence that you learned in this chapter. You will have
30 minutes. To complete the expansion in time, you will need to budget your time
accordingly. Follow this procedure.
1. Read the writing prompts (or the prompt your teacher assigns) carefully. Choose
one to write about. Make sure you understand the question or task You may want
to underline the key words in the prompt. (2 minutes)
2. Brainstorm or make a cluster diagram to generate ideas. Then group related ideas
together and organize them. (5 minutes)
3. Write a topic sentence. (3 minutes)
4. Write your paragraph. Be sure to include a topic sentence, supporting ideas, and a
conclusion. (15 minutes)
5. Check your paragraph for errors. Correct any mistakes. (5 minutes)
6. Give your paper to your teacher.
Prompt: Write a unified and coherent paragraph about one of these topics:
• Discuss a medical development that is important to
your life.
• Write about an experience that you have had with a
medical professional.
• Explain what is necessary to have a healthy lifestyle.

• RESPONDING TO A READING
One common type of academic writing involves responding to what you read. When
you write a response, you need to read the passage carefully to understand all of the
ideas. If you are given a prompt, you need to read it carefully as well, and use the
prompt to focus your writing. Reread the paragraphs in "Genetic Engineering" on
page 36 and write a one-paragraph response. In your response, explain whether you
think genetic engineering is a more positive or more negative development and why.
 FROM PARAGRAPH
UNIT2 iTO ESSAY 1

I.

.To \rllrite ac~~emic texts, y6u lleed

to master certain skills.
· hi this chapter you will learn t6: ·
• Identify the parts of an essay
• Analyze ah essay's introduction
and conclusion
• Construct an appropriate
thesis statement
•• Support the thesis statement
with body paragraphs
• Organize an essay, using
transition signals as necessary
• Write, revise, and edit ari essay
_ about education

i
l
I
I
'

A classrooin can be an exciting learning environment.

 In Chapters 1 tl:u·ough 3, you studied the key elements of a well-written academic
paragraph. In this chapter, you'll do the same for an essay. An essay is a piece of
writing several paragraphs long. It is about one topic, just as a paragraph is. However,
becaus·e the topic is too complex to disc·uss in one paragraph, }rou need to divide it
into several paragraphs, one for each major point Then you need to tie the paragraphs
together by adding an introduction and a conclusion. Atthe end of this chapter, you
will write an essay on the topic of education.

ANAlYZING THE MODEl

The writing model discusses the advantages of same-sex classes in middle school.
Read the model. Then answer the questions.

/writing Model

Separating the Sexes,

Just for the Tough Years
The middle school years (grades 6, 7, and 8) are known to be the "tough
years." These are the years when the different rates of girls' and boys' physical,
emotional, and cognitive' development are most noticeable. Girls develop
ahead of boys in every area, and both suffer. Educators debate whether the
separation of boys and girls into single-sex classes might improve students'
academic performance. Single-sex classes were againstthe law in public
schools until several years ago, but now they have become more common
(Bonner and Hollingsworth)'. Although some parents, educators, and civil
liberties groups continue to oppose singl~-sex classes, there is some evidence
that separating boys and girls in middle school produces positive results.

2 First of all, it is difficult to say whether single-sex education leads to higher

test scores, but it may make a difference in more important areas. Although
some research shows no improvement in test scores, other research shows
opposite results (Blum). More important, many psycliologists believe that test
scores are not a good measure of success. They suggest that self-confidence
and self-esteem issues are more important. For example, in same-sex classes,
girls report increased confidence and improved attitudes toward math and

are more likely to be "creative thinkers and risk-takers as adults if educated

apart from boys in middle school" (qtd. in Gross). Boys, too, gain confidence
when they clo not have to compete with girls. Boys can feel inferior when
compared to girls, who literally "out-think" them. This feeling can cause them
to become angry and fight back In contrast, with no girls in the classroom,
they are more relaxed and more open to learning (Gross).
(continued on next page)
1
cognitive: related to the process of knowing, understanding, and learning something
3 In addition to these benefits, it is also necessary to examine how single-sex
education will affect students' careers in the future. Opponents of the practice
note that when students go into the workforce, they will have to work side-
by-side with the opposite sex. They worry that attending all-girl or all-boy
schools c,;uld deny children the chance to learn how to do so ("North").
However, this argument ignores the fact that children constantly interact with
members of the opposite sex outside of school. This interaction can range
from playing and argnirlg with siblings to negotiating allowances, chores, and
privileges with their opposite-sex parent. Children learn and practice on a
daily basis the skills they will need in their future workplaces.

4 Finally, opponents of same-sex education say that it is discriminatory2 •

However, research supports the opposite conclusion: that discrimination is
widespread in mixed classes. Several studies have shown that boys dominate
discussions and receive more attention than girls. Studies also indicate that
teachers call on boys more often than on girls, even when girls raise their
hands ("North"). Clearly, this is discrimmatory. ·

5 For all these reasons, the argw;nents against same-sex classes are not
valid. On the contrary, many people say that same-sex classes provide a
better learning environment. Boys and girls pay less attention to each other
and more attention to their schoolwork (Marquez). Girls are less fearful
of making mistakes and asking questions in math and science; boys are
less shy about sharing their ideas in language and literature. Furthermore,
schoolchildren do not lack contact with the opposite sex. Indeed, they have
many opportunities outside school to interact with one another. Finally,
discrimination occurs in mixed classes, so discrimination is not a valid
argument. Therefore, in my opinion, the policy of allowing single-sex classes
in public schools should be continued and encouraged.

Sources:
1. Blum, Justin. "Scores Soar at D.C. School with Same-Sex Classes."
2. Bonner, Jessie and Heather Hollingsworth. "Single Sex Classes Popular as More Public
Schools Split Up Boys and Girls."
3. Gross, Jane. "Splitting Up Boys and Girls, Just for the Tough Years."
4. Marquez, Laura. "Should girls, boys be in separate classrooms?"
5. "North Carolina School Stops Same-Sex Classes." American Civil Liberties Union News.
6. "Study: All Girls Schools Don't Improve Test Scores." CNNinteractive.

z discriminatory: treating a person or a group of people differently from other people,

in an unfair way

Questions about the Model

1. How many paragraphs does this essay contain?
2. What are the topic sentences of paragraphs 2, 3, and 4? Underline each topic
sentence. (Note: The topic sentence is not necessarily the first sentence.)
3. What key pluase appears tluee times in the introduction? Circle each repetition of
this key pluase, or synonyms for this phrase, in the other paragraphs of the essay.
4. What is one fact or example that supports the opinion expressed in the
concluding sentence?
 ?7 Notid11g Vocabulary: 1\!k,wls aml Nmm Suf!'iJ;es
In Chapter 1, you completed a word families chart that included verbs, adjectives, and
adverbs. You also learned that different ending patterris, or suffixes, can be added to a
word to change its part of speech.
In this chapter, you will learn about some of the suffixes for nouns in word families.
For example, notice the verb improv~ and the noun improvem.ent in the first two
paragraphs of the model. They belong to the same word family. The suffix -ment has
been added to the end of the verb improve to create a noun.

Sometimes the end of a word changes slightly when you add a suffix to it. If you have
any questions about how to spell a word form, check your dictionary.

Bf#!lJilmW Identifying Nouns and Noun Suffixes

~ Work with a partner. Find the noun forms of these words in the model and write
them in the word families chart.

j)!: ,>, ~-. ,1- ~-, " 7 >T~-, (' -~< <- • O- ' - ~-0-- " -- or '~ " 1;-! 00"---;--- ' -- -~~·

~~).· · Ve~~ > .£~". · " .

Q~'(,- ~.,,_\,"" "> s_-
J\lotlN' '"•·• • '' .
· -o'>J'""~=<II,..i;J AoJECTIVE
'"-~ --- '<" • -~
,
) <
ADVERB
0 ;"0 'Oc 1,0;
_."

argue argu!llentative ·.. argillrierit~Hvely

attend attentive attentively.

develop. developmental

disCriminate discrii:nimitbry

improve improved

interact mteractive iitteractively

J
J perform

I separate separate
:c...:__ _ _

GJi List the noun suffixes used in Part A.

1. _ _ _ _ _ __

3. . _ .. _ _ __
- - ----------------------- -- - -- --- --- -- --- ------------ ------------ ------------------ --- - --------
Writing an essay is no more difficult than writing a paragraph except that an essay is
longer. The principles of organization are the same for both, so if you can write a good
paragraph, you can write a good essay.
An essay has three main parts: an introduction (introductory paragraph), a body
(at least one, but usually two
or more paragraphs), and a conclusion (concluding
paragraph).

The chart shows you how the parts of a paragraph correspond to the parts of an essay.

ESSAY

~ I. Introduction
General statements

v Thesis statement

II. Body
A. Topic sentence
1. Support
v 2. Support

/
3. Support
(Concluding sentence)
PARAGRAPH .
.

Topic sentence '

B. Topic sentence
A. Support . 1. Support
B. Support 2. Support
c. Support ' 3. Support

~
(Concluding sentence)
Concluding sentence
'
c. Topic sentence
1. Support
I'-. 2. Support
3. Support
(E:oncluding sentence)

' III. Conclusion

"" Restatement or SUilllp.ary

of the main points; filial
comment

As the chart shoWs, an essay introduction consists of two parts: a few· general
statements to attract your reader's attention and a thesis statement to state the
main idea of the essay. The thesis staten1_ent of an essay is like the topic sentence of a
paragraph: It names the specific topic and gives the reader an idea of the contents of
.the essay. It may also suggest the writer's point of view on the topic.

zrJ
 The body consists of one or more paragraphs. Each body paragraph develops a
subdivision or subtopic of the topic, so the number of paragraphs in the body will
vary with the nurnber of subtopics. The condusionf like the concluding sentence in a
paragraph, is a summary or review of the main points discu.ssed in the body. However,
although every essay needs a concluding paragraph, a concluding sentence is often
not necessary for each body paragraph, especially when the ideas in consecutive
paragraphs are closely related. ·
An essay has unity and coherence, just as a paragraph does. Transition signals and the
repetition of key nouns help link the paragraphs and make the essay more coherent.

THE iNTRODUCTORY PARAGRAPH

The general statements and the thesis statement in an introductory paragraph each
play a specific role in the essay.

General statements
• introduce the general topic of the essay;
o capture the-reader's interest.

The thesis statement

• states the specific topic;
• may list subtopics of the main topic;
• may indicate the pattem of organization of the essay;
® may indicate the writer's position or point of view;

o is usually the last sentence in the introductory paragraph.

Notice how the general statements in the introductory paragraph of the writing model
(see below) introduce the topic. The first sentence is about the "tough" middle school
years. The next two sentences point out that there are large differences between boys
and girls of middle school age, and th'at these can cause a problem. The next sentence
explains how the issue of single-sex classes has been changing. We don't, however,
read about .the author's position on the specific topic of single-sex classes until the
introduction's final sentence. The final sentence is the essay's thesis statement.

The middle school years (grades 6, 7, and 8) are known to be the "tough years."
These are the years when the different rates of girls' and boys' physical, emotional,
and cognitive development are most noticeable. Girls develop ahead of boys in every
area, and both suffer. Educators debate whether separating boys and girls into single-
sex classes might improve Students' academic performance. Single-sex classes were ~:
m •••••• j ~;;~~~t~~~~ (~;,~;'"a~~p~~:~n~r;~~~~)!~l;~a:;.~~~~~:::.:l:~e:d~~~~!:;~:e_ ·······+
' civil liberties groups continue to oppose single-sex classes, there is some evidence ~l'
[ that separating boys and girls in middle school produces positive results. ~
-i?,;;-.".f]:\:c"~'"!'E.~-rp:7o•:·!.':~·-"-~1''-"r.>i:·-·.-,..,.,.,:,"'i;O'C~·~'\'fC•r_\,,,,.~,,_,.l'f'<l'i''r'!!i''7'•'\'C".~':''~ii~:'1'J?.:'-o;: ·'i':"''i :,,;,>:."';v,~·:,•;,-;,, :·. c·;'" ••F'"'' ·--~'C{c'lC';·:~.;·.r:~··c;:c<.;';t~:·.~:;:(~~,~;:"'-'f?'' :':J'·i' ·.·'' .-,;;oc:.-•: ~t-'1''(

The thesis statement in the model is specific: It explains the author's point of view
about single-sex education (in favor of separating boys and girls in middle school) and
the reasoning that will be explored in the essay (positive results).
There are several different styles of introductory paragraphs. In this chapter, you'll learn
about two of the1n: the funnel introduction and the attention-getting introduction.
Funnel Introduction
A funnel introduction is so called because it is shaped like a funnel-wide at the top
and narrow at the bottom. It begins with one or two very general sentences about
the topic. Each subsequent sentence becomes increasingly focused on the topic until
the last sentence, which states very specifically what the essay will be about. Writing
a funnel introduction is like focusing a camera with a telephoto lens. You start with
a wide picture and gradually narrow the focus so that just one object appears in
the camera's viewfinder: your thesis statement. The writing model has a funnel
introduction.

Attention-Getting Introduction
Another kind of introduction is one that captures your reader's attention. Three of the
most common attention-getting techniques are telling a dramatic or funny story, using
surprising facts or statistics, and offering hist?rical background.

Recognizing Introductory Techniques

Work with a partner. Underline the thesis statement in each introductory

paragraph. Then decide what kind of introduction each one is, funnel or
attention-getting (dramatic story, surprising fact, or historical). Discuss which
introduction captures the reader's interest the best and give reasons.

INTRODUCfORY PARAGRAPH 1

One day, a few miles off the southern coast of Iceland, the crew
of a fishing boat noticed smoke on the horizon. Thinking that another·
fishing boat was on fire, they went to investigate. When they got closer,
they discovered that the smoke was not from a boat on fire; rather, it was
from an undetsea volcano about to erupt. The next day, ash, cinders, and
pumice were blown 1,000 feet into the air. The fishermen had witnessed
a rare event-the violent birth of an island. The volcano continul'd to
e',rvpt for about four years, eventually creating an island abouH square
mile in area and 560 feet in height. The birth of Surtsey, as the island is
named, offered scientists an extraordinary opportunity to learn how life
takes hold on a sterile landmass.
lNTRODUCI'ORY p P.-RAGRAPH 2

J\llovin_g to a new country can be an exciting, even exhilarating

experience. In a new envirmunent, you son1ehow £eel1nore alive. Seeil1.g
new sighi:sreating new food, hearing the foreign sounds of a new
language, and feeling a different climate against your skin stimulate
your senses as never before. Soon, however~ this sensory bOmbardment
becomes sensory overload. Suddenly, new experiences seem stressful
rather than stimulating, and delight turns into discomfort. This is the
phenomenon known as culture shock. Culture shock is more than jet
lag or homesickness, and it affects nearly everyone whO enters a new
culture--tourists, business travelers, diplomats, and students alike.
Although not everyone experiences culture shock in exactly the same
way, many experts agree that it has roughly five stages.

INTRODUCfORY pARAGRAPH 3
The Pilgrims who arrived in Massachusetts in 1620 came to find
religious freedom. In the 17th and 18th centuries, large numbers of
African men and women were brought as slaves to work on large
plantations in the South. Inunigrants from northern and southern
Europe came in the early 19th century to escape poor economic
conditions at home. Later in the 19th century, the first immigrants from
China came as contract laborers to build the railroads connecting East
and West. In the 20th century, political and economic refugees arrived
from Asia, Eastern Europe, and Latin America. Indeed, the United States
has seen inunigrants come from many different parts of the world, and
they have come for many different reasons. Their ability to adjust to life
in their adopted land has depended on several factors.

iNTRODUCTORY PARAGRAPH 4
Got high blood pressure? Try a truffle. Worried about heart disease?
Buy a bon-bon. It's the best news in years! Studies in two prestigious
scientific journals say dark chocolate is good for you. It seems that
eating a small piece of dark chocolate regularly can reduce the risk of
heart disease because dark chocolate--but not milk chocolate or white
chocolate--contains high amounts of flavenoids, powerful cholesterol-
fighting compounds. What is the next health food going to be? Ice
cream? Sugar cookies? There are so many conflicting news stories about
which foods ar~ good for you that it is often difficult to make the right
choices at the . s.upermarket.

Source: Paragraph 2 adapted from Hadley, Ryan. "IY1r. Wygard's Story."

' 'l
_) ·--
P~TJi~~- CortJs.trtiJctij!J1g ~r»i!:roductory Paragraphs
The sentences in each group are in the wrong order. On a separate sheet
of paper, write the sentences in the correct order to form an introductory
paragraph. Write the thesis statement last. Identify the type of introduction:
funnel or attention-getting.

GROUP1

1. If done properly, a handshake gives the impression of strength and honesty, and if
done improperly, it conveys weakness and dishonesty.
2. In some cultures, people bow, and in others, they shake hands.
3. In English-speaking countries, shaking hands is the custom.
4. A proper handshake has four, ingredients: pressure, pumps", eye contact, and
verbal message.
5. The way people greet each other when they meet for the first time varies from
culture to culture.
6. How one shakes hands sends an important message about one's character.

Type of introduction:~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~-

GROUP2

1. To celebrate the occasion, Mr. X decided to throw a big party at the plant.
2. Mr. X went from hls native land to a new country to manage a milk
pasteurization plant. ·
3. Then one day an impressive new pasteurization unit arrived and was jnstalled.
4. The employees did most of the planning and draped the new unit with garlands.
5. During the party one of Mr. X's supervisors took him aside and said, "Now we see
what a good man you are; from now on I am sure everyone will really try to do
their best for you."
6. And so it was~neither punctuality nor quality checks were any longer needed.
7. This story illustrates the need to understand that doing business in a different
culture demands an understanding of the culture.
8. The party was a great success, and everybody had a good time.
9. For eight mor.tths, he tried every way possible to convince his workers of the
importance of punctuality and of checking every detail of their work.
10.. The response was always, "Yes, yes, we will do our best," but ripthing
-~ver changed.

Type of introduction:

1
pumps: movements up and down
 GROlJl> 3

Note: The order of sentences 2, 3, and 4 can vary.

1. Currently under study are four main methods for predicting when and where the
next Big One will occur.
2. In 1976, an earthquake in Tangshan, China, killed over 250,000 people.
3. In an average year, earthquakes kil110,000 people worldwide and cause millions
of dollars worth of property damage.
4. Iran suffered more than 80,000 deaths in two massive quakes in 1990 and 2003.
5. Scientists keep trying to find ways to predict earthquakes-so far without
much success.

Type of introduction=-----------------~-----------------------------

The Thesis Statement

The thesisstatement is the most important sentence in the introduction. It states the
specific topic of the essay and often gives the writer's point of view.
Although some parents and educators oppose same-sex classes, there is some
evidence that separating boys and girls in middle school yields positive results.

Young people in my culture have less freedom than young people in the United States.

The large movement of people from rural to urban areas has major effects on cities.

Sometimes a thesis statement lists the sui)topics that will be discussed in the body.
Although some parents and educators oppose same-sex classes, there is
some evidence that separating boys and girls in middle school yields positive
results, particularly in improved learner self-confidence and decreased
classroom discrimination.

Young people in my culture have less freedom than young people in the
United States in their choice of where they live, whom they marry, and
what their job is.

~ Analyzing Thesis Statements

Read each thesis statement. Draw a box around the topic. Underline the
subtopics. Circle the words or punctuation marks that introduce the subtopics.
u "umu. mmmmu -----l.~apitalp~shmentshould be abolished~becauseiJ:a:.rprl'ves-anotner

person _of life<fut als"(Vbecause it does not stop crim~:

2. Women generally live longer than 1nen for two main reasons: They tend to take

better care of their health, and they have better resistance to stress.

3. Teenagers declare their separateness from their parents by the way they dress

and talk
(continued on next page)
 4. In choosing a major, a student has to consider various factors, such as personal

interests, job opportunities, and the availability of training institutions.

5. An architect should be both an artist and an engineer.

6. A healthy lifestyle involves eating a nutritious diet, exercising regularly. and

getting enough sleep.

llij;f·iijld3:JW Adding Subtopics

Complete the thesis statements by adding subtopics.

1. A computer is necessary for college students for three reasons:

2. Students have a difficult time taking notes in class due to

3. Successful politicians have the following qualities:

4. A generation gap' exists in my home because of

5. To survive a m~jor disaster such as an earthquake requires

6. My two sisters are as clifferent as day and night not only in

... - - - - - - ·----------

but also in

1
generation gap: differences in attitudes and v,alues between genemtions, especially
between parenls and children
 . 7. Living in a large city has certain advantages over living in a SJnall town:

8. Latino culture has enriched North American culture in several areas:

Thesis Statement Pitfalls

Because the thesis statement is so important, it must be written with special thought
and care. Avoid these three common problems: The thesis is too general; the thesis
makes a simple announcement; the thesis states an obvious fact.
Problem 1: The thesis is too general.
,Too aENERAL A college education is a gOod investment.

IMPROVED A college education is a good investment for four reasons.

Too GENERAL Lasers are· very useful.

IMPROVED Lasers have several applications in industry and medicine.

Problem 2: The thesis makes a simple announcement.

ANNouNcEMENT I am going to write about sports injuries.

IMPROVED You can avoid sports injuries by taking a few sirnp!e precautions.

Problem 3: The thesis states an obvious fact.

oBvious FAcT The Internet is a communication superhighway.

IMPRoveo The growth of the Internet has had both positive and negative consequences .

.JQ
BODY PARAGRAPHS
The body paragraphs in an essay are like the supporting sentences in a paragraph.
They are the place to develop your topic and prove your points. You can use facts,
examples, and other details to support your points. Quotations and paraphrases can
also help to develop the subtopics that you explore in the body paragraphs.

Read these two essay "skeletons." Only the introductory paragraph and the
topic sentences for the body paragraphs are given. For ~ach essay, choose
one topic sentence. On a separate sheet of paper, develop it into a full body
paragraph. Remember that your points in the body paragraph must support the
topic sentence.

ESSAY1

Controlling Stress in Student Life

tNTRooucroRv PARAGRAPH The busy schedules that most adults face eVery day have created a
growing health problem in the modern world. Although we often think
of stress affecting only highly pressured executives, in fact, it is one of
the biggest health issues facing college students today. It can cause a
variety of physical disorders ranging from headaches to stomach ulcers
and even alcoholism. Stress, like the common cold, is a problem that
cannot be cured; however, it dm be controlled. Students can learn to
control stress in four ways.
ToPtc seNTENcEs FoR A. Set realistic goals.
BODY PARAGRAPHS
B. Take up a hobby.
C. Exercise regularly.
D. Maintain close rel~tionships with family and friends.

EssAY 2
Studying in Great Britain

lNTRooucroRv PARAGRAPH People come to Great Britain from all over· the world to pursue an
education. Some come for a year, while others may stay four years or
longer to complete a program or eam a degree. Of course, the first few
weeks in a new, country are always a little stressful, but knowledge of
a few British characteristics and customs can smooth the path for new
arrivals. If you take into account these characteristics, students C'\fl
understand how to adapt and what to do to have a positive experience
studying in Great Britain.
TOPtc sENTENCE:s FOR A. BTitish people are usually reserved1 •
BODY PARAGRAPHS
B. The British are quite punctual.
C. In Great Britain, students are expected to speak up in class.

1
reserved: quiet, restrained, undemonstrative in words and aclions

37
nu: CONClUDiNG PARAGRAPH
The conclusion is the final paragraph in an essay. It has three purposes.
o It signals the end of the essay. To do so, begin your conclusion
with a transition signal
• It reminds your reader of your main points, which you can do by
summarizing your subtopics and/ or paraphrasing your thesis.
• It leaves your reader with your final thoughts on the topic. This is
your opportunity to convey a strong, effective message that your
reader will remember.

See Appendix B, pages 296-298,for more information about transition signals.

Techniques for !Memorable Concftl!.llsions

Some techniques you can use to write a memorable conclusion include maldng a
prediction, suggesting results or consequences, recommending a solution or call to
action, or quoting an authority.
Make a prediction.

We have seen how the costs of attending college have been rising
while, at the same time, sources of financial aid for students have been
disappearing. If this trend continues, fewer and fewer families will be able
to send their children through four years of college.

Suggest results or consequences.

To sum up, the costs of attending college are up and financial aid for
students is down. Fewer and fewer future members of the workforce are
able to educate themselves beyond high school. As a result, the nation will
waste the intelligence, imagination, and energy of a large segment of the
present college-age generation.

Recommend a solution or a call for action.

It is clear that the U.S. system·of higher education is in trouble. For many
students, completing four years of college is no longer possible because
of increasing costs and decreasing financial aid. To reverse \hi~ trend, we
must demand that government increase its financial support of colleges
and universities and restore financial aid programs. Our future depends
on it. '
------- - ----------- -- ---<-----

In conclusion, costs are rising and financial aid is declining, with the
result that many can no longer afford to go to college. If our nation is to
prosper, increased government funding for education is essential, even if it
requires higher taxes. As Horace Mann 1 argued in his Fifth Annual Report,
a nation's economic wealth will increase through an educated public. It
is therefore in the self-interest of business to pay the taxation for public
education.

1
Horace Mann: public figure (1796--'1859) considered the father of
public education in the United States
 ·-:.~ ..

~ Analyzing Conci!lding Paragmr>hs

Work with a partner. Read the essay and the two possible concluding
paragraphs. Then answer the questions.

Student-Centered Teaching

For generations, students have complained that school is boring. A teaching approach called
student-centered teaching aims to get learners more involved. With this approach, students do not
simply listen to the teacher. Instead, they learn through group tasks or independent activities created
by a teacher. These activities often require students to solve a problem, which exposes them to new
information. As a result, students gain new understanding. Although there are many different ways
to make a class student-centered, three approaches have become the most common: inquiry-based
learning, problem-based learning, and project-based learning.
Inquiry learning is based on the writings of Jolm Dewey. Inquiry learning starts with a
question and then engages students in problem-solving activities. Students learn as they explore,
gather data, and analyze their data. The teacher's role in inquiry learning is one of a'facilitator1 and
provider of information (Savery). Ill-structured problems-{)nes with many different solutions and
many paths to a solution Oonassen)-are favored over well-structured problems. These are ones
with a single correct answer.
Problem-based learning (PBL) was first used in medical education (Barrows) and then
adopted by K-12 2 educators. Like inquiry learning, PBL encourages learning through exploration
and experiments. ill-structured problems are also typical of problem-based learning instruction.
These problems provide the learner with a broad area of exploration'. However, the teacher's role
in PBL differs from the role in inqUiry learning. In PBL, the teacher
acts as a facilitator, but does not provide information to the learner.
Instead, the learners are expected to find the necessary information
they need to solve the problem (Savery).
Project-based learning is also an active learning strategy.
Similarly, it often focuses on a problem. However, the problem
in project-based learning is well structured, and learners are told
the goal of their project (Savery). Goals could be as diverse as
determining thepercentage of voters in a district or creating a
bird-friendly area in the school yard. Project-based learning is
focused on following a process de.scribed by the teacher. This
process may involve arriving at a calculation or reading specific
materials. In contrast to the first two methods, the teacher's role in
project-based learning is more likely to be as a coach4 who provides
feedback and guidance (Savery).

Sources:
1. Article adapted from Morrison, G., and D. Lowther. Integrating computer technology
into the classroom: Skills for the 21'' Century.
2. Barrows, HowardS. How to Design a Problem-based Curriculum for tf1e Preclinical Years.
3. Dewey, John. Democracy and Education.
4.jonassen, David H. "Instructional Design Models for Well-structured and Ill~structured
Problem-solving Learning Outcomes."
5. Savery, John· R. '~Overview of Problem-based Learning: Definitions and Distinctions."

1
facilitator: someone who helps a group of people discuss things with each other Or do something effectively
2
I<-12: from kindergarten to grade 12, the primary and secondary levels of education in the United St~tes
3
exploration: discovering more about something by discussing it, thinking about it, etc.
<~:coach: someone who helps a person or team improve, usually in a sport

30
 CoNcLUDING lP JI...JRAGRAPH A.
To sun1. up 1 student-centered_ teaching is very i1nportant to learning.
Three kinds of student-centered approaches are inquiry-based learning,
problem-based learning, and project-based learning. Of course, each
individual teacher might use these approaches in different ways. In the
end, however, student-centered methods will develop stronger critical
thinking skills and better prepare students for future success.

CONCLUDING PARAGRAPH B
In conclusion, it is easy to see why these approaches are often
. used together. Mter all, each one focuses on problem solving, and the
teacher's role in each approach is not limited to traditional lecturing.
There are many approaches to making the learning environment more
student-centered. Teachers must choose an approach that makes new
information necessary and exciting.

Questions about the !Essay

1. Which concluding paragraph provides a summary of the subtopics? ·
2. Which one paraphrases the thesis statement?
3. Which one presents a'call to action?
4. Which one makes a prediction?

Reread the two Try It Out! essays on page 86 along with the two body
paragraphs you wrote. Then write a concluding paragraph for each.

Like paragraphs, essays must be carefully organized. Remember fhat an essay has
three parts: an introduction, a body, and a conclusion. However, fhe method that you
choose for organizing the information and ideas in an essay can vary. In Chapter 2, you
learned about three different patterns of order or organizcition:·comparison I contrast/
chronological order, and logical division of ideas. These and other organization
patterns can be used to write. an essay.

__ ),_ ___ _
ORGANIZATION AND THESIS STATEMENTS
A thesis statement can indicate the pattern of. organization that an essay will follow.
Which of these thesis staten1ents indicates chronological order? Logical division of
ideas? Cotnparison I contrast?
When buying a used car, use these four strategies to get the best price.

There are several differences between a nurse practitioner and a physician's assistant.

My best friend and I spent an entire summer constructing a tree house in my

grandmother's o:d apple tree.
~~- SiQ!!r~a~~rilg Orgall1M&a.tk~!1 wi~h Tfhesis Sft:arienileW~~ts
0 Study the thesis statements. Write the organization pattern used: comparison I
contrast or time sequence (chronological order). ·

1. Beginning in World War II and continuing through the period of economic boom,
the structure of education in Xanadu has changed remarkably.

Pattern of organization: - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

2. Although higher education in Xanadu has improved remarkably in recent years,

elementary and secondary schools lag far behind.
Pattern of organization: _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

Find the topic and subtopics of each paragraph. Then decide how many
paragraphs will probably be in the body of each essay.

1. Beginning in World War li and continuing through the period of eco'nomic boom,
the structure of education in Xanadu has changed remarkably due to an improved
economy and efforts by the government to provide education in rural areas.

Probable immber of body paragraphs: _ _

2. Education in Xanadu has improved remarkably in recent years in many areas of

schooling, including liberal arts, medicine, Jaw, and business.

Probable number of body patagraphs: _ _

ORGANIZATION AND BODY PARAGRAPHS

As you have learned, body paragraphs develop subtopics of an essay's main topic. The
pattern of organization you choose will help determine the focus and order of your
body paragraphs. Will the body paragraphs follow events in time order? Will they
emphasize similarities and/ or differences? Will they each cliscuss an important point
related to the main topic? Sometimes, depending on your topic, you will need to use a
combination ofthese patterns.

logical Division of Ideas

As you read previously, a basic pattern for essays, like paragraphs, is the logical
elivision of ideas. In this pattern, you elivide your topic into subtopics, and eacht,
subtopic develops one important idea, category, or point related to the main topic.
Each subtopic is cliscussed in a separate paragraph, and paragraphs are presented
in an order that will make sense to your readers: Logical division is an appropriate
pattern for explaining causes, reasons, types, kinds, qualities, methods, advantageS,
and clisadvantages, as these typical college exam prompts ask you to do.

41
 Subject Prompt
Economics Explain the three causes of inflation

Agriculture I Landscape Describe the basic types of soils and what additives are needed
Design to prepare each type for planting.

U.S. History Discuss the causes of the U.S. Civil War.

Business Explain the three main forms of business organization.
Health sciences Describe the various classes of drugs used to treat depression.

The writing model "Separating the Sexes" on page 75 and the essay "Student-Centered
Teaching"on page 88 are both organized in a logical division of ideas pattern. There
are three things to remember when you write a logical division essay.
• Divide your topic into subtopics and make sure your thesis
statement indicates logical division.
• Discuss ea~h·subtopic in a separate paragraph.
• Use transitions between paragraphs to guide your reader from
one subtopic to the next.

Thesis Statements for logical Division of ideas

As you learned on page 83, a thesis statemen,t often indicates subtopics that will be
discussed in the essay.
a. When the organization pattern is the logical division of ideas, the statement may list
each subtopic: . ·

Native Americans have made many valuable contributions to U.S. culture,

particularly in the areas of language, art, food, and government.
b. Sometimes the thesis statement of a logical division essay may simply indicate the munber
of subtopics:
Native Americans have made valuable contributions to U.S. culture in four
main areas.
c. When an essay has only two subtopics, paired conjlmG!ions (both ... and, not only . .. but also)
may be an effective way to list them:
. . '{()U.Jl.9..[le_o[>le in my culture have very little freedom not only in their choice
of lifestyle l:)iJfal'soTii flieircllcilce-ofcareers:·-·- ---·..
d. A colon(:) is often useful before lists of two, three, or more subtopics in a thesis statement:
The Father of Psychoanalysis, Sigmund Freud, believed that the human mind
had three parts: the id, the ego, and the superego.

Notice that the s·ubtopics of a logical division ofideas essay are in parallel form/ which
means that they have the same grammatical form: In the examples in a and d, all the
words are nouns; inc, two prepositional phrases are linked by the paired conjunctions
not only ... but also.

See Pnmflel Structure in Sentences, pages 1.91-192, for infi"mnaUon about parallel Jonn.
Recognizing Thesis Statements for logical Division

Check (.1) the thesis statements that suggest logical division as a method
of organization. ·

D 1. Teenagers demonstrate their independence in several ways.

D 2. My 18th birthday was the most memorable day in my life so far.
D 3. On their 18th birthdays, U.S. citizens receive two important rights I
responsibilities: They can vote, and they can sign legal contracts.
0 4. In most occupations, woni.en are still unequal to men when careers
are compared.
D 5. Living in a dormitory offers several advantages to first-year students.
D 6. Photosynthesis is the process by which plants manufacture their own food.
D 7. A college degree in international business requires (1) a knowledge of business
procedures and (2) a knowledge of cultural differences.
D 8. A computer is usually faster and sometimes more accurate than a human.
D 9. Giving a surprise birthday party requires careful planning.
D 10. Being an only child is very different from having siblings.

On a separate sheet of paper, write a thesis statement for a logical division

essay on each topic. Use the suggested subtopics in parentheses or your
own ideas.

ToPics
• Strategies for succeeding in school (three strategies)
a Characteristics of effective classroom environments (three
characteristics)
• Kinds of appeals television advertisers use to sell automobiles I
cosmetics I any product or service (three kinds of appeals)
• Approaches to teaching young children, teenagers, and adults
(three groups of learners)
• The advantages (or the disadvantages) of going to university
in a large city I a small town I a rural area (three advantages or
disadvantages)

45
 Transition Signals for the Logical Division of ~deas

Tnin~ition signals are,important to guide the reader through your essay. The ones-you
might use for a logical division essay include many that you already know Review the
chart for a list o~ common transition ~ignals.

first, first of all, second, third, etc. First, excessive government spending can lead
to inflation. ·
also, in addition, moreove1~ furthermore In addition, unrestrain~d consumer 'borrowing can
cause inflationary tendencies.
next, last, finally Finally, an increase in the supply of paper money
gives ri~e to infla_tion.

and Both an increase in the supply of paper money

and unrestrained consumer borrowing can cause
both ... and
inflationary tendencies.
not only ... but also To lose weight, one must not only exercise
regularly but also eat wisely.

the first cause, reason, factor, etc.
the I a second problem, result,
advantage, etc.
one problem, reason, important factor, etc.
another way, reason, disadvantage, etc.
an additional problem, result, etc.
in addition to math and scien<;:e, ...
A second cause is an increase in the supply of
paper money.
Regular exercise is one way to get fit and
lose weight.
In addition to government spending,
unrestrained consumer borrowing can cause
inflationary tendencies.

Transition Signals between Paragraphs

Linking paragraphs with transition signals helps your reader see how the subtopics are
.. . . ... reli}te_~:LiJ:l.kort"para!;raph
to the next by adding a transition to the topic sentence of
the second paragraph. TIUsTraiisit1on·may'J')e 1n;inglewont;·a-phrase-;-or·-a-dep.,ful.eni'..
clause that repeats or summarizes the main idea in the preceding paragraph.
 Study the essay "skeleton," and notice how the paragraphs are linked.

Aggressive Drivers

INTROOUCTQRY PARAGRAPH The number of vehicles ~>n freeways and streets is growing at an alarming rate.
This increase of motor vehicles is creating-hazardous conditions. Moreover, drivers
are in such a rush to get to their destinations that many become angry or impatient
with other motorists who are too slow or who are in their way. Aggressive drivers react
foolishly toward others in several dangerous ways.
TRANSITION
r:: . WORDS I
Boov PARAGRAPH 1 One way an angry driver may react is to cut off1 another motorist.
(+supporting sentences) ...
TRANSITION
r- WORDS ---, ·
eoov PARAGRAPH 2 Another way is to tailgate 2 the other car. (+supporting sentences) ...
,--------TRANSITION PHRASE----------,
eoov PARAGRAPH 3 In addition to ·cutting off and tailgating other cars, aggressive drivers often use
rude language or gestures to show their anger. (+ supporting sentences) ...
,-------------TRANSITION CLAUSE-----------'--
BODY PARAGRAPH 4 Although law enforcement authorities warn motorists against aggressive
driving, the number who act out their angry impulses has not declined.
(+ supporting sentences) ...

coNcLuDING PARAGRAPH To conclude, aggressive drivers are endangering everyone because they create
hazardous conditions by acting and driving foolishly. They should control their anger
and learn to drive safely. After all, the lives they save could be their own.

1
cut off: drive very quickly and closely in front of another car
2
tailgate: drive toO closely behind-or on the tail of-another car

iliiWJOU~¥1! Using Transitions between Paragraphs

Connect the paragraphs in this essay by adding a transition to thetopic
sentences of each body paragraph; Vary the expressions you use. Rewrite the
topic sentences aS needed. ·

Medicine and Ethics1 ·

i Recent advance• in the fields of medicine and biotechnology have brought about

situations that could scarcely be imagined only a generation ago. Baltery,-operated plastic

hearts can be implanted into' people. People can be kept alive indefinitely by machines.

Exact duplicates of animals can be made. While such scientific achievements may

ultimately benefit humankind, they have also created complex legal and ethical issues.

1
ethics: the study of right and wrong
?. implanled into: put inlo a person's body in a medical operation
 2 ____________ involves doctors' ability to intervene in human

reproduction. A well-known example is the case of Baby M. A map paid a woman to bear

a child for him and his wife, who tould not have children. They signed a contract, but

after the baby was born, the woman wanted to keep the baby. The father said the baby

was his, but the woman said it was hers. It took the courts many months to decide who

was right.

3 --~------~-- another ethical dilemma' has arisen because doctors

are now able to keep people who are in comas• alive for years by attaching their bodies to

machines. This gives great power and great responsibility to the people who control the

machines. As a result of this power, society has had to develop a new definition of death.

How does a person decide whether another person whose heart cannot beat on its own

and whose lungs are pumped by a machine is still alive or not?

4 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ the ability of biotechnologists to produce new forms

of life in their laboratories is another area with profo-llnd 5 ethical consequences. Isn't a

scientist who creates, for example, a new bacterium "playing Godu? Frntherritore, is it

even safe to introduce new life forms into Earth's atmosphere? Is there a risk that such life

forms could get out of control? Some people fear so.

5 - - - - - - - - - - - - s c i e n t i s t s are now able to duplicate living organisms,

cell by cell, through a process called cloning. Recently, the world was stunned by the

successful cloning of a human embryo. Should biotechnologists be allowed to clone

people? Who should control human cloning?

6 ----~-'------ revolutions-political or technological--cause

and. forcing changes in our very concept of life, an issue involving not only legal but also

profound moral considerations.

3
dilemma: difficult problem
~comas: states of unconsciousness (being unable to see, bear, or speak)
5

1\\\\\11\
profound: important; serious
6
upheaval: social disturbance

020000 04857<
 Because an essay is long, it is important to organize and plan'before you begin to write.
The best way to do this is to make an outline. An outline not only organizes your ·
thoughts but also keeps you on track once you begin to write. Making an outline can
help you organize both what you read and what you write.

A formal outline has a system of numbers and letters. Different fields of study may
have different systems of outlining, but this one is the most common.

Roman numerals (I, II, III) number the major sections of an essay
(introduction, body, conclusion)
Capital letters (A, B, C, D) label the body paragraphs.
Arabic numerals (1, 2, 3, 4) number the subpoints in each paragraph.
Small letters (a, b, c, d) label the specific supporting details.

If another level is needed, use small Roman numbers (i, ii, iii).

lijsij!'Jil3W Outlining an Essay

Complete the outline of the writing model on pages 75-76.

Separating the Sexes, Just for the Tough Years

I. Introduction
Thesis statement: Although some parents, educators, and civil liberties groups oppose
single-sex classes, there is some evidence that separating boys and girls in middle school
yields positive results.
II. Body
A. Although it is difficult to say conclusively whether single-sex education leads to higher
test scores, in fact, it may make a difference in more important areas.
1. Inconclusive :information about test scores
a. Some. research dOes not show improved test scores
b. Some research shows improvement
2. Positive effect on student attitudes and motivations
a. Girls: increased confidence and improved attitudes toward math and science ("Study")
b. Girls: more likely to be "creative thinkers and risk-takers as adults if educated apart
from boys in middle school" (Gross)
c. Boys: gain confidence, no competition with girls
i. Feel inferior when compared to girls
ii. No girls= more at ease with themselves and more receptive to learning (Gross)

B. -----------------------------------------~--------------
1. Playing and squabbling with siblings
2. Negotiating allowances, chores, and privileges with their opposite-sex parent
c.-----
1. Boys dominate discussions
2. Boys receive more attention than girls
3, _ _ _ _ _ _ __

HI. Conclusion
In my opinion 1 sarne-sex classes in public schools should be encouraged.
 Inycfur writing, it is important to use the correct word fonn. Review the word forms you
learned in Chapter 1 and at the beginning of this chapter. Practice using them correctly.

~11..11111· Using Correct Word Forms

e Correct the word forms. Cross out the incorrect form and write the
correct form.

1. E<iW'aie is very important for every child. ---=Ec=dc:v_,c'-'a"-t'-'i..::oc_n,___

. 2. If chlldren are misbehaving in class, the teacher should separation them

until they calm down. - - - - - c - - - - -

3. When a teacher calls on some students more than others, it is a form of

discriminate. _ _ _ _ _ _ __

4. If the class is interesting, .the students will be more attention.

5. The energetic teacher planned a very interaction lesson. _________

€) Complete the sentences with the correCt form of the word in parentheses.
1. Children (development) differently, so one four-year-old may
be able to read while another is just learnillg the alphabet.

2. Often when a student misbehaves, he or she is trying to get the teacher's

·---~--(attend).

3. Over the course of a year, teachers can see great _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ (improve) in

their students'. work.

4. When students work on group projects, it may be more challenging to evaluate

the ________ (perform) of each individual in the group.

5. However,-.this should not be used as an _____ (argue) against doing

__ . pmj~<:lli!nJ_llgc_l""Jlr_oQIIl, _ ___ ---,---

J
Lj·c,,
 Your assignment for this chapter is to write an essay of five or more paragraphs on a
topic related to education. Choose one of the topics from the list to write about. Use
the writing model on pages 75-76 to help you. To complete the assignment, follow the
steps in the writing process.

TOPICS

• Criteria to consider when choosing a major

• Qualities of a successful student
• Factors that make a class productive and enjoyable

I!IIJ.IJ,\)-!JJ;. STEP i: Prewrite to get ideas.

• After selecting your topic, use a prewriting strategy such as
listing (Chapter 1) or clustering (Chapter 2) to generate ideas.
• Look for related points in your list or cluster diagram. lf you find
anything that is completely off topic or repeated, cross it out.
• Group similar ideas together. These groups will become your
body paragraphs.

[BI~B~~''' STEP 2: Organize your ideas.

e Decide how you want to organize your essay. Do you want to
use a comparison I contrast pattern? A logical division of ideas?
• Write a thesis statement for yo1.11" essay. Be sme it indicates the
organization pattern you plan to use.
• Use ideas from your prewrite to make an outline as you did
in Practice 10. Putyom thesis statement at the top. Then, next
to letters A, B, and C, write sentences that will form the topic
sentences of your body paragraphs.
• In the spaces under A, B, and C, add details you will use in your
· body paragraphs.

~~~~~~~ij~;,;, STEP 3: Write the first draft.

• Use your outline to write your first draft. Remember to include
the three parts of the essay that you studied in this chapter: an
introductory paragraph (including the thesis statement), body
paragraphs, and a conclusion.
e Don't worry if you think of new ideas as you write. You ca.D. add
or delete ideas later. Just be sure that your new ideas support
your thesis.

~·~~,\~ijj~i' STIEP 4: Revise the O!mft

• Review the content and organization of your draft. Do not try to
correct errors in format mechanics (capitalization, pW1chiation,
and spelling), grarrtmaJ~ an~ sentence shTtcture at this stage. You
will do this in Step 5. -
 0 Begin by readip_g over your essay to get a general overview. As
you read~ make sure that
0 your ess·ay has a thesis Statement;

the thesis is developed with enough supporting information;

0

you support your opinions with facts and examples;

o
0 your conclusion supports your thesis statement.

• Make notes in the margin about anything you want to improve.

• Ask a classmate to read and give you feedback on your first
draft using the Chapter 4 Peer Review on page 327.
• Discuss your classmate's suggestions and decide which ones
to take.

STEP 5: Edit and proofread the draft.

o Make sure that you have identified all of the changes you want
to make in content and organization. Then review your essay for
errors in format, mechanics, grarruriar, and sente~ce structure.
Use the Chapter 4 Writer's Self-Check on page 328 to help you.
• When you find an error, make a note on your paper using the
correction symbols from Appendix Don pages 309-311.

tM~~~f~~~~t STEP 6: Write a new draft.

• In your new draft, inc!u~e the changes you identified in Steps 4
and5.
• Proofread your new draft again carefully. Make sure it is neat
and error free.
• Hand in your essay to your teacher.

In this chapter;you learned to:

0 Identify the parts of an essay
0 Analyze an essay's introduction and conclusion
0 Constru<i:t an appropriate thesis statement
____________________ D_Supporrthe thesis _statement with b_ody_!'a~":!l'-":Phs
--1- ------------------------

0 Organize an essay, using transition signals as necessary

0 Write, revise, and edit an essay about education

Which ones can you do well? Mark them ®

Which ones do you need to practice more? Marl< them <19

50
It TIMED WRITING
In this expansion, you will write an essay in class. As you write, focus on using the
techniques for logical division essays that you learned in this chapter. You will have
50 minutes. To complete the expansion in time, you will need to budget your time
accordingly. Follow this procedure.
1. Read the writing prompt (or the prompt your teacher assigns) carefully. Choose
one topic to write abqut. Make sure you understand the question or task. You may
want to underline the key words in the prompt. (5 minutes)
2. Brainstorm to get ideas, write a thesis statement, and make a rough outline to
·organize your ideas. (10 minutes)
3. Write your essay. Be sure to. include an introductory paragraph with your thesis
statement, body paragraphs, and a concluding paragraph. (25 minutes)
4. Check your essay for errors. Correct any mistakes. (10 minutes)
5. Give yourpaperto your teacher.
Prompt: Write a logical division essay about one of these topics:
• Different kinds of teachers
• Benefits of learning a new language
• Three educational experiences that inspired you

• USING QUOTES AND PARAPHRASES TO SUPPORT IDEAS

Write an essay about the challenges of education in a new culture. Use information
given by students who have had this e,;perience and experts in the field of
international education. Quote, summarize, and paraphrase your .outside sources as
appropriate.
o If possible, interview individuals about the topic of your
essay. Write down their ansWers. Then look at their answers
to see which will help to explain and expand the ideas you are
discussing in your essay.
o Use the Internet to find information about your topic. Find two
or three websites with dt>tailed information or expert opinions
that you think will make your ideas clearer to the reader.
Remember to include in-text citations and ·a works-cited list to inform your read~rs
about your sources. In doing so, you not only show your readers that you can
speak authoritatively on the topic, but you also give them a chance to do further
reading themselves.

5.i
Cornparison Essays

You make comparisons between things all the time. Whenever you
make a decision, you have to compare your options. What will you eat
for breakfast-cereal or a bagel? Where will you live-in an apartment
or a dormitory? What will you study at the university-physics or
mathematics? In order to make a decision, you need to look at the
merits of each choice. You compare their differences ind similarities.
Then you choose the best option.

What Is a Comparison Essay?

In a comparison ess<i.y,' you can compare ideas, people, countries,
or other things. The subjects of this kind of essay are two items that
are related in some way. You can focus on the similarities between
the two items, on the differences, or On both the similarities and the
differences. Your goal is to show your readers how these items are
similar or different, what their strengths and weak,nesses are, or what
their advantages and disadvantages are. In a history class, yoUr essay
might compare the French Revolqtion and the American Revolution. In an economics class, you might
write about the similarities and differences betvveen capitalism and socialism. In an art class, you might
write about the differences in the works of two impressionist painters, such as Monet and! Ren-oir.
a
Like other essays, the comparison essay has an introductory paragraph that contains hook and a
thesis statement, three or four (or more) paragraphs that make up the body, and a concludillg paragraph.
(See Unit 1 for a review of the structure of an essay.)

"
'J ')
1---
~0 "'-.il'~~-,b:-:nr~s ,_crf (}r~)6'lHi!z.r:r~jnn
There are two basic ways to organize a comparison essay-the block method and th~ point-by-point
method.

Block Method
With the block method, you p~esent one subject and all its points of cmnparison before you do the same
for the second subject With this organization, you discuss each subject completely without interruption. Here
is an example of the organization of a comparison essaY about the social behavior of Russians and Mexicans.

Introduction Paragraph 1 Hook, thesis

Body Paragraphs 2 and 3 Russian sOcial behavior

-.. :it parties
• in school
oat home
Paragraphs 4 and 5 Mexican social behavior
., at parties
• in school
,. at home

Conclusion Paragraph 6 Restated thesis, opinion

NOTE: Paragraphs 2 and 3 could be combined into one paragraph (paragraph2); paragraphs 4 and 5
could also become one paragraph (paragraph 3). In this case, the conclusion would be paragraph 4.
Point-by-Point Method
With the point-by-point method, you present both subjects as they each relate to one point of
comparison before moving on to the next point of comparison. Here is an example of the topic of the
social behavior of Russians and Mexicans, using the point-by-point method of organization.

introduction Paragraph 1 Hook, thesis

Body Paragraph 2 At parties

., Russian social behavior
.. Mexican social behavior
Paragraph 3 In school
" Russian social behavior
, Mexican social behavior
~---Faragr"'ph-4- ---- ~----~~----------- ____ Athmn"---~-~-~ ~
, Russian social behavior
"' Mexican social behavior

Conclusion Paragraph 5 Restated thesis, opinion

With both the point-by-point and the block methods, the writer sometimes ends with an opinion as to
which of the two subjects is preferable.

For practice -with topics for comp<Hison essays, try ·unit 3, Activily l, on the Creal' Writing 4 Web site:
elt.heinle.co m/ greatwr iting

What ls a Comparison Essay?

 Parallel Organization of Supporting Information
In the block-method example, notice that the supporting information in Paragraphs
2 and 3 includes behavior at parties, school, and home. The supporting infotmation in
Paragraphs 4 and 5 also includes these three aspects of behavior. In the point-by-point
method, the supporting information includes behavior at parties, school, and home as well,
but information about the behavior of both cultures is presented in one setting before going
on to discuss both cultures' b.ehavior in the next setting.
These repeated structures are called parallel organization. No matter which overall
method of organization you choose, parallel organization is required of your information
in all comparison essays.
,.,.c .....

Choosing a Method of Organization

How do you know which method of organization is better for your comparison essay? Consider
the following information about each method.
Block method:
.. You develop one subject completely, without interruption, before describing the second subject
co It may be difficult for readers to see the parallel points of comparison between your two subjects.
Some rereading or more critical reading of certain parts of the essay may be necessary.
Point-by-point method:
.. Both subjects are presented in each paragraph, so readers go back and forth between
the two subjects .
.. The parallel points of comparison may be easier to see.
As you decide which method to use, con~ider your subjects. Ask yourself how complex the t\:'fO
items you are comparing are. Think about your readers. Ask yourself which method would make it easier
for them to follow your ideas about these particular subjects. Also, consider your writing style. Which
organization method are you more comfortable with?

Example Comparison Essay

A good way to learn how to write a comparison essay is to study an example. In the next acti'vity, you
will read and study the content and 'organization of ari example essay.

ComParison Essays
ACTIVITY 1

Discuss the questions that come before the example comparison- essay with a partner. Then read the essay.
Work with a partner to answer the questions after the essay.
In this essay, the writer compares some features of Brazil and the United States.

1. What do you know about the different cultural groups who live in Brazil and the United States?
2. What does the word individualism mean to you?

Not as Different as You Think

1 All cOuntries in the world are unique. Obviously, countries are different from· one another in
location, size, culture, government, climate, and lifestyles. However, many countries share some
surprising similarities. Some may think that because Brazil and the United States are in different
hemispheres, these two nations have no!hing in common. On the contrary, they shafe many
similarities.
2 One important similarity is their size. Both Brazil and the United States are large countries.
Brazil covers almost half of the South American continent. Few Brazilians can say that they have
traveled extensively within the co~ntry's borders. Because of Brazil's large size, its weather varies
greatly from one area to another. Like Brazil, the United States takes up a significant portion cif
its continent (North America), so most Americans have visited only~ few of the 50 states .. In
addition, the United States has a wide range of dim;:ates. When the Northeast is experiencing
snowstorms, cities like IVIiami, .florida, can have temperatures over 85 degrees Fahrenheit.
3 Another similarity between Brazll and the United States is the diversity of ethnic groups. Brazil
-~~_§__ qll9_!l!~s:_d__Qy__E_l,ILQ{2~aD_S,__a_nd_
_its_~1lltu_r_~__ fu"l&_b_e_en__ gr.e~1l~_in1lne___nc_edb:y:_tbis__facLHm¥-eYer, __the __ _
identity of the Brazilian people is not solely a product ofVVestern civilization. Brazil is a "melting
pot" of many ethnic groups that immigrated there cmd mixed with the native people. The United
States also has a diversity of ethnic groups representing the early colonists from northern Europe as
well as groups from Africa, the Mediterranean, ASia, and South America. 'Ihe mixture of cultures
and customs has worked to form ethnically rich cultures in both countries.

a hemisphere: one half of the world dlvnsity: variety

extensively: widely, over a large area solely: exclusively
dimate: the usmtl weather of a region over a cu~tom: a learned soci<tl or cultural behavior
a period of time

Cxarnplc Cornp.1rison Ess::(r

 4 Finally, individualism is an important value for both Brazilia.J.s and Americans. Brazil
works hard to defend the concept of freedom of choice. Citizens believe that they have the
right to do and be whatever they desire· as long as they do not hurt others. Individualism arid
freedom of choice also exist in the United States, where ffeedom is perhaps the highest value
of the people. Some people may believe that the desire for in4ividual expression is divisive and
can make a country weak. However, the ability of people to be whatever they want makes both
countries strong.
5 Although Brazil and the United States are unique countries, there are remarkable similarities
in their size, ethnic diversity, and personal values. Some people tend to believe that their culture
and country are without equal. Nevertheless, it is important to remember that people as a whole
have more in common than they generally think they do.

individualism: uniqueness, independence remarkable: amazing, extraordinary

a concept: an idea

,_,,.,,!'.,"!--·''"···- . - ,_ '."-" . '_,.,

3. What two subjects does the writer compare in this essay?

4. What method of organization does the writer use· point-by-point or block?

5. What is the hook for this essay? Write it here.

6. Underline the thesis statement. Is the thesis restated in the conclusion (Paragraph 5)? If yes, underline
the sentence in the conclusion that restates the thesis.

7. In Paragraph 2, the author writes about the ways in which size affects Brazil and· the United States.
In the following chart, list the. supporting information the writer-uses.

Comparison Essays
 The Effects of Size

Brazil United 5tates

l.

2. 2.

3. 3.

8. Reread the concluding paragraph of "Not as Different as You Think:' Does the writer offer a

suggestion, an opinion, or a prediction? ________ Write the concluding sentence here.

Correct and varied sentence structure is essential to the quali-ty of your writing. For further practice
with "Not as Different as You Think;' go to Practice 12 on page 173 in Appendix 1.

Developing Comparison Essays

In this next section, you will develoP comparison essays as you make an outline, write supporting
information, and study connectors. In the following activities, you will practice the sldlls you need to write
an effective comparison essay.

ACTiViTY 2

Below is a specific outline for "Not as Different as You Think." (For a review of specific outlines,
see pages 28-32.) Some of the information is missing. Reread the essay beginning on page 65
and complete the outline.

Title: -------------~--~-

L Introduction (Paragraph l)

A. Hook _,L\11 cocmlries in tl1e world are cmigg<1_, __

:)7 Developing Comparison Essays

 B. Connecting information: Different location, size, culture, government, dimate, lifestyle

C. Thesis s t a t e m e n t : - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

II. Body

A. Paragraph 2 (Similarity l) topic s e n t e n c e : - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

1. Brazil's characteristics

a. Size: _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _~----

b. Travel: Few Brazilians have traveled extensively in their country.

I;; c. C l i m a t e : - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
0
~ 2.
:::>
"'
a. ------------------~------~~--------
b. Travel: _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

c. Climate: The weather can be extremely different in the northern and the southern parts
of the country.

B. Paragraph 3 (Similarity 2) topic sentence: Another similarity is the diversity of ethnic groups.

1. Brazil

a. - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
b. Other ethnic groups

c. _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

~ 2. United States
0..
0..
~ a. Europe

b. Africa

c. the Ivleditei:ranean

d.

e.

Comparison Essays
 C. Paragraph 4 (Similarity 3) topic s e n t e n c e : - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

1. Brazilians' belief in freedom:

III. Conclusion (Paragraph 5)

A. Restated thesis:---------------------~----------

B. Opinion: Nevertheless, it is important to remember that people as a whole have more in common
than they generally think they do.

. . .
-~.. Writer's Note
- - ' -' ' I

Asking Questions
How can you develop details and facts that will support your main ideas (topic sentences)
iri each paragraph? One of the best ways to write this supporting information is to ask
yourself questions about the topic- Where? ~~ When? Who? What? How?

ACTIVITY 3 Supporting lnformatign

The following comparison essay is missing the supporting information. As you read the essay, work with a
partner. to write supporting sentences for each paragraph. If you need more space, use a separate piece of
paper. After you finish, compare your supporting information with that of other students. (Note: This essay
follows the point-by-point organizational pattern.)
What factors are most important to you and your family when buyin!? a car?

Developing Comparison Essays

 Transportation Decisions for Families
1 Transportation today is much different from the way that it was 50 years ago. At that time,
people who wanted to buy an automobile had a small variety to choose from: Nowadays, there are
so many choices that it could take months to look at all the cars on the market. For those buyers
who are looking for a vehicle for their families, one of the first questions is, "Should I buy a sports
utility vehicle (SUV) or a four-door sedan?" To reach a decision, a buyer can compare these two
car types in terms of their overall cost, convenience, and style.

2 SUVs and sedans often differ in their c o s t s . - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

3 Another thing to consider is the convenience factor. - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

4 Finally, there is the subject of s t y l e . - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

5 All cars are used for transportation, but it is important to remember that, depending on the
car category, there are differences ill cost, convenience, and style. Choosing behveen an SUV and
a four-door sedan is a personal decision for you and your family. Careful consideration of the
information presented here will make choosing a car less compHcated.

o Comparison Essays 60
 Correct-and varied sentence structure is essential to the quality of your writing: For further practice
with "Transportation Decisions. for Families:' go to Practice 13 on page 174 in Appendix 1.

!Language focus
Connectors for Comparison Essays
Writers use connectors in a well-organized essay to help clarify their main ideas. Connectors
help readers by providing logical connections between sentences, ideas, and paragraphs. Notice
that when these words, and often the phrase that follows them, begin a sentence, they are
followed by a comma.
The fol.l9wing two charts show connectors that can be used in comparison essays. ~otice
that the first chart is for comparison words and phrases and the second chart is for contrast
words and phrases. (For a more complete list of connectors, see the Brief Writer's Handbook
with Activities, pages 156-157.)

Between sentences or paragraphs Example

In addition, Both Red Beauty and Midnight Dream roses

are known for the size of their blooms,
their color, and their fragrance. In addition,
they are easy to grow.
Similarly, The Midnight Dream rose won awards in
local contests last year. Similarly, the Red
Beauty rose was singled out for its beauty.
Likewise, The blooms of Red Beauty roses last longer
than those of most other roses. likewise,
the blooms of the Midnight Dream rose are
long-lasting.
Compared to ... , Some roses last for a very short time. Compared
to these roses, the blooms of Red Beauty and
Midnight Dream roses last a lOng tirr:e.

Developing Compai-ison :::ssays

 Between sentences or paragraphs Example

However, I On the other hand, Many differences are clear to even novice
gardeners. However I On the other hand,
some of their differences are not very
obvious.
In contrast, Red Beauty has a strong, sweet fragrance.
In contrast, Midnight Dream's fragrance is
light and fruity.
Although ... , Both Midnight Dream roses and Red Beauty
roses are red. Although both these two
varieties have red flowers, Midnight Dream
roses are much darker than Red Beauty roses.
Even though ... , Red Beauty roses and Midnight Dream roses
are long-stemmed roses. Even though both
these two species are long-stemmed roses,
Red Beauty stems are thih and covered with
thorns while Midnight Dream stems are thick
and have almost no thorns.
Unlike ... , What do we know about the cost of these
two kinds of roses? Unlike Red Beauty,
Midnight Dream roses are relatively
inexpensive.

ACTIVITY 4 Connectors

Read the following student essay and circle the appropriate connector in each set ofparentheses. Refer to the
list in the Language Focus section on pages 71-72, if necessary.
The writer in this essay compares th.e university entrance requiremellts in Taiwan before and after 2001
when educational reforms were implemented.

Comparison Essays
 Higher Education Reforms in Taiwan

l I completed 1ny university studies less than ten years ago in Taiwan. (H~wever/Another),

I cannot consider myself a prOduct of modern Taiwanese education. If people ask me about the

current educational system in Taiwan, I do not have an easy answer for them. As it happens,

Taiwan experienced many educational reforms in 2001. The changes focused on the steps needed

to enter a Taiwanese university. In short, the entry requirements then and now have changed in

three major areas: testing, non:..academic activities, and school autonomy.

2 One of the most obvious differences between entry into college before and now is the

entrance test criterion..When I was a student, there was one and only one exam that all high school

students tdok. If a student did well on the exam, his or her future ·as a university student was set.

If the exam result was low, that student had little, if any, opportunity to get a higher education.

This "high stakes" exam mentality did much damage to many of my classmates. (In addition/

However), the school reforms of2001 changed that. Nowadays, Taiwanese students get more than

one opportunity to take the te~t. In addition, universities are now using testing options, including

standardize.d tests that are commonly utilized in the United States and tests that focus on critical

thinking and leadership skills. (Unlike/Even though) students in the past, Taiwanese students

today are assessed based on much more ihan rote learning and information.

3 (However/In addition), there is a great difference in the importance of non-academic

achievements for college entry. Before 2001, external activities such as membership in clubs

and other areas were not considered at all in evaluating a student's w?rthiness. Again, the focus

was solely on the student's examination score. (In contrast/Likewise), the current educational

requirements in Taiwan are much:broader. A Taiwanese student today can be evaluated on his
-- --- ---- -- ---- ------- --- ----------

or her outside activities-not just his or her academic achiev-ements------rron1-l:lig1i_S_C1ioot-·'I1Us-

paradigm shift ends up affecting not only the student's eventual entry to a university but also his

or her high school experience.

a product: a creation set: established, ready

autonomy: self-rule; independence an achievement: a success, an accomplishment
a criterion: a condition; a standard (plural: criteria) a paradigm: a mode!; an archetype

Developing Comparlson Essays

 4 The last obvious difference between the old anrl. new educational systems in Taiwan is the

autonomy of each university in making enrollment choices. Prior to 2001) universities relied on

the entrance exam. There was little variation from one school to another in terms of evaluating

prospective students. (Even though/Compared to) these universities claimed to pay some attention

to the "whole" stu4ent, in reality the focus was on the exam. (In contrast/Likewise)) Taiwanese

universities today can be completely unique and creative in their acceptance procedures.

Admissions offices can prepare their own unique examinations, develop special projects for

students to comPlete, and even accept lett;ers of recommendation from high schools. Universities

now have the authority to decide how they will assess their prospective students.

5 Education is vital to everyone's future success. While· it may take ten years to grow a -gee, a

sound educational system may take twice as long to take root. (However/ Although) my education

differed tremendously from the education of Taiwanese students today, as students we both share

the ultimate goal: to become as well educated as we can. This goal can be reached only if people

take advantage of all the educational opportunities given to them.

vital: fundamental; essential so~d: reliable; firm; positive

For more practice with connectors, tfy Unit 3, Activity 2 on the Great Writing 4 Web site: elt.heinle.com/
greatwriting

,
Correct and varied sentence structure is essential to the quality of your writing. For further practice
with "Higher Education Reforms in Taiwan:' go to Practice 14 ofl page 175 in Appendix~1 .
. _,,._...,.,._,., .. -,.,.,,,.

Comparison Essays (:.)-f.

 ACTIVITY

Circle the word or phmse that is most closely related to the word or phrase on the left. If nece;sarY, use
a dictionary.Jo check the meaning of words you_ do not know.

1. diversity difference distance

2. customs shirts traditions

3. a concept an idea music

4. remarkable repetitive amazing

5. a hemisphere in math class in geography class

6. to take root to begin to grow to refuse to. grow

7. solely hardly only

8. sound misunderstood solid

9. likewise but also

10. a climate weather yearly salary

Fill in each blank with the word on the left that most naturally completes the phrase on the right. If necessary,
use a dictionary to check the meaning of words you do not know.

1. make I pay to ________ attention to something

2. on I to to be vital _ _ _ _ _ _ _ (the plan's success)

3. origin I root to take _ _ _ __

···· ·· 4: liiiaTread1 to _ _ _ _··_···_···_-_··_··_-----a-ae·asion- ------ -------------------------\----

5. at/ in the differences _ _ _ _ _ _ _ size, cost, and color

6. advantage I time to take _________________ of

7. superior I ultimate our _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ goal

8. likewise I significant a portion

9. common I contrary to have nothing in-·-~------

1.0. groups I peopie ethnic

Building Better Vocabulary

'))Brainstorming
You will be asked to write comparison essays in many of your classes. Often, you will
be given the two subjects to be compared, such as two works of literature, two kinds of
chemical compounds, or two political beliefs. When you have to choose your own subjects
for comparison, the following brainstorming tips will help you.

Tips for Brainstorming Subjects

1. The subjects should have something in common. For example, soccer and hockey are
both fast-paced games that require a player to score a point by putting an object
into a goal guarded by a player from tbe other team.
2. The two subjects must also have some differences. For example, the most obvious
differences between the two games are the playing field, the protective equipment,
and the number of players.
3. You need to have enough information on each topic to make your comparisons.
If you choose two sports that are not well-known, it might be more difficult to find
information about them.
Make a List
A good way to determine w.hether you have enough information about similarities and
differences between two subjects is to brainstorm a list. Read the information in the lists below.

Ice Hockey Soccer

played on ice played on a grass field

6 players on a team 11 players on a team
uses a puck uses a soccer ball

(very popular spofD 15!ery popular sport)

(players use lots of protective pad0 Ci>layers use some protective pad0
(cannot touch the puck with your hands) <fannot touch the ball with your handv
(goal -puck in the net) @oal - ball in the net)

Comparison Essays CG
 As you can see, soccer and hockey have many. similarities and a few differences. Notice
that the similariti.es are cii-cled. These are "links" between the·two subjects. A writer could use
these links to hiQhllght the similarities between the two Qames or to lead into a discussion of
the differences between them: "Although both soccer and hockey ·_are popular, more schools
have organized soccer teams than hockey .... " ·
Make a Venn Diagram
Another way to brainstorm similarities and differences is to use a Venn diagram.·-(Perhaps
you have used Venn diagrams in math class.) A Venn diagram is~ visual rePresentation
of the similarities and differences between two corlcepts. Here is 3 Venn .diagram of the
characteristics of hockey and soccer.

HOCKEY SOCCER

Very Played on
Played on ice popular a grass field
sport

6 players on a team 11 players on a team

Can't touch puckfball
with hands
Uses a puck Uses a soccer ball
Score~ puck/ball
in goal
Uses lots of Uses some
protective pads protective pads

ACTIVITY 7 !der~tifjling Good Subjects

Below are pairs ofpotential subjects for. a comparison essay. Write yes on the line under the pairs that would be good
subjects and explain briefly what charaderistics~ r.oUld·be compared. Write no under the subjects that would not be
··· ·········· JtooilciWrcesaiTifc1iarigearTe-i5rlii5Inoftllenrinta-rnvTnuituu!..subjectso-%e-ftr:;t-two-lw.ve-beM-dot'<-for.you.-

1. living in a house /living in an apartment

~&s-wmpare costs, privacy, space

2. international travel I 747 airplanes

D.Q-Gf')Q.flR"'-"-147 aiY]Jianes" to "domesti~ travel" - - - - · - - - - - - - - -

3. high school/ coilegc

----------------- --·-----~--

Developing ldeas for Writing

4. the weather in Toronto I tourist attractions in Toronto

5. wild animals I animals in a zoo

6. computers I computer keyboards

7. hands I feet

8. the surface of the ocean floor I the surface of the continents

9. the Earth I the North American continent

10. Chinese food I Mexican food

For more practice with identifying subjects for comparison essays, try Unit 3, Activity 3 on the.Great
Writing 4 Web site: elt.heinl~.com/greatwriting

~. Writer's Note
Writing from Personal Experie'nce
Many students like to compare and contrast certain features of their cultures to those of
other cultures. These topics usually lead to interesting essays that engage readers.
••-. H-","'- ,;-,.,.... ,.....

Original Student Writing: Comparison Essay

ACTIVITY 8 Working with a Topic

Complete the following steps to develop ideas for a comparison essay.

1. Choose one topic from the list below or use your own idea for a topic. If you want to use an original
idea, talk to your teacher to see if it is appropriate for a comparison essay.

two sports two movies two systems of education

two places two machines two kinds of professions
two desserts two famous people two celebrations or holidays

<l> Comparison Essays

 ---·-----------~~-...-

2. Use the following chart to brainstorm a list of information about each subject. If you like, use the list
about soccer and hockey on page 76 as a guide.

TOPIC:

Subject 1: Subject 2:

..
.

3. Now fill in the Venn diagram using the information from the chart in Item 2 above.

~-- /
·~-··-------------~
Oric!inal Student \Nritinfr Cnmn:otricnn r-""""
4. Decide if you are going to focus on the similarities or the differences between the two subjects
or both in your comparison essay. Then choose three or four main points of comparison that you will
use and list them here.

a. ---------------------------------------------------------------------

b. ________~------------------------------------------------------

For more practice With Venn diagrams, try Unit 3, Activity 4, Activity 5, and Activity 6 on the Great Writing 4
Web site: elt.heinle.com/greatwriting

~' Writer's Note

Ideas for Supporting Information
In the next activity, you will develop supporting ,information. Here are some ideas to use
as supporting information in your body paragraphs:
give descriptions explain the causes
give examples explain the effects
' .... ,,,,..,.

ACTIVITY 9 Planning with an Outline

Use the following outline as a guide to help you brainstorm a more detailed plan for your comparison essay. For
this activity, use the point-by-point method oj organization. (See page 63.) Remember that the point-by-point
method organizes each paragraph by one point of comparison, such as the languages, the populations, or the
climates of two countries. Include your ideas from Activity 8. Write complete sentences where possible.

Topic: ______ ----------~---------------------------------------------

I. Introduction (Paragraph 1)
A. Hook: __________________________________~--------------------~--

B. Connecting i n f o r m a t i o n ; - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ' - - - - - - -

C. Thesis statement: -----------------

:; Comparison Essays
 !I. Body
A. Paragraph 2 (first point of comparison) topic sentence.: ________

!. ----------------~-----------------------------------------
a_ ---------------------------------------------------------------
!:: b
0
0..
. ---------------------------------------------------------
~
V> 2. -------~--------------------------------------------------------
a. -----------~----------------------------------------------~--
b. _________________________________________________

B. Paragraph 3 (second point of comparison) topic sentence:-----------------

!.

a. ---------------------------------------------------------------
I;: b
0
,_ . ---------------------------------------------------------

~ 2. - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

a. --------------------------------------------------------

b. ------------------------------------------------------
C. Paragraph 4 (third point of compari0on) topic s e n t e n c e : - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

a. ---------------------------------------------------------------
!;:; b
0 . ---------------------------------------------------------
0..
~ 2.
VI

a.. ====c========~~------------~~·==== ===~

b. _ _ _ _ _ __

Ill Conclusion (Paragraph 5)

A. Restated thesis: _ _ _ _ __ ·-----·---------·----------

B. Suggestion, opinion, or prediction: ·=-----·-------

·----·---·-

Origin-a\ Student Writing: Comparison Essav

Exchange books with a partner and look at Activity 9. Read your partnerS outline. Then use Peer Editing
Sheet 3 on page 189 to help you comment on your partnerS outline. Use your partner's feedback to revise
your outline. Make sure you have enough infqrmation to develop your supporting sentences.

ACTIVITY 11 Writing a Comparison Essay

Write a comparison essay based on your revised outline from Activity 10. Use at least five of the vocabulary
words or phrases presented in Activity 5 and Activity 6. Underline these words and phrases in your essay.
Be sure to refer to the seven steps in the writing process in the Brief WriterS Handbook with Activities
on pages 131-138.

ACTIVITY 12 Peer Editing Your Essay

Exchange papers from Activity 11 with a partner. Read your partner's writing. 1hen use Peer Editing Sheet 4
on page 191 to help you comment on your partner's Writing. Be sUre to offer positiVe suggestions and
comments that will help your partner improve his or her writing. Consider your partner's comments as you
revise your own writing.

Additional Topics for Writing

Here are more ideas for topics for a comparison essay. Before you write, be sure to refer to the seven steps
in the writing process in the Brief Writer's Handbook with Activities, pages 131-138.
TOPIC 1: Compare a book to its movie veision. How are the two similar and different? Are the
characters and the plot the same? Do you like the movie or the book better? Explain
your answer.
TOPIC 2: Compare the situation in a country before and after an important historical event, such as
Cuba before and after Fid·d Castro came to power.
TOPIC 3! Discuss two kinds of music, such as classical and pop. A few points of comparison might be
artists, in~truments, audiences, and popularity. ·
TOPIC 4: Show how the world h~s changed since the invention of the cell (mobile) phone. How did
people commUnicate before its invention? How easy or difficult was it to get in contact
with.someone?
TOPIC 5: Show the similarities and differences in the ways that two cultures celebrate an important
event, such as a birthday, wedding, or funeral

Comparison Essays
 How quickly can you write in English? There are many times when you must write quickly,
such as on a test. It is important to feel comfortable durillg those times. Tilned-writing practice
can make you feel better about writing quickly in English. ·
First, read the essay guidelines below. Then take out a piece of paper. Read the writing prompt
below the guidelines. As quickly as you can, write a basic outline for this writing prompt (including
the thesis and your three main points). You shouid spend no more than 5 minutes on your outline.
You will then have 40 minutes to write a 5-paragraph comparison essaY about your topic. At the
end of the 40 minutes, your teacher vvill collect your work and retqrn it to you at a later date.
Comparison Essay Guidelines
• Use the point-by-point method.
.. Remember to give your essay a title .
.o Double-space your ess.ay.
• Write as legibly as possible (if you are not using a computer).
'"Include a short introduction (with a thesis statement), three body paragraphs, and a conclusion.
• Try to give yourself a few minutes before the end of the activity to review your work. Check
for spelling, verb tense, and subject-verb agreement mistakes.

Compare two popular vacation destinations.

Additional Topics for VVriting

Cause~Effe<:t Essays

.,.,

What Is a Cause-Effect Essay?

A cause-effect essay shows the reader the relatiOnship between something that happens and its
consequences or between actions and results. FOr example, if too rp.uch commercial fishing is allowed in
the North Atlantic Ocean (action), the fish population io some areas may dimioish or disappear (result).
Cause-effect essays can be informative, analytical, and insightful.
In this unit, you will study two kinds of cause-effect essays. Very simply, io one method, the writer
focuses on the causes of something. Just t:hink. of how many people, when they are given a piece of
information, like to analyze the'topic and ask the question Why? or How? This is called the focus-on-
causes method. In the second method, the writer emphasizes the effects or results of a cause. People who
like to think hypothetically-answeriog the question What ij?-focus on the outcome of a particular event
or action. These writers often write fOcus-on-effeds essays.

\CAUSE\ \CAUSEr \CAUSE\ Cause

~-·t/ /1~
,-1E-FF-E--c-CTc-:111 EFFECT I r-1E-FF_E_C--c-TJ
Effect

"Focus-olD\ -Effects" MethiDld

L
'::7
---·····--- ·---- .
''-I
 Imagine that your instructor gives you the following writing topic: quitting a job. You have-the choice
of using the focus-on-causes method or' the focus-on-effectS method.
Focus-on-<:auses method: You can choose to write an essay on why people quit their jobs and
brainstorm possible reasons they may have for doing so. Each paragraph would contain a different cause.
Focus-on-effects method: On the other hand, you may want to emphasize the effects of quitting a
job-perhaps detailing the emotiOnal and financial consequences---.....:.in your body paragraphs. In this case,
each paragraph would address one effect.

Cause-Effect Es~ay Methods

The two cause-effect essay methods answer. diffe~ent questions.

Essays that use the focus-on-causes Essays that use the focus..:On-effects
method answer the question, method answer the que.stion,
''Why does somethmg happen?" "What happens when ... ? ''

For practice with topics for cause-effect essays, try Unit 4, Activity 1 on the Great Writing 4 Web site:
elt.heinle.com/greatwriting

Studying example essays is a good way to learn how to write in a particular rhetorical style. In the next
two activities, you will read and study the content and organization of an example essay.

ACTIVITY 1 Studying an Example Essay

Read the questions that come before the example essay and think about how you would answer them.
Then discuss them with a partner or in a small group. Read the essay and- then work with a partner 'to answer
the questions after the essay.
This focus-on-causes essay answers the question, "Why do people lief'
l. Wby do you think people lie?
2. Is it ever acceptable to lie? Giv~-exampl_es of acceptable and unacceptable lies.

Example Cause-Ef-fect Essay

=f.~)
 The Truth behind Lying
1 Most children are taught the virtue of honesty from fairy tales and other stories. The
celebrated story ofpinocchio, who begins life as a puppet, teaches the importance of telling the
truth. Every time Finocchio lies, his nose grows longer and longer. Another story abOut the boy
who "cried wolf" exemplifies how lying led to his losing all of his sheep as well as the trust of his
fellow villagers. lo the United States, yol.jng children study the tale of young George Washington,
who finally admits to his father that he cut down a cherry· tree. These types of stories typically
show children that "honesty is the best policY:' Still, if this is the case, then why do so many people
lie? The fact is that human beings lie for many reasons.
2 One reason for lying has to dO with minimizing a mistake. While it is true that everyone
makes a blunder from time to time, some people do not have the courage to admit when they
do because they might be blamed for the errors. For example, students might lie to their teachers
about unfinished homework. They might say that they left the work at home when, in fact, they
did not do the work at all. TheSe students do not want to seem irresponsible, so they make up an
excuse~a lie~ to save face.

3 Another reason people lie is to get out of situations that they do not want to be in Or cannot
manage. For example, if a company decides to have a weekend meeting, one of the managers
might not feellilre attending. She may call her boss and give this excuse: "I've been fighting off a
cold all week, and I truly cannot risk getting the others sick. I'll be sure to get all of the notes on
Monday:' When individuals do not want to admit the truth and then face the consequences, they
use lies to avoid difficulties.

celebrated: famous, renowned a blunder: a careless mistake

a puppet: a toy that is moved by strings avoid: to keep away from

Csuse-Effect Essays
 4 In contrast, some people might tell a "white lie" when they do not want to hurt someone else's
feelings. For example) if a good friend shows up with an unflattering ne~ haircut) one could be
truthful and say) ~'That hairCut looks awful. What were you thinking?!" A more likely scenario is to
say, "It's very original! It suits you~ and. spare-the friend's feelings. These types of lies are generally
not consider'ed negative Or wrong. In fact,' manY people who have told the truth to loved ones, only
to see the negative reaction, wish they had told a white lie. TherefOre, white lies can be useful in
maintaining good relationships.
5 A somewhat different reason for lying has to do with self-protection. Parents, part~cularly
those with small children, may teach their children to use this type of "protective" lie in certain
circumstances. What should children do if a stranger calls while the parents are out? Many parents
teach their children to explain that mom and dad are too busy to carne to the phone at that time.
In this situation, protective lying can prevent harm or disaster.

6 People lie for many. reasons, both good and bad. However, befure people resort to lying in order to
cover up mistakes or to avoid unpleasant situations, perhaps the motives for lying should be analyzed.
One's lies may one day be exposed and cause severe embarrassment or the loss of people's trust

unflattering: unatt:iactive, not favorable resort to: to do something only because othei 'options have failed

3. What is the thesis s t a t e m e n t ? - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

4. What three examples of liars from famous stories does the author give in the introduction paragraph?

a. ___________________________________________________

c. _____________________________________________________________

5. In Paragraph 4, the phrase whtte lie is used in the topic sentence but is not defined. Write your own

definition of a white lie.----------------------------~

6. In Paragraph 5, the author suPports .t~e. topic sentence by giving an example of a dangerous situation.
-------------------- __ What_example__d_Qes_lh_e_2_illho_r_g!Y:~i _____ _i__~-

7. Reread the concluding paragraph of"1be Truth behind Lying:' Does the writer after a suggeStion)

an opinion, or a prediction?--·--- TvVrite the final sentence here.

Example Cause-EHect Essay

 Correct and varied sentence structure_is essential to the quality of your writing. For further practice
with "The Truth behind Lying;' go to Practice IS on page 176 in Appendix l.
.• ->,"

ACTIVITY 2 Studying an Example Essay

Discuss the questions that come before the example essay with a partner. Then read the essay. Work
with a partner to answer the questions after the essay.
This focus~on-effects essay discusses some of the effects of the breakup of the Soviet Union.
l. Do you remember the fall of the Soviet Union?
2. How many former Soviet Republics can you name?

The Fall
I For almost 50 years, the Cold War was one of the most talked about issues in international
politics. Tensions between Western countries and the Soviet Union were high, and thJ, world felt
the potential danger of a disastrous conflict. When the Iron Curtain fell, many countries rejoiced.
Independent-minded Soviet Republics got the independence they had wanted, and the communist
ideology that had been so prevalent began to lose ground. About two decades after the breakup
of the Soviet Union, the effects are still being felt.

potential: possible an id.:!ology: a system of beliefs

rejoice: to celebrate prevalent: common, accepted

Cause-Effect Essays
 2 One of the most obvious changes in the post-communist world has been the shift to a
market economy. Governments that once had subsidized the costs of basic necessities, such as
food, transportation, housing, and electricity, are now letting competition and external factors
determine the prices of theSe items. Inflation is high, and many citizens are having a difficult
time adjusting to the fluctuations in price~ based on supply and demand. However, imported
goods are now commonplace in local markets, so consumers have more choices in what
they buy. The switch to a market economy is often a painful proce~s, but the citizens
of the former Soviet Union are still confident that they will one day benefit financially from
the economic changes.
3 Another anticipated effect of the fall of the Iron Curtain is sover_eignty: The Soviet Union
existed as one entity for many years, but now One can count~ number of emerging republics,
including Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Georgia, Ukraine, and Uzbekistan. These republics are
currently in the process of shaping their OVI(n independent identities. They can (ocus on rebuilding
their own cultures, languages, and priorities. This empowerment increases natio_nal pride and
uniqueness. The idea of all Soviets being one and the same is now gone. Clearly, national identity
is at the forefront of many people's minds.
4 While many former Soviets now feel a sense of national identity; the fall of the Soviet Union
has taken away the identity of niany others. Many ethnic groups have lived in this part of the
world for generations. They were raised as Soviets, spoke Russian as a native language, and were
taught to believe that they were citizens of the great superpower. Koreans, Tartars, Uighurs, and
other ethnic groups can be found in most of the former Soviet Republics .. Now that independence
has spread from Eastern Europe to Central Asja, ,many of these citizens are considered ininority
groups. They do not want to be repatriated .to distant lands such as North Korea or China. While
they may look Korean or Chinese, they do not speak the languages and have not had ties with
these parts of the world for many years. As the newly formed republics try to reinvigorate their
traditions and values, many of the ethn~c minorities tend to feel left out with no place to really
call home.
5 The fall of the Soviet Union is perhaps one Of the most momentous events of the twentieth
century. Walls fell, markets opened, and people rejoiced in the streets, anticipating a life full of
opportunities and freedom to make their own choices. A system that took so long to build will
probably need as much time, if no-t more, to truly adapt to the free enterpiise system that is 'now
the world model

a shift: a change repatriate: to send people back to their

subsidize: to finance, support original homeland
____________ -~--£!1.!.~-t~~!!_~~-~-~'?-~-~-~~nt or c~~!\e____ ______ __ __ ___ ___ _______ __ ____ reinvigorate: to revitalize, bring back to life
sovereignty: self-government, supremacy -momem:ou:s:·-rrnportant,-eventful---
fo-refront: in the positi011 of most
importance, vanguard

Exarnple Cause-tffect Essay

3. What is the writer's main message in this essay?

4. Reread the thesis statement of"The Fall:' Is the thesis stated or implied?

5. In Paragraph 2, the writer explains that one effect of the Soviet breakup is the new market economy.
What examples does the writer give to show that countries are now in a market economy?

6. In Paragraph 4, the author writes about ethnic nilnorities and their problems. Which minorities are
specifically mentioned and what problems are they having?

7. In Paragraph 2, find a word that has approximately the saroe meaning as the word shift and write it
here. _______________________________________________________________________

8. Find the boldfaced vocabulary word in the final paragraph of this essay. Write a synonym of that

word here·------------------~-----------------------------------------------

~ ' • < j

$uilding
,.,
~--'"-"' ,,,.,_
Better Sentences
-" -
' - '"'~ ''.
·
Correct and varied sentence structure is essential to the quality of your writing. For further praCtice
with "The Fall;' go to Practice 16 on page 177 in Appendix l.

Developing Cause-Effect Essays

In this next section, you will work on cause-effect essays as you make an outline, write, supporting
information, study connectors, and choose a topic. Practicing these skills ·will help you write an effective
cause-effect essay.

Cause-Effect Essays
 Complete the following two outlines with a partner. The first one outlines the causes of bullying behavior
(focus"on-causes method), and the second one outlines the effects of bullying on the young people who are
being bullied (focus-on-effects method). Use your imagination, knowledge of the topic, andunderstanding of
essay organization. (See Unit 1 for a review of the structure of an essay.) Be sure to pay attention to the thesis
statements and use them to help you complete the outlines.

Focus-on-Causes Outline
Topic: The causes of bullying behavior

I. Introduction (Paragraph 1)

A. Hook=--------------~--------------------------------------------

· B. Thesis statement: Bullying behavior can occur for many reasons, sOme of which are ___________

II. Body
A. Paragraph 2 (Cause 1) topic sentence: Teens often begin bullying because they want to control
those who are weaker than they are.
!;: 1. Bullying gives young people an identity-they become well-known in school.
2 2. Bullying makes them feel powerful.
"-
~ 3.

)ii Developing Cause-E-ffect Essays

 B. Paragraph 3 (Cause 2) topic s e n t e n c e : - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

1. In many families, both parents work outside the home.

2. Parents often do not have- tirp.e to pay attention to their childrerls needs.
3. Parents may not be aware of the aggressive behavior that their children are exhibiting, either
iilside or outside the home.
C. Paragraph 4 (Cause 3) topic s e n t e n c e : - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

li: 1. They use violence as a way of identifying themselves.

~ 2. They may have emotional problems.
:::>
"' 3. Being known for bad behavior is better than not·being known at all.

III. Conclusion (Paragraph 5) (restated t h e s i s ) : - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

The best way to stop young people from bullying and abusing their peers is to educate the public-
including teachers, parents, and other children-that bullying is an absolutely unacceptable behavior.
Only then will there be a decrease in the number of bullying incidents in school.

Focus-on-Effects Outline
Topic: The effects of bullying on the victim

I. Introduction (Paragraph 1)
A. Hook: _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

B. Thesis statement: When youug people bully others, the effects felt by the weaker student can lead
to serious, even deadly, consequences.
II. Body
A. Paragraph 2 (Effect 1) topic sentence: Students who are bullied tend to withdraw from society.
1. They often·stop communicating with parents and friends.
,
2. They want to hide this embarrassing situation, which can lead to lying.
3.

B. Paragraph 3 (Effect 2) topic s e n t e n c e : - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

l. Students lose self-esteem and start questioning their own personalities, thinking that maybe
·-"'i:l::
0 they deserve this bad treatment.
:J 2. They may start focusing only on the bully.
"' 3. 1heir outlook on life may become darker and darker as the bullying continues.

"' Cause-Effect Essays

 C. Paragraph 4 (Effect 3) topic sentence: If teens become damaged by the bullying, they may do
almost anything to get out of the situation.
~ 1. They may try to escape from their painful reality by engaging in dangerous activities.
2
0.
2. They might think about a plan of revenge.

~. 3. -----------------------------------------------------------------------

III. Conclusion (Paragraph 5) (restated thesis):---------------------------------------'-

When young people are victims of bullies, there is·a strong chance that they will suffer many
negative consequences, not only from the bullies themselves but also as they begin to separate
from society. For so many years, bullying was considered a normal pai-t of growing up~ as in the
saying "Boys will be boys!" However, with the increase of teen anguish due to bullying and the
millions of dollars spent onlong·term therapy, one has to wonder if bullying should be considered
a «normal'' activity. In order to ensure a stable and healthy society, individuals nee<.! to take a
harder look at this negative behavior that hurts not only the bullied child and the bully, but the
family and society as a whole.

ACTIVITY 4 Supporting Information

The following cause-effect essay is missing the supporting information. As you read the essay, work
with a partner to write supporting sentences for each paragraph. If you need more space, use a separate
piece ofpaper. After you finish, compare your supporti~g information with that of other students.
Did you watch TV when you were a child? 'In this essay, you provide some facts about children
and TV watching. .

Developing Cause-Effect Essays

 Television at Its Worst
1 Mr. Stevenson has just Come hOme from a terribly tiring day at work. The first thing he does,
after taking off his tie and shoes, is plop down on the couch and turn on the television. Does this
sound like a normal routine? It should because Mr. Stevenson's actions are repeated by millions
around the world. People use television to relax and to forget about their daily troubles. However,
what started out decades ago as an exciting, new type of family entertainment is currently being
blamed for problems, especially in children. Many researchers now claim that too much television
is not good for kids. They have a point; watching too much TV often does have negative effects
on youngsters.
2 One negative effect of TV on kids is l a z i n e s s . - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

3 Another problem with TV watching and kids is that children may have difficulty
distinguishing between what is real and what is n o t . - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

4 Finally, television-may lead children to------~-------------

5 Television has changed over the years to include more and more programs that are
inappropriate for children. For TV to once again play a mar~ positive role in childrells lives,
something must be done. Young people's futures depend on it.

1 Cause-Effect Essays
::!A;
#' '

Correct and·varied se:ritence str~cture is essential to the quality of your writing. For further practice
with "Television at Its Worst;' go to PractiCe 17 on page 178' in Appendix 1.

Sequencing Paragraphs
Some writers like to present their strongest or m.ost forceful information in the first or
-second paragraphs of an essay. Other writers prefer to end their essayS with the strongest
information. Both ways are correct. Choose the sequence of paragraphs that best presents
your information in the way that you want your reade~ to understand it.

l!Al!llguage focus;
Connectors for Cause-Effect Essays
Connectors show relationships between ideas in sentences and paragraphS. In cause-effect
essays, writers commonly use the connecting words and phrases in the following charts.
(For a more complete list of connectors, see the Brief Writer's Handbook with Activities,
pages 156-157.) · ·

On account of
As a result of the rain, we all got wet.
Because of
Due to

Because
it rained, we all got wet.
Since

For this reason,

it rained. As a result, we all got wet.

Thus,
Consequently,

Developing Cause-Effect Essays

Read the next student essay (focus-on-effects method) and circle the appropriate connector in each set of
parentheses. Refer to the list in the Language Focus section on page 95, if necessary.
Do you use computers in your academic world Read about how computers have made academic
work easier.

Effects of Computers on Higher Education

1 Through the ages, industrious individuals have continuously created conveniences to make life

easier. From the invention of the wheel to the lightbulb, inventions have propelled sodety forward One

recent modern invention is the computer, which has improved many aspects of people's lives. This is

especially true in the field of educatidn. (Therefore I Because of) computer technology, higher education

today has three major convenienceS: lecture variety, easy research, and time-saving writing methods.

2 One important effect of computer technology on higher education is the availability oflectures.

(For this reason I AB a result of) the development of computer networks, students can obtain lectures

from many universities in real time. They are now able to sit down in front of a digital screen and
'
listen to a lecture being given at another university. In addition, interactive media can be used to

question a lecturer or exchange opinions with other students via e-mail. Such computerized lectures

give students access to knowledge that was previously unavailable. (For this reason I Because),

students can learn from professors in specialized fields, regardless of where they are teaching.

availability: accessibility, ease of use via: through the use of

interactive: involving more than one person access: contact with, right to use

Cause~Effect Essays
 3 The development of computers also makes it possible to have access to more information via

the Internet and ~atabases. (Since I Consequently), when students research a topic, they do not

necessarily have to go to the library to find information bec_ause many articles and even textbooks can

be downloaded via computer. It is now extremely easy to use the Interilet and databases since all one

has to do is type in a few· key words and wait a few moments. The convenience of doing this type of

research from home helps busy students who would otherwise nOt have time to visit a campus library.

4 Finally, computer technology helps students with their academic writing assignment& E-mail

assignments are becoming more common at universities.. (As a result I Due to), the assignments are

much quicker and easier to finish than before. When it is time to hand in assigned papers or homework,

students simply send them to their professors via e-mail. This method is beneficial for students and

convenient for teachers, who will not risk losing their students' Work in a rrlountain of papers. Another

time.., saving computer function is the w~rd processor. -('Ill:us I BecaUse of) improved word-processing

programs, students have the added benefit of spell-checking and grammar-checking programs. If a

sentence is grammatically incorrect, one of these :programs highlights the incorreCt parts of the sentence

and corrects them. Word-processing programs also have built-in dictionaries and spell checkers, which

help students write concisely and accurately. (Since I As a result of) these two functions-e-mail and

word processing-both teachers and students can save a great deal of time and produce solid work

5 To summarize, computer technology has three main positive e-f!ects on higher education:

lecture variety, easy research, and time-saving writing methods. (Because of I Because) the advent

of computers in education, students tan now increase their kllowledge and be more time~efficient

at the same time. Academic life will never be the same!

the advent: the beginning

For more practice with connectors that show cause and effect, try Unit 4, Activily 2 and Activity 3 on the
Great Writing4 Web site: elt.heinle.com/greatwriting

Correct and varied sentence structure is essential to the quality of your writing. For further practice
with "Effects of Computers on Higher Education;' go to Practice 18 on page 179 in Appendix 1.

Developing Cause-Effect Essays

 In all writing) including cause-effect essays) attention to precise language is important. Wordiness, or
using unnecessary words, is a common problem for many wdters. If you can eliminate wordiness from
your writing, your essays will be clearer and easier to read.

Wordiness
Some writers think that the more words they use, the better their essay will sound. However; in
academic writing in English, it is important to be as concise as possible. Unnecessary words and phrases
do not improve your writing. Instead, they make it hard for readers to understand what you want to say.
The list on the left contains common wordy phrases. Try to avoid them in your writing.

it goes without saying (nothing)

at that point in time at that time
despite the fact that+ subject+ verb despite + noun
for all intents and purposes (nothing)
in the vicinity of near
in the final analys'1s finally
made a statement saying said
in the event that if
the reason why is because
it seems unnecessary to point out (nothing)
when all is said and done (nothing)

ACTIVITY 6 Wordiness

The following introductory paragraph from a cause-effect essay contains 6 examples of wordy phrases.
Underline them as you find them. 1hen, on a separate piece ofpaper, rewrite the paragraph without
the wordy phrases and make it more concise:· Note: There is more than one correct way of rewriting
this paragraph.

The fat-free fOod industry is a tremendous money-

malting business although recent research has shown that

fat-free products are considen;d only a minor prescription

for the purpose of losing weight. Nutritionists have made

statements saying that, for all intents and purposes, more

important steps to losing weight are exercising and eating

well-balanced meals. Despite the fact that this information has appeared, ·many people still seem to

believe that, when all is said and done, eating fat-free food is the best dieting method. The contents

of the following essay show some interesting reasons for this fat-free phenomenon.

Cause-Effect Essays
I
1
il
11

i
I
Redundancy
Redundancy-a kh1d of wordiness-is the unnecessary repetition of information. "\Alhen you
write, you may want to impress your readers with an eloquent essay that is full of thought--provoking
information. One way that writers often try to do this is'by loading up on inform8.tion. You may think,
"The more information I have in my essay, the more my readers will enjoy it:' This is not usually the case,
especially if, instead of adding information, you repeat What you have already said: Repetition can occur
in the wording of short phrases as well as in sentences.
Redundant phrases The list on the left contains commonly used redundant phrases. Try to avoid
them in your writing. (If you are not sure why the phrases are redundant, look up the meanings of the
·two words.)

collaborate together collaborate

completely una~imous unanimous
courthouse building courthouse
descend downward descend
erupt violently erupt
exactly identical identiCal
free gift gift
merge together merge
repeat again repeat
unexpected

Redundant sentences The second sentence below contains the same information as the first sentence.

The United States iS the most influential power in the world. Partly because of its abundant
material resources and stable poli'tical system, this country has great influence in global affairs.

Combine the sentences and eliminate the redundant information. Read the combined sentence below.

The United States has a great influence in global affairs in part because of its abundant material
resources and stable political system.

For practice with identifying redundant phrases, try Unit 4, Activity 4 on the Great Writing 4 Web site:
elt.heinle.com/greatvvriting '

Developing Cause-Effect Essays

ACTIVITY 7 Don't Say H 1\•vk,s

Underline the redundant information in this paragraph. Then compare your work with a partner's.

Many people love to watch science-fiction stories on TV or at the movies. TV shows and films,

such as Star Trek, are popular not ouly because they creatively show how future life might be in

three hundred years, but also because they introduce us to characters from other worlds, planets,

and galaxies. Perhaps one of the most popular kinds of characters in these futuristic programs is

a person with ESP, or extrasensory perception. ESP is a sense that allows one person to read the

mind of another without the exchange of words. These characters, who can read minds and know

the innermost thoughts and secrets of other people, often use their gift in less than noble ways.

One must remember, however, that these scenes take place in an untrue and fictitious situation.

A more interesting concept is to think about what would really happen if ordinary, everyday

people possessed ESP.

For more practice with identifying redundant sentences in a paragraph, try Unit 4, Activity 5 and Activity 6
on the Great Writing 4 Web site: eltheinle.com/greatwriting

Cause-Effect Essays
T

ACTIVITY 8
< ,'•

Circle the word or phrase that is most closely related to the word or phrase on the left. If necessary, use
a dictionary to check the meaning of words you do not know.

I. via using faraway

2. an ideology beliefs sm:art

3. momentous boring important

4. interactive not alone alone

5. the advent termination beginning

6. to rejoice sad feelings happy feelings

7. the forefront new ideas old ideas

8. availability presence thought

9. to propel to move forward to stay in one place

10. a blunder a mistake an opinion

Fill in each blank with the word or phrase on the left that most naturally completes the phrase on the right.
If necessary, use a dictionary to check the meaning of words you do not know.

I. time /lunch to have a difficult----~~-

2. on/ to one negative effect of TV people

3. up to I out of to get a bad situation

4. by I for convenient---· _ _ _ _ everyone

5. excited I added an benefit

6. play I run to a role

7. give I do to access to something

8. part/ step a normal oflife

9. for I to to resort ---·-------an alternative plan

10. in I to children tend be active

Building Better Vocabulary

Deveiot•J>ing !dei3ls for 'Jiffrtiitnng
Good writers work with ideas that will interest readers. How do writers come up with good ideas? This
section will show you some ways to generate ideas for cause-effect essays.

s: Writ~r·~ N'pti:i- . - ',_.,.,

.. \
~'"~-·

Asking Questions
Many writers can think of good topics, but they have trouble developing their topics
into essays. One brainstorming method that often helps is to ask questions about the
topic- Who? What? Where? When? Why? How? This process often leads to new ideas
that can be used in an essay. Especially for a cause·effect essay, good writers ask the
question Why? This aoalytical question will exercise your skills in finding cause·effect
relationships.

ACTIVITY 10 Starting with Questions

The following questions can all be developed into cause·effect essays. Try to give at least three answers
to each question. ·

L Why do people gain too much weight?

2. What usually happens after a stock market crash?

3. Why do airplane crashes occ'ur?

"' Cause-Effect Essays

4. What would happen if society used a barter system instead of money?

5. Why are more and more people studying a second (or third) language?

6. What are the effects of playing a team sport?

7. What are the causes of _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ? (Think of your own topic.)

8. What are the effects of_~-----------:----~? (Think of your own topic.)

For more practice with using questions to develop ideas for topics, try Unit 4, Activity 7 on the Great
Writing 4 Web site: elt.heinle.com/greatwriting

Developing ldeas for \1\fritir.g

C!S
~-
'-;J !l>rrain$tolfmbsg '

In the next activity, you will use a brainstorming technique called clustering. (See Unit 2 for
a review of this technique.) Here is an example of clustering; the topic is the effects of ozone
depletion on the environment.

Lose of land
in Brazil

State on Ray5are
Tree5
cancer case6 muoh
-dying or
-Au5tralia? stronger
being out
now
North-South
Pole

Ozone depletion ha5

oau5ed many
environmental change5

Polar Ice Cap5

· Shrinking melting
~'----..L__

De5ert5 Coastline
(Desertification)

Getting bigger Arable Effects on

-Sahara as land coastal cities
an example in Egypt -examples
More drou~hte
ie shrinking from Japan
& eand5torms -Get 5tati5tic5
from UNIFAO

Original Student Writing: Cause-Effect Essay

ACTIVITY 11 Clustering ideas

Choose a topic from Activity 10. With the preceding example as a guide, brainstorm some ideas about your
topic using the clustering method. Write all yow: ideas. When you have finished, cross out the ideas that you
do not like or do not want to include in your essay. Explain your brainstorming cluster to a classmate.

Cause-Effect Essays
 Complete the outline below as a guide to help jou brainstorm a more detailed plan for your cause-effect essay.
Use your ideas from Activity 11. You may need to use either·more or fewer points under each heading. V\lrite
in complete- sentences where possible.

Topic: ______________~-----------------------~---~------~-------------

I. Introduction (Paragraph 1)

A. Hook:---------------------------------------------------'------------

B. Connecting information;---------~----------~----------

C. Thesis s t a t e m e n t : - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

II. Body

A. Paragraph 2 (first cause or effect) topic sentence:-----'-------------------------

!. ________________________________________.....:__________________

2. -----------------------------------------------------------
3. ________________________________________________________

B. Paragraph 3 (second cause or effect) topic s e n t e n c e : - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

!;: 1. ---'----------'----------------------------------------------
0
0..
0.. 2. ----------------------------------------------------------
::>
"' 3. ------------------------------------------------~---------
C. Paragraph 4 (third cause or effect) topic s e n t e n c e : - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

!. _____________
>-
---IX;'-----
0 2. _____________________
"-
Q.
::0
Vl
3. -----------------
Ill. Conclusion (paragraph 5)
A. Restated thesis:

-------~---------·---------

B. Suggestion, opinion, or prediction:···-·-------------------·--·----------···-·----

Original Student Writing: Cause-Effect Essay

 Personal Writing Style
Some writers work well from an outline and some do not. Some writers write the
introduction first, and some write it last. Writing is an individual activity. Use the guidelines
in this book and follow the process that works best for you.
<~.-w••

ACTIVITY 13 Peer Editing Your Outline

Exchange books with a partner and look at Activity 12. Read your partner~ outline. Then use Peer Editing
Sheet 5 on page 193 to help you comment on your partner's outline. Use your partner's feedback to revise your
outline. Make sure you have enough information to develop your supporting sentences.

ACTIVITY 14 Writing a Cause-Effect Essay

Write a cause-effect essay based on your revised outline from Activity 13. Use at least five of the vocabulary
words or phrases presented in Activity 8 and Activity 9. Underline these words and phrases in your essay. Be sure
to refer to the seven steps in the writing process in the Brief Writer~ Handbook with Activities on pages 131-138.

ACTIVITY 15 Peer Editing Your Essay

Exchange papers from Activity 14 with a partner. Read your partner's writing. Then use Peer Editing Sheet 6
on page 195 to help you comment t.m your partner's writing. Be sure to offer positive suggestions and
comments that will help your partner improve his or her writing. Consider your Partner's comments as you
revise your own writing.

Additional Topics for Writing

Here are more ideas for topics for a cause-effect essay. Before you write, be sure to refer to the seven steps in
the writing process in the Brief Writer~ Handbook with Activities, pages 131-138.
TOPIC 1: Children are learning to use computers at a very early age. What are some effects (positive
or negative) that computers can have on the intellectua)_ development of children?
TOPIC 2: Going to college is a dream for many people. Some do the work, graduate, and find good
jobs. Other students, however, never finish their university studies. Write a.rf, essay about what
causes students to ·drop out of college.
TOPIC 3! Friendships are an integral part of a persorls life. Unfortunately, some of these relationships
do not last. Write an essay highlighting some of the reasons that friendships sometimes die.
TOPIC 4: 1he number of car accidents that occur on a daily basis is massive. In your opinion, what are
three common causes of motor vehicle accidents?
TOPIC 5: Many people enjoy traveling and experiencing other cultures. What are some of the beneficial
effects of international travel on an individual?

' Cause-Effect Essays

 How quickly can you write in English? There are many times when you must wr-ite quickly,
such aS. on a test. It is important-to feel comfortable. during those times. Timed-writing practice
can make you feel better about writing quickly in English.
t
First, read the essay guidelines below. Then take out a piece of paper. Read the writing prompt i
below the guidelines. As quickly as you can, write a bask- outline for this writing prompt
(including the thesis and your three main points). You should spend no more than 5 minutes
on your outline.
You will then have 40 minutes to write a 5-paragraph cause-effect essay about your topic. At the
end of the 40 minutes, your teacher will collect your work and return it to you at a later date.

Cause-Effect Essay Guidelines

Q Use the focus-on-causes method.
... Remember to give your essay a title.
G- Double-space your essay.
o Write as legibly as possible (if you are not using a computer).
o Include a short introduction (with a thesis statement), three body paragraphs, and a conclusion.
o Try to give yourself a few minutes before the end of the activity to review your work. Check
for spelling, verb tense, and subject-verb agreement mistakes.

Why do people keep pets?

--------- ------ ---------------- --------------- ------ ------- -------------------------- ------- -------------- ----------------

Additional Topics for VVriting

Argumentative
Essays

What Is an Argumentative Essay?

In an argumentative essay, the
writer's purpose is to persuade the
audience to agree with his or her
opinion about a controversial topic.
In a sociology class, for example, you
might write an essay arguing that female
military personnel can be as effective
as male military personnel in combat
missions. In a history class, your essay
might try to convince readers that
World War I could have been avoided
if certain steps had been taken. In an
argUmentative essay, sometimes referred
to as a persuasive essay,. the writer states his or her opinion, gives reasolls to support it, and tries
to cOnvince the audience that he o.r she is right.

Arguing Pro or Con

Choosing a topic that is appropriate for an argumentative essay is especially important because some
things cannot be argued. For example, you cannot argue that a rose is more beautiful than a daisy-this
is an opinion that cannot be supported by facts, However, you can argue that roses are more popular than
daisies and support the argument with facts about florists' sales of the two kinds of flowers.
 Here are a few effective topics and thesis statements for an argument3:tive essay:
" I\1arriage before the age of eighteen: People under the age of eighteen should
not be alloweQ_ to marry.
" Standardized testing: Standardized testirig should not be required as part of the application
process for a university.
., Fast-food restaurants: Communities should decide if fast-food restaurants are right
for their neighborhood.
You can argue either for (pro) or against (con) these statements. If your topic does riot have two
viewpoint~, your essay will not be effective. Look at 'the following example ofan ineffective topic
and thesis statemept.
Jazz music: Jazz music began with African-Americans.
You cannot argue against this statement because it is a fact. Therefore, you cannot write an argumentative
essay using this thesis statement

Choosing a Topic
-Be sure that the topic you choose for an argumentative essay has two sides. In_ other
words, your topic should have a pro argument and ·a con argument.

For practice with thesis statements for argumentative essays, try Unit 5, Activity 1 on the Great Writing 4
Web site: elt.heinle.com/greatwriting

Couwi01dng the Reader

Your job as the writer of an argumentative essay is to convince your readers that your opinion about a
topic {your thesis statement) is the most valid viewpoint. To do this, your essay needs to be balanced-it
must include an opposing viewpoint, oi- counterargument (see page 113). Even though you are arguing
one side of an issue (either for or against), you must think about what someone on the other side of the
issue would argue. As soon as you give your opponent,s point of view, you must offer a refutation of it
(see page 113). This means that you refute the other point of view, or show how it is wrong. If you
give only your opinion, your essay 'fill sound like propaganda, and your readers will not be convinced
of your viewpoint.
-----,---

~~~J. \IVhat ls an J\rgumentative Essay?

IExarnp~e Aw~;urm:mtathre: Essay
A good way to help you learn how to write an argumentative essay is to study an example. In the next
activity, you will read and study the content and organization of an example essay.

ACTIVITY 1 Studying an Example Essay

Discuss the questions that come before the example essay with a partner. Then read the essay. Work
with a partner to answer the questions after the essay.
In this essay, the writer argues for the use of school uniforms.
1. Did you wear a unifor~ when you went to school?
2. Some people believe that children are too materialistic these days. For example, they may be too
interested in wearing brand-name clothes and shoes. What is your opinion?

~~f~lfllll,l~-~~~~tl\~11~~
'
The School Uniform Question
1 Individualism is a fundamental part of society in many countries. Most people believe in the
right to express their own opinion without fear of punishment. This value, however, is coming
under fire in an unlikely place-the public school classroom. The issue is school uniforms. Should
public school students be allowed to make individual decisions about clothing, or should all
students be required to wear a uniform? School uniforms are the better choice for three reasons.

fundamental: essential, basic a public school: a school run by the state government
and paid for by citizens' property taxes

Argumentative Essays
 2 First, wearing school uniforms would help make studen-ts' lives simpler. They would no longer
have to decide what to wear every morning, sometimes trying on outfit" after outfit in an effort to
choose. Uniforms would ~ot only save time but also would eliminate th·~ stress often associated
with this chore.
3 Second> school uniforms influence students to act responsibly in groups and as individuals.
Uniforms give students the message that school is a special place for learning. In addition,
uniforms create a feeling of unity am.ong students. For example, when stUdents do something as a
group, such as attend meetings in the auditorium or eat lunch in the cafeteria, the fact that they all
wear the same uniform gives them a sense of community. Even more important, statistics show the
positive effects that school uniforms have on violence and truancy. According to a re<;:en:t survey
in a large school district in Florida, incidents of school violence dropped by 50 percent, attendance
and' test scores improved, and student suspensions deClined approximately 30 percent after school
uniforms were introduced.
4 Finally, school uniforms would help make all the students feel equal. Students' standards
ofliving differ greatly from family to family, and some people are well-off while others are not.
People sometimes forget that school is a place to get an education, not to promote a "fashion
show:' Implementing mandatory school uniforms would make all the students look the same
regardless of their financial status. School uniforms would promote pride and help to raise the
self-esteem of students who cannot afford to wear expensive clothing.
5 Opponents of mandatory uniforms say that students who wear school uniforms cannot
express their individuality. This point has some merit on the surfaCe. However, as stated previously,
school is a place to learn, not to flaunt wealth arid fashion. Society must decide if individual'
expression through clothing is more valuable than improved educational performance. It is
important to remember that school uniforms would be worn only during school hours. Stndents
can express their individuality in the way that they dress outside ~f the classroom.
6 In conclusion, there are manywen.:.'documented benefits of implementing mandatory school
uniforms for students. Studies show that students learn better and act more responsibly when they
wear uniforms. Public schools should require uniforms in order to benefit both the students and
society as a whole.

truancy: absence without permission implement: to put into effect

well-off: wealthy flaunt: to show off display

3. The topic of this essay is school uniforms. What is the hook in the first paragraph?

4. What is the thesis statement? - - - - - -

Example ,1.\rqumentative Essav

5. Paragraphs 2, 3, and 4 each give a reason for requiring school uniforms. These reasons can be found
ih the topic .sentence of each paragraph. What are the reasons?

P~agmph2: ____________________~------------------------------------

P~agraph3: _____________________________________________________________

P~agraph4: __________________________________________________________

6. In Paragraph 4, what supporting information does the writer give to show that uniforms make
students equal?

7. Which paragraph presents a counterargument-an argument that is contrary to, or the opposite of,
the writer's opinion? ________ What is the counterargument?

8. The writer gives a refutation of the counterargument by showing that it is invalid. What is the writer's
refutation?

9. Write the sentence from the concluding paragraph that restates the thesis.

10. Reread the concluding paragraph. What is the writer's opinion about this issue?

Argumentative Essays
 Correct and varied sentence structure is essential to the quality of your writing. FOr further practice
with "The School Uniform Question;' go to Practice 19 on page 180 in Appendi,"'( '1.

Counterargument and Refutation

The key technique to persuading th~ reader that your viewpoint is valid is to supportit in every
paragraph. While this is not a problem in the first few paragraphs of your essay, the counterargrrment goes
against your thesis statement. Consequently, every counterargument that you include in your. essay needs a
refutation. A refutation is a response to the counterargument that disproves it.
Look at the following excerpts from two argumentative essays in this unit. The counterarguments are
in italics- and the refutations are underlined.

From Example Essay 19:

Opponents of mandatory uniforms say that students who wear school uniforms cannot
express their individuality. This point has some merit on the surface. However. as stated previously.
school is a place to learn. not to flaunt wealth and fashion.

From Essay in Activity 2:

Some parents might disagree and claim that only academic subjects should be taught
in school. Then again. most parents do not have the time or the resources to see to it that their
children are getting enough exercise.
As you can see, what begins as a counterargument ends up as another reason in support
of your opinion. '

FOr practice with identifying counterarguments and refutations, try Unit 5, Activity 2 and Activity 3
on the Great Writing 4 Web site: elt.heinle.com/greatwriting

Arguing Your Point of View

i
Imagine that you are having an argument with a friend about your topic. She disagrees
with your opinion. What do you think will be her strongest argument against your point of
view? How will you respond to this counterargument? (Your answer is your refutation.)
 In this next section, you will work on argumentative essays as you make an outline, write supporting
information, study medals, and choose a topic.

Outlining

ACTIVITY 2 Outlining Practice

The following outline, which is designed for an argumentative essay, is missing some supporting information.
Work with a partner to complete the outline. Use your imagination, knowledge of the topic, and
understanding of essay organization to complete this outline with your partner. After you finish,
compare your supporting information with other students' work.

lbpic: Mandatory physical education in school

I. Introduction (Paragraph 1)

Thesis statement: Physical education classes should be required for all public school students in all grades.

II. Body

A. Paragraph 2 (Pro argument 1) topic sentence: Physical education courses promote children's
general health.

1. Researche·rs have proved that exercise has maximum benefit if done regularly.

2. ____________________________________________________

3. Students should learn the importance of physical fitness at an early age.

Argumentative Essays
 B. Paragraph 3 (Pro argument 2) topic sentence: Physical edLlcatio:n teaches children transferable
life sldlls.

1. Kids learn about teamwork while playing team sports.

2. Kids learn about the benefits of healthy competition.

3.

'
C. Paragraph 4 (Pro argnment 3) topic s e n t e n c e : - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

1. Trained physical education teachers can teach more effectively than parents.

2. Physical education teachers can usually point students toward new and interesting sports.

3. Schools generally have the appropriate facilities and equipment.

D. Paragraph 5 (counterargnment and refutation)

,_ 1. Counterargnment: Some parents might disagree and claim that only academic subjects should

"'0
0..
be taught in school.
"-
:::> 2. Refutation: Then again, most parents do not have the time or the resources to see.to it that their
"' children are getting enough exercise.

III. Conclusion (Paragraph 6) (restated tnesis): - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ' - - - -

Physical education has often been downplayed as a minor part of daily school life. If its benefits are·
taken into account and if schools adopt a twelve-year fitness plan, the positive results will foster a new
awareness of not only physical fitness but also communication skills.

ACTiVITY 3 Studying the Supporting Information in an-Example Essay

Discuss the questions that come befo.e the essay with a partner. Then read the essay. You will find that this
argumentative essay is missing the supporting information. As you read the essay, work with a partner to
----wf#e-suppoFt4ng-sent<mms1<>r-ea<h-paragraph..-If-yniLneed_marr_Sfiace, use <Ig[iarate JZi~c"-2iPJIJJe1:_After_ _
you finish, compare your supporting information with that of other students. -

In this essay, the writer argues against gun ownership.

1. Do you know anyone who owns a gun?_ "Why does that person have a gun?
2. Have you ever shot a gun? If so, describe the circumstances when you did this. Why did you shoot a
gun? Where were you? VVhen was this~

Developing Argume11tative Essays

 No More Guns

I The year 1774 was pivotal in the history

of the United States. It marked the beginning
of the Revolutionary War, which lasted
13 years and claimed thousands of lives.
Fighting against the British, the Americans
had to rely on individual citizens because
they did not have a well-organized army.
As farmers and hunters, many citizens
already owned guns. These rifles proved
indispensable in defeating the British. After
the war, citizens were reluctant to give up their rifles as they feared future invasions. Because
of this fear, an amendment was added to the Constitution of the United States guaranteeing
citizens the right to bear arms. Times have changed, however. The United States has one of the
largest military forces in the world, and Americans are no longer called upon to use their own
weapons in the military. Although people no longer need guns for this purpose, there are in fact
over 200,000,000 guns in circulation. Unfortunately, gun-related deciths continue to increase every
year, with many innocent people losing their lives. Despite the original intention of the Second
Amendment, the United States would be much better off if ownership of guns by private citizens
was outlawed.
2 The first benefit of making guns illegal is that the number of accidental shootings would
decrease.

3 Another benefit of outlawing guns is that the streets would be safer.

pivotal: key, essential give up: to surrender, agree not to own

indispensible: necessary, essential an amendment: a modification, change
reluctant: lmwilling outlaw: to ban, forbid

Argumentative Essays 11 OG
 4 If guns were illegal, people vmuld be less likely to harm loved ones in moments of anger.

5 Some people say that they feel safer having a gun at home. However, if guns were more
difficult to own, fewer criminals would have them. Fewer guns would lead to a decrease in the
number of gun-related crimes and victims.

6 Statistics show that the occurrence of violent crime is much lower in countries that do
not allow citizens to carry weapons. Although it is doubtful that the United States would ever
completely outlaw the private ownership of weapons, how nice it would be to lower the risk of
being shot. It is time for the United States to take a dose look at its antiqUated gun laws and make
some changes for the safety of its citizens.

antiquated: out of date, old-fashioned

Correct and varied sentence structure is essential to the quality of your ·writing. For further practice
with "No More Guns:' go to Practice 20 on page 181 in Appendix 1.

----- ------f·

Moda!s and Tone

Modals can change the tone of a sentence. Modals such as must and had better make a
verb stronger. Other modals such as may, might, should, can, and could make a verb softer.
Remember to use modals to strengthen or soften your verbs. For example, "1he president
n1ust change his policy" is very strong, but "1he president should change his policy" is softer.

Developing Argumentative Essays

language focMs
Controlling Tone with Modals
ln argumentative essays, good writers are aware of how their arguments sound. Are they
too strong? Not strong enough? Certain words can help control the tone of your a~gument.
Asserting a Point
Strong modals such as must and had better help writers to assert their main points. When
you use these words, readers know where you stand on an issue.
Examples:
The facts dearly show that researchers must stop unethical animal testing.
People who value their health had better stop smoking now.
Acknowledging an Opposing Point
Weaker modals such as inay. might, could, can, and would help writers make an opposing
opinion sound weak. You acknowledge an opposing point when you use may, for example,
but this weak modal shows that the statement is not strong and can be refuted more easily.
Example~:
While it may be true that people have eaten meat for a long time, the number one
killer of Americaris riow is heart disease, caused in part by the consumption of large
amounts of animal fat.
Some citizens may be against mandatory military service, b\lt those who do serve
in the military often have a strong sense of pride and personal satisfaction. '

Using Modals for Assertion and for Acknowledging an Opposing View

You are probably already familiar with most of the modals in English-rna)\ might, can,
could, would, must, should, had. better, and ought to. Modals can be useful in argumentative
essays for two reasons-strong modals help writers make their opinions sound stronger,
and weak modals make opposing views sound weaker.

Argumentative Essays
 Read the following argumentative essay. Circle the modal in parentheses thrit you feel is mpre appropriate.

Life or Death?

1 How would you feel if a loved one were murdered? Would you

want retribution, or would sending the killer to prison be enough?

This question has been asked many times, but people are not in

agreement about the ultimate punishment We all know that it is

wrong to take a human life, but if our government does the killing,

is it still a crime? Some people say that the government does not

have the right to end someone's life, but the following reasons

(might I will) show why capital punishment should be preserved.

2 The first reason for allowing the death penalty is fur the sake of

punishment itself. Most people agree that crim!oals who commit serious crimes (might I should) be

separated from society. The punishment (will/ ought to) depend on the degree of the crime. Capital

punishment, the most severe form of punishment, ends criminals' lives. It seems reasonable that this

severe punishment be reserved for those Who commit the most serious of crimes.

3 The second reason to preserve capital punishment is financial. The govermnent (should I will) not

have to spend a lot of money on criminals. Next to capital punishment, the most severe punishment

is a life sentence in prison, where the goverrunent (rnlght I has to) take care of criminals until they die

naturally. These criminals do not work, but they receive free housing and food. It is unfair to use tax

dollars for such a purpose.

--- ------- -----__ 4_ _ _ Th~-"i~~t--~~;~~-~--f~~--~~-~ti-~~i~g--1ij~~--us-e-orthe--a:eafu--p-ena1ty-Ts. oasea-on-rlie-purposeir----

government. If the government has legitimate power to make, judge, and carry out the laws,

it (may I should) also have the power to decide if criminals should die. Capital punishment is

like any other sentence. If one believes that the government has the right to charge a fine or put

criminals into jail, then the government. (could I must) also have the same power to decide the fate

of a prisoner's life.

Developing 1-\rgumentative Essays

 5 1he opponents of capital punishment (must I might) say that nobody has the right to decide

who should die, including the government. However, when the government sends soldiers into

war, in some way, it is deciding those soldiers' fate; some will live and some will be killed. As long

as the government has the right to send its citizens to the battlefield, it has a right to put criminals

to death.

6 There are many good reasons to preserve capital punishment. Certainly not every criminal

(can I should) be put to death. Capital punishment (ought to I will) be viewed as the harshest form

of punishment. If no punishment (can I should) reform a murderer, then capital punishment is

the best thing that can be done for that person and for society.

-
m For more practice with controlling tone with modals, try Unit 5, Activity 4 on the Great Writing4 Web site:
elt.heinle.com/greatwriting

Correct and varied sentence structure is essenti~ to the quality of your writing. For further practice
with "Life or Death?;' go to Practice 21 on page 182 in Appendix 1.

Choosing a Topic

ACTIVITY 5 Writing Pro and Con Thesis Statements

Read the following list of topics for argumentative essays. For each topic, write a pro (for) thesis statement
and a con (against) thesis statement related to the topic. Then compare your statements with your classmates'
statements. The first one has been done for you.

1. Topic: Women in the military

of companies,
Pro thesis statement: In a society Where women are chief executive al'ficers
lew:1ers of naiion~, and family breadwinners, there is no reason why they sho~ld nat play
an active rote in the military.
Con thesis statement: Women sho~ld nat be alloWed to fight in the military becal,lse they do
nat have the strength or endurance required in combat,

Argumentative Essays
 L Topic: Using animals in disease research

Pro thesis statement: ~------------

Con thesis statement:~-------------------------------

3. Topic: Driver's license age restrictions

Pro thesis statement~-------------------------------

Con thesis s t a t e m e n t : - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

4. Topic: Space exploration

Pro thesis statement:~--------------------~----------

Con thesis s t a t e m e n t : - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

5. Topic: Internet privacy

Pro thesis s t a t e m e n t : - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

Con thesis s t a t e m e n t : - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

For more practice with pro and con thesis statements, try Unit 5, Activity 5 on the Great Writing 4 Web site:
elt.heinle.com/greatwriting

............ ~''()i~i!1j:J! ~<-l'""~ty togk

Good writers want to convince reade-rs to-·agree-WTi:Illfleir-a-rg-um-enfs-=tJieu= re-aSIDTicanll:-condusions;-
If your argwnents are not logical, you will not persuade your readers. Logic can help prove youf point and
disprove your opponent's point-and perhaps change your reader's mind about an issue. If you use fuulty
logic (logic not based on fact), readers will not believe you or take your position seriously.
1his section presents a few logical errors that VYTiters sometimes make in argumentative essays. Try
to avoid these errors in your writing.

Developing Argumentative Essays

Sweeping Generalizations
Words such as all.. always, and rzever are too broad and cannot be supported.

Example: All Americans eat fast food.

Problem: Maybe every American that you la10w eats fast food, but the statement that all
Americans eat it cannot be proven.

Events Related Only by Sequence

When one event happens, it does not necessarily cause a second event to happen, even if one follows
the Other in time.

Example: Henry went to the football game, and then he had a car accident. Therefore, football
games cause car accidents.
Problem: The two events may have happened in that order, but do not mislead the reader into
thinking that the first action was responsible for the second.

Inappropriate Authority Figures

Using famous names may often help you prove or disprove your point. However, be sure to use the
name logically and in the proper context.

ExampJe: Madonna is a good singer. As a result, she would make a good orchestra conductor.
Problem: While Madonna may be a good singer, this quality will not necessarily make her
a good orchestra conductor.

Hasty Generalizations
Hasty generalizations are just what they sound like-making quick judgments based on inadequate
information. This kind of logical fallacy is a common error in argumentative writing.

Example: Joe did not want to study at a university. Instead, he decided to go to a technical
school. He is now making an excellent salary repairing computers. Bill does not
want to study at a university. Therefore, he should go to a technical school to become
financially successful.
Problem: While Joe and Bill have something in common (they do not want to study at
a university), thi~ fact alone does not mean that Bill would be successful doing
th~ same thing that Joe has do.J?-e. Other information .may be important as well,
such as the fact that Joe has lots of experience with computers or that Bill has problems
with manual dexterity. ·

Loaded Words
Some words contain positive or negative 'connotations. Try to avoid them when you m~e an
argument. Your readers may think you are trying to appeal to them by using these emotion'ally packed
words. In fact, you want to persuade the reader by using logical arguments, not emotional rants.

Example: The blue-flag freedom fighters won the war against the green-flag guerrillas.
Problem: The terms freedom fighters (positive) and guerrillas (negative) may influence
the readers' opinion about the two groups without any support for the bias.

Argumentative Essays
 Either/Or Arguments
Wben you argue a point, be careful not to limit the outcome choices to only two or three. In fact, there
a1·e often a multitude of choices. W4en you offer only two scenarios, you are ·essentially trying to frighten
the reader into your beliefs.

Example: The instructor must either return the tests or dismiss the class ..
Problem: This statement implies that only two choices are available to the instructor.

ACTIVITY 6 Faulty logic

Read the following paragraph and underline all the uses offaulty logic. Write the kind of error each one is
above the words. ·

Next week> our fine upstanding citizens will go to the polls to vote for or against a penny sales tax for

construction of a new stadium. 1his law, if passed, will cause ext~eme hardship _for local residents. Our

taxes are high enough as it is, so why do our city's apathetic leaders think that we will run happily to the

polls and vote "yes"? If w~ take a look at what happened to our sister city as a result of a similar bill, we will

see that this new tax will have negative effects. Last year, that city raised its sales tax by one percent. Only

three weeks later, the city was nearly destroyed by a riot in the streets.-Ifwe want to keep our fair city as it

is, we must either vote ''nO' on the ballot question or live in fear of violence.

For more practice with faulty logic, try Unit 5, ACtivity 6 on the Great Writing 4 Web site:
elt.heinle.com/greatwriting

1~. f;Wr:it~r's Note ~c • > c_ >

"--C '~~- J~ '' _,r '- ''''-~

Citing Sources to Avoid Plagiarism

When writing argumentative essays, it is often helpful to find facts, figures, or quotes to
help support your ideas. With ·the ease of the Internet, however, we may forget to give credit
to the person (or article or Web_site) that the information came from. Plagiarism-whether
done intentionally or unintentionally-is the act of taldng others'-words without properly
giving credit to the source. Plagiarism is considered a very s~rious offense in academia
and should be avoided at all costs.
--- ------ --- ___________________ After_y_QU_haYe decided that the informatiop. Y?~ have found in a source· is apprppriate
to support your ideas, you need to insert it in your essay-;:-;;-rreCtty~TherearetWo-mbrces:---
1. Quoting If the information is not too long, you can put it in quotation marks. It is a
good idea to introduce the quote with a phrase, such as According to (name of source),
"(exact words used by that source)." By using this strategy, you not only acknowledge the
source but also show that the information is taken word for word. Be careful) however)
not to, use too many quotations in any particular paragraph. Remember, the reader is
looking for your voice, not someone else's.

'I

Developing Argumentative Essays

 Example of quoting:
According to http:/ /www.webhealth.org, "Children need between three and six
servings of vegetables daily to maintain a healthy diet:'
2. Paraphrasing Another method of avoiding plagiarism is to paraphrase your source's
information. That is, you put the information in your own words. You still need to
explain where the information came from even if you changed the words, but you do
not need to use quotation marks.
Example of paraphrasing:
According to http:/ /www.webhealth.org, in order for a diet to be considered healthy,
kids should eat a fair number of vegetables daily.
Your instructor can help you if you are unsure of when, where, or exactly how to cite
information. In addition, librarians and other school support services often have extensive
information on methods of avoiding plagiarism. The key to using outside sources correctly
is to be diligent in citing the source you use and to ask questions if you are unsure of how to
complete this task. For more information on citing sources, see the Brief Writer's Handbook
with Activities, pages 157-159.

Circle the word or phrase that is most closely related to the word or phrase on the left. If necessary, use
a dictionary to check the meaning of words yau do not know.

l. fundamental important not important

2. truancy ·teachers students

3. to implement to put into effect to stop using

4. pivotal interesting important

5. an amendment to keep the same . to make a change

6. reluctant to want to do to something to not want'to do something

7. outlawed legal illegal

8. antiquated old modern

9. an excerpt a topic a portion

10. to take into account to consider to recommend

Argumentative Essays
ACTiVITY 8

Fill in each blank with the word on the left that most naturally completes the phrase on the right. If necessary,
use a dictionary to' check the meaning of words you do not know.

1. fire I screams to come u n d e r - - - - - - -

2. through I with to be associated _ _ _ _ _ __

3. dictionaries I community

4. apartment I expression individual _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _-,--

5. arms I telephones to b e a r - - - - - - - - - - - - -
6. in I off She is better _ _ _ _ _ _ _ taking a taxi.

7. dolmalce t o - - - - - - - some changes

8. fact I risk to lower the _ _ _ _ _ __

9. living I working standard of _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

10. by I of in fear _ _ _ _ _ __

Original Student Writing: Argumentative Essay

9~rainstorming
Brainstorming will help you get started with your argumentative essay. In this section,
you will choose any method of brainstorming that works for you and develop supporting
information.

Original Student \Nrfting: Argumentative Essay

Follow the steps below to develop ideas for an argumentative essay.
1. First. choose a thesis statement from the statements that you wrote in Activity 5 on pages 120-121
or choose any other topic and thesis statement that you want to write about. Remember that the topic
must have more than one point of view to qualify as an argument.

Essay t o p i c : - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

Thesis s t a t e m e n t : - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

2. Now brainstorm ideas about your topic. Write everything you can think of that supports your
argument. You may want to begin by answering this question about your thesis statement: Why do
I believe this?
3. Look·at your brainstorming information again. Choose three or four reasons that support your thesis
most effectively and circle them. You now know what your major supporting information will be.
4. Now that you have written your thesis statement and a few reasons to suppOrt it, it is time to give
attention to opposing points of view. On the lines below, write one counterargumentand.arefutation
for your argumentative essay.

Counterargument:----------------------------~----

Refutation:---------------------------------

5. Remember to include a restatement of your thesis and your opinion about the issue in your
conclusion.

ACTIVITY 10 Planning with an Outline

Complete the following outline as a guide to help you brainstorm a more detailed plan for your argumentative
essay. Use your ideas from Activity 9. You may need to use either more or fewer points under t!a_fh heading.
Write complete sentences where possible. '

Topic: _____________________________________________________________________

I. Introduction (Paragraph 1)

A. Hook: _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ · - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

B. Connecting information: ______________

.~rgumentative Essays
 References

1. Folse, K.S, Muchmore-Vokoun, A., Solomon, E.V. (2012). Great Writing 4:

Great essays. Oxford University Press.

2. Oshima, A. & Ann, H. (2014). Longman Academic Writing Series 4:

Paragraphs to Essays (3'd ed.). Boston: Heinle, Cengage Learning.