Regulation of Gas Content in Blood

Part V Human Physiology: Regulation and Control (Chapter 34 Regulation of Gas Content in Blood) Page 1
HKDSE Biology Part V Human Physiology: Regulation and Control

Chapter 34 Regulation of Gas Content in Blood
Syllabus
Students should learn Students should be able to
 Importance of regulation of gas content in blood
 Control of rate and depth of breathing  Understand the control mechanism of breathing.
 Nervous control
 Respiratory centre and chemoreceptors
 Effects of carbon dioxide concentration
in blood
 Control of cardiac output
 Heart rate and stroke volume
 Pacemaker and cardiac cycle  Outline the major events during the cardiac cycle.
 Nervous control  Understand the nervous and hormonal control of
 Vagus nerve and sympathetic nerves cardiac output.
 Hormonal control
 Adrenaline
 Effects of exercise  Explain how the gas content in blood is regulated
 Rate and depth of breathing during and after exercise.
 Oxygen debt
 Cardiac output
34.1 Importance of regulation of gas content in blood

Importance of regulation of gas content in blood
Stable oxygen  Our body cells need a constant supply of oxygen by blood from lungs.
content in  It is because oxygen is needed for the respiration of cells to release energy to support life.
blood  Shortage of oxygen will kill the cells.
Stable and  Carbon dioxide must be rapidly removed from the cells by blood to the lungs for
low carbon expulsion out of the body. Coz tH2O H2O t
dioxide  It is because carbon dioxide is produced by respiration.
content in  When it dissolves in blood and tissue fluid, the pH of these body fluids will fall.
blood  Fall in pH will affect the normal function of enzymes and
 hence the metabolic activities of the cells and the function of the body.
carbondioxidemustberapidlyremovedfromthebodysince
whencozdissolves in bloodandtissuefluids a rapiddrop pHof hence
in these
resultandaffectsthenormalfunctionofenzymes and
bodyfluidswill
affectsthemetabolic
normalfunction
activitiesand ofbody
Regulate the gas content in blood

Respiration rate
 It varies according to the intensity of physical activity.
 It determines how fast cells are using oxygen and producing carbon dioxide.

I and rapid removal
To maintain continuous supply of oxygen 402supply t wz
of carbon dioxide from cells, the body will regulate by removal
controlling the ventilation rate and cardiac output.
 
Ventilation rate Cardiac output
It is the rate and depth of breathing. kit
enteritus
Hence, the rate of gas exchange in the air sacs of the
It is the rate and strength of the heartbeat.
Hence, the rate of blood flow from the heart to the
lungs is regulated. lungs and the body cells is regulated.
steiemeptirstroimnigtgh.gl
externalenv
The process involved in coordination
sensoryneuron
stimuli from the internal or external environment
Genter
ofnervoussystemsiggermmonon

receptors in sense organs r

sensory neurone

centre of nervous system and / or
hormonal system (endocrine system)

nerve impulse along motor neurone in nervous system
and / or
hormones into the blood in hormonal system

effectors (muscles or glands)

responses
34.2 Control of breathing

Rate of  It is the number of breaths per minute.
breathing  It measures how fast we breathe.
Depth of  It is the volume of air entering and leaving the lungs in each breath (i.e. the tidal volume).
breathing  It measures how deeply we breathe.
Ventilation  It is the product of the breathing rate by the tidal volume.
rate  It measures the volume of air breathed in and out per minute.
Voluntary and involuntary control of breathing
Control of cerebrum
breathing
cerebral cortex
nerveimpulse
nerve
neurone nervecell
Voluntary control by Involuntary control

cerebrum by respiratory
34.2.1 centre of medulla
oblongata
Basic rhythm of Adjusted breathing

breathing rate and depth in
34.2.2 different physical
activities
34.2.3
34.2.1 Voluntary control of breathing

System involved  Nervous system
Control centre  Cerebrum of the brain
Examples  We can control our breathing when we speak or sing, we can hold our breath for several
minutes when we swim underwater.
Stimuli receptors t sensoryneurone brain centreofregulation

34.2.2 Setting the basic breathing rhythm
motor neurone effeitors responses
Basic breathing rhythm (Breathing at rest)
Breathing  Breathing rate: 12-18 breaths per minute (an adult at rest)
Receptors  Stretch receptors in the lungs
involved
Control  As an involuntary reflex action, it is controlled by the respiratory centre located in the medulla
centre oblongata of the brain.
cranial nerve
 The respiratory centre consists of a group of neurones, which are connected by cranial nerve to
the respiratory muscles.
Effectors  Respiratory muscles, including the intercostal muscles and diaphragm muscle
negative feedback mechanism Sth t s

t thy
Control of Basic breathing rhythm (Breathing at rest)

(9) The respiratory centre stops sending (1) The respiratory centre sends nerve
nerve impulses to the
40 impulses along the motor nerves to
stimulate the

(10a) intercostal (10b) diaphragm (2a) intercostal (2b) diaphragm
muscles and so they muscles and so they muscles to contract. muscles to contract.
relax. relax.

(11a) The rib cage (11b) The diaphragm The (3a) The rib cage (3b) The diaphragm
moves downwards returns to its dome neurones in moves upwards and becomes flattened.
and inwards. shape. the outwards.
recoil ownelasticity respiratory 
centre in
(12) The volume of thoracic cavity decreases (4) The volume of thoracic cavity increases
medulla
(13) and the pressures inside the thoracic (5) and the pressures inside the thoracic
oblongata
cavity and the lungs rise above the cavity and the lungs drop below the
atmospheric pressure. atmospheric pressure.

(14) Air is forced out of the lungs. (6) Air is drawn into the lungs. Inhalation
Exhalation takes place. takes place.

on
(15) Deflation of the lungs no longer (7) Inflated of the lungs stimulates the
stimulates the stretch receptors on the wall of stretch receptors on the wall of the lungs .
the lungs.
inhalation inhibitionremoved 
(16) They send nerve impulses to switch on (8) They send nerve impulses along the
inspiration again as the respiratory centre is sensory nerves to inhibit the respiratory
free from inhibition. centre.
notto
breathe
Please refer to ‘Extras: Do you know… Why hiccups occur’ on p.34-6 of your textbook.
EgAfterholdingbreathfor 1 min
34.2.3 Adjusting the rate and depth of breathing
N
Adjusting the rate and depth of breathing rate deeperbreathing
Stimulus Carbon dioxide concentration in the blood and hence the pH of the blood
 The rate and depth of breathing are controlled by the respiratory centre, which are mainly in
response to the changes in the carbon dioxide content in blood.
 However, the chemoreceptors do not respond directly to changes in carbon dioxide content in
blood or cerebrospinal fluid. They respond to changes in pH.
 Carbon dioxide diffuses from body cells into the blood and then into the cerebrospinal
fluid.
 It reacts with water in blood to form carbonic acid which dissociates to form hydrogen
ions and hydrogencarbonate ions.
 They hydrogen ions lower the pH of the blood and the cerebrospinal fluid.
In body cells with
higher CO2 concentration
CO2 + H2O H+ + HCO3-
In air sacs with
lower CO2 concentration
It is regulated by the negative feedback mechanism.
Receptors Chemoreceptors located in the respiratory centre in the medulla oblongata
involved Chemoreceptors located in aortic bodies in the wall of the aorta
Chemoreceptors located in the carotid bodies in the walls of the carotid arteries in the neck region
Control Respiratory centre located in the medulla oblongata of the brain
centre
MoresensitivetocozthanOz
Regulation of carbon dioxide level in blood by nervous control of breathing (negative feedback mechanism)
pH of blood rises. pH of blood falls.

 
It is detected by the It is+ detected by the It is detected by the It is detected by the
chemoreceptors in the chemoreceptors in the chemoreceptors in the chemoreceptors in
aortic bodies and respiratory centre as aortic bodies and the respiratory centre
carotid bodies. the pH of the carotid bodies. as the pH of the
cerebrospinal fluid also cerebrospinal fluid
rises. also falls. .
 
They send nerve impulses through the sensory They send nerve impulses through the
nerve to the respiratory centre in the medulla sensory nerve to the respiratory centre in the
oblongata. medulla oblongata.
 
The respiratory centre sends fewer nerve The respiratory centre sends more nerve
impulses to the intercostal muscles and impulses via the sympathetic nerve to the
diaphragm muscles. intercostal muscles and diaphragm muscles.
 
They contract less frequently and less forcefully
rate depth
They contract more rapidly and more I
to decrease the rate and depth of breathing. forcefully to increase the rate and depth of
breathing.
 
Carbon dioxide can be removed from the body  The carbon dioxide level  Carbon dioxide can be removed from the
at a lower rate. Carbon dioxide content in is brought back to the body at a higher rate. Carbon dioxide
blood rises. normal level. content in blood falls.
For your reference only

Effect of oxygen level in blood on breathing
 It is a less important factor under normal conditions.
 The breathing rate doubles when the concentration of carbon dioxide is increased by 0.25%.
 The same doubling occurs when the concentration of oxygen is decreased by 15%.
 Low oxygen level in blood will become the main trigger to increase breathing only
 when the oxygen level in blood falls to a low level (60 mmHg). For example, the low pressure at high
altitudes (e.g. high mountains).
 It makes haemoglobin difficult to combine with oxygen, so the oxygen content in blood falls.
 It stimulates the chemoreceptors in the carotid bodies and the aortic bodies.
 They send nerve impulses along the sensory nerves to the respiratory centre in the medulla
oblongata of the brain.
 The respiratory centre responds by increasing the nerve impulses to the intercostal muscles and the
diaphragm muscles to increase the rate and the depth of breathing.
 This raises the oxygen concentration in blood back to normal.
 for patients with some lung diseases, such as chronic obstructive pulmonary disease caused by smoking.
 The poor ventilation of the diseased lungs inhibits exhalation of the excess carbon dioxide.
 It leads to high level of carbon dioxide in blood. After a prolonged period, chemoreceptors in the
patient’s body will become less sensitive to high carbon dioxide level in blood.
Please refer to ‘Taking it further: Effects of the oxygen level in blood on breathing’ on p.34-8 of your textbook.
Task 1
Please refer to ‘Extras: Do you know… Artificial ventilation’ on p.34-9 of your textbook.
(a) What is artificial respiration?
 It is a procedure used to in a person who has .
(b) Suggest one method of artificial respiration.
 Blow exhaled air .
(c) Explain why exhaled air can help restore respiration of the patient?
 Exhaled air still contains about which can be supplied to the patient.
 Exhaled air contains than atmospheric air. This
of the patient to send impulses to intercostal muscles and diaphragm
muscles to restore the breathing process.
34.3 Control of heartbeat

34.3.1 Cardiac cycle
Task 2
Please fill in the table below to show how the heart works.
Terms Definition
Cardiac  It is the muscle mainly found in the heart.
muscle
Myogenic  The heartbeat is described as myogenic.
generate  It means that the heartbeat is initiate with the muscle itself, rather than by nerve
impulses from the outside. (However, most muscles contract only when they receive
entities
n nerve impulses from a nerve.)
 The cardiac muscle contracts upon stimulation by electrical impulses generated by the cardiac
muscle itself.
 Thus, if the heart is surgically removed from the body, it continues to beat for some time
provided that it is maintained in a suitable medium.
Cardiac  It is the sequence of events that takes place in
oneheartbeat .
cycle  It involves the repeated contraction and relaxation of the cardiac muscle to
pump blood around the body.
 0.8s
Each cycle lasts about ________. Therefore, the normal heart rate of an adult at rest is
about
75timesperminute .
 Each cardiac cycle consists of three stages:
Atrialsystole Ventricularsystole
Diastoleofatriaand
Systole  When cardiac muscle genitals , the volumes of heart chambers decrease , and
blood is pumped out of the heart.
Diastole  When cardiac muscle relaxes , the volumes of heart chambers increase , and
blood is pumped into of the heart.
Four new structures in the heart

gnat
Structure Feature
stole Sinoatrial node Location: The wall of the right atrium near the superior vena cava
(SA node)  It is a group of specialized cardiac muscle cells which generates electrical impulses to
initiate a heartbeat.
YE  The SA node sets the basic heart rate, and it determines how fast the heart beats. Thus,
it is also known as the pacemaker (起搏點) of the heart.
t  It generates electrical impulses which spread rapidly through the walls of both atria,
undle causing both atria to contract at the same time.
titis Atrioventricular Location: In the septum between the right atrium and the right ventricle
node  It is a group of specialized cardiac muscle cells.
hinge(AV node)  It relays the electrical impulses from the SA node to bundle of His.
bres bundle of His Location: Along the septum to the base of the ventricles
 It is a bundle of specialized cardiac muscle cells.
Purkinje fibres Location: Penetrated in the inner walls of the ventricles
 It is a network of conducting fibres which spreads electrical impulses.
Position of the sino-atrial and atrio-ventricular Figure 91.1shows the correlation between atrial and
nodes and the Bundle of His ventricular events of cardiac cycle.
EffitrigateimmYes
s'tholes Electrical impulses
totheatria
Chambers contract Atria
Atria Ventricle
pressuredifference
Bloodflow
Tricuspid bicuspidopen
Valvesopen dose
bloodpumpsfromleftventricle
to aorta and pulmonaryartery
Atrial
systole
Ventricular Ventricular Ventricular
Faria
bicuspidopen
semilunarclosed
sore ventricularfilling
Cardiac cycle
Stage Valves Time (Remarks)
Atrial Systole  Tricuspid and bicuspid 0-0.1s
 Electrical impulses spread from the pacemaker (SA valves (atrioventricular (It allows the ventricles
node) to the atria. valves) are forced to to be filled completely
 Both atria contract simultaneously. open. with blood before they
 The two ventricles remain relaxed.  Valves in venae cavae contract.)
 The pressure in the atria is higher than that in the and pulmonary veins are
ventricles. forced to close.
 Blood inside atria is pushed into the two ventricles  Semilunar valves are
through the tricuspid (right atrium) and bicuspid closed.
valves (left atrium).
Ventricular Systole  Tricuspid and bicuspid 0.1-0.4s
 The electrical impulses then pass from SA node to valves are forced to close (The closure of
AV node. The AV node then relays the electrical to prevent the backflow tricuspid and bicuspid
impulses to the base of the ventricles through a of blood from contracting valves produces the
bundle of His. The bundle branches into the Purkinje ventricles into the atria. first heart sound as
fibres which spread the electrical impulses.  Semilunar valves are “Lub”.)
 Both ventricles contract simultaneously from the forced to open.
bottom up to squeeze blood upwards as the electrical
impulses spread upwards through the walls of the
ventricles.
 As it takes time for the electrical impulses to travel to
the base of the ventricles (0.1s), so the ventricles
start to contract shortly after the atria contract.
 The two atria remain relaxed.
 The pressure in the ventricles is higher than that in
the aorta and pulmonary artery.
 Blood inside ventricles is pushed into the pulmonary
arteries (from the right ventricle) and aorta (from the
left ventricle) through the semilunar valves.
Diastole  Valves in venae cavae 0.4-0.8s
 Both atria and ventricles relax. and pulmonary veins are (The closure of the
 Blood pressure inside drops. forced to open. semilunar valves
 The pressure in the atria becomes lower than that in  Semilunar valves are produces the second
the vena cava and pulmonary vein. When the forced to close to prevent heart sound as “dub”.)
ventricular pressure falls below the atrial pressure, the backflow of blood
blood flows from atria into ventricles through tricuspid from the aorta and
and bicuspid valves. The ventricular volume pulmonary artery into the
increases. relaxing ventricles as the
 Blood in the two vessels begins to enter the atria and pressure in the ventricles
the cardiac cycle repeats. is lower than that in the
two vessels.
For your reference only

Stethoscope
 The heart sound can be heard with stethoscope.
 Abnormal heart sound may be signs of defects of the heart valves.
Electrocardiogram (ECG)
 It detects and records the electrical impulses generated by the heart during the cardiac cycle.
 It can be done by placing electrodes on the surface of the skin on certain parts of the body.
 It is presented as a graph of voltage against time.
 The ECG indicates the health condition of the heart.
Task 3
Please refer to ‘STSE connections: Artificial pacemaker’ on p.34-14 of your book and fill in the blanks below.
Artificial pacemaker
 It is used to treat patient with abnormally Slow heart rate due to malfunctioning pacemaker of the heart
caused by disease or ageing.
 It is a device which generates electrical impulses. If it detects that the heart fails to beat, it immediately sends
electricalimpulses through electrode contacting the heart muscles to stimulate the heart to restorethe
beat
normalrateofheart
.
 Many types of artificial pacemakers are available now. They can be worn on a belt for temporary use, or they
can be under the skin on the chest wall.
implanted
Please refer to ‘STSE connections: Automated external defibrillator’ on p.34-14 of your textbook and answer the
following questions.
Automated external defibrillator
(a) What is cardiac arrest?
 Theheartstopsbeatingand bloodflowstops
(b) What is the danger of cardiac arrest?
 The brain cells cannot
getenoughoxygen
from the blood and die. The person will
die if
cardiac arrest is not treated.
(c) How does Automated external defibrillator (AED) work?
 It provides
stepbystepinstructionswith voice commands and a visual display to guide users how to use it:
 An operator sticks
theelectricpads onto specific positions of the chest of the victim.
 The device then analyses the victim’s conditions to see if
anelectricshockis required.
 The electric shock can of the heart so that the SA node
stopirregularelectricactivity
can
re establish a normalbeatingrhythm .
34.3.2 Control of cardiac output

Terms Meaning
Heart rate  It is the number of heartbeats per minute.
 The average heart rate of a person at rest is 60 to 80 beats per minute.
Stroke  It is the volume of blood pumped by each ventricle in one heartbeat.
volume  The average stroke volume of a person at rest is 70 mL per beat.
 It is affected by the strength of contraction of the heart muscle and the venous return.
 The strength of contraction of the heart muscle determines the amount of blood pumped out
from each ventricle in one heartbeat.
 The venous return determines the volume of blood available inside the ventricle, which is the
volume of blood returning to the heart form the vena cava. It limits the maximum amount of
blood that can be pumped out. The venous return is increased in doing exercise because
 The contraction of skeletal muscles especially in the limbs squeezes the vein that pushes
more blood back to the heart via the vena cava.
 The increase in the depth of breathing during exercise develops a stronger negative
pressure in the thorax to suck blood from the limbs upward along the vena cava into the
heart.
Cardiac  It is a measure of the performance of the heart as a pump taking the rate and strength of
output heartbeat into account.
 It is defined as the volume of blood pumped by each ventricle per minute.
 Cardiac output = heart rate  stroke volume
(mL/min) (beats/min) (mL/beat)
 The average cardiac output of a person at rest is 75 beat/min70mL/beat = 5250 mL/min.
Regulation  The cardiac output is an important variable in supplying blood to the body according to the
of cardiac change of the demands.
output  The control of cardiac output is regulated by both the gas content in blood and blood pressure.
 Changes in cardiac output are accomplished by varying the heart rate and the stroke volume, and
are brought about by
 nervous system and
 endocrine system.
34.3.2.1 Nervous control of cardiac output

Nervous control of cardiac output
Stimuli  Carbon dioxide concentration in the blood and hence the pH of the blood
and  It is detected by chemoreceptors which are located in the aortic bodies (walls of the aorta),
receptors carotid bodies (walls of the carotid arteries) and medulla oblongata.
involved  Blood pressure
 It is detected by stretch receptors which are located in the walls of aorta and carotid
arteries. They detect changes in blood pressure in the arteries which leave the left
ventricle. As blood pressure increases, the blood vessels distend (膨脹) more, which
stimulates the stretch receptors.
 Another group of stretch receptors are located in the wall of vena cava. It is stimulated
by the increase of volume of venous return to the right atrium of the heart.
 The normal blood pressure is 120 mmHg for systolic pressure and 80 mmHg for diastolic
pressure. A rise in blood pressure means that the heart is overworking. A fall in blood
pressure can affect the functioning of organs such as kidneys.
 Movement of the limbs
 It is detected by stretch receptors in muscles and tendons.
Control The control centre of cardiac output is the cardiovascular centre located in the medulla oblongata of
centre the brain, which consists of two parts:
 Cardioacceleratory centre

FEAEE
It is connected to the pacemaker by a sympathetic nerve.
 It stimulates the pacemaker (SA node) to increase the cardiac output by increasing both
the heart rate and the stroke volume.
 Cardioinhibitory centre

ENKEITH.EE
It is connected to the pacemaker by a parasympathetic nerve (vagus nerve).
 It inhibits the pacemaker to reduce the cardiac output by decreasing both the heart rate
and the stroke volume.
Sympathetic and parasympathetic nerves are antagonistic in action.
Please refer to p.13 to study the details of the nervous control of the cardiac output.
Other factors affecting the nervous control of the cardiac output

Exercise  During exercise or under stress (e.g. anxiety, emergency), more stimulation from the
and sympathetic nerve causes the increase of cardiac output. It is done by increasing the heart
stress rate and stroke volume.
 At rest, more stimulation from the parasympathetic nerve causes the heart rate slower.
Oxygen  When the body is active, the oxygen concentration in blood is low.
level  It stimulates the chemoreceptor in the carotid bodies and the aortic bodies to send nerve
impulses along the sensory nerve to the cardioacceleratory centre in the medulla oblongata
of the brain.
 The nerve impulses are sent from this centre along the sympathetic nerves to the pacemaker
to increase the cardiac output that increases the supply of oxygen to the tissues.
34.3.2.2 Hormonal control of cardiac output

Hormonal control of cardiac output medulla oblongata
 The cardiovascular centre is linked to the adrenal glands by another sympathetic nerve. chemoreceptors
 Under stressful conditions, the blood pH falls (rise of carbon dioxide level) or blood pressure falls, the centre
stimulates the adrenal glands to secrete more adrenaline (a hormone).
 Adrenaline is transported by blood.
 It stimulates the SA node and the cardiac muscle, causing the cardiac muscle to contract more frequently
and more forcefully.
 Faster and stronger contractions of the cardiac muscle increase the heart rate and stroke volume, so the
cardiac output.
 Therefore, blood pH and blood pressure rise back to normal.
forcefully
Regulation of carbon dioxide level and blood pressure in blood by nervous control and hormonal control of cardiac output
(negative feedback mechanism)
< Hormonal control < Nervous control >

>
Chemoreceptors in Stretch receptors Chemoreceptors in Stretch receptors
aortic, carotid in aorta and aortic and carotid in aorta and carotid
bodies and carotid arteries bodies detect the arteries detect the
medulla oblongata detect the change. change. change.
detect the change.
 
During exercise They send nerve impulses to the They send nerve impulses to the
cardiovascular centre. cardiovascular centre.
  
The cardiovascular centre sends more More nerve impulses are sent to the More nerve impulses are sent to inhibit
nerve impulses along the sympathetic SA node and cardiac muscle along the the SA node along the vagus nerve and
nerve to the adrenal glands. sympathetic nerve. less nerve impulses are sent to cardiac
SA node generates more nerve muscle along the sympathetic nerve.
impulses and spread through the SA node generates less nerve impulses to
cardiac muscles. spread through the cardiac muscles.
  
The adrenal glands secrete more Cardiac muscles contract more Cardiac muscles contract less
adrenaline to be transported in blood. It frequently and more forcefully. frequently and less forcefully.

stimulates the SA node and cardiac
muscles.
 
Heart rate and stroke volume increase Heart rate and stroke volume decrease
Steinert
and hence cardiac output increases. and hence cardiac output decreases.
More blood flow to the lungs. Less blood flow to the lungs.
t  
centre Carbon dioxide is removed from blood
to the air sacs at a higher rate.
Carbon dioxide is removed from blood
to the air sacs at a lower rate. Carbon
Carbon dioxide content in blood drops. dioxide content in blood rises.
ftecotr
muscles glands  
Blood pH rises and the increased  The blood pH or the blood  Blood pH falls and the decreased
cardiac output also causes blood pressure is brought back to cardiac output also causes blood
pressure to rise. the normal level. pressure to fall.
Please study ‘Taking it further: The automatic nervous system’ on p.34-18 of your textbook.
34.4 Effects of exercise on breathing and cardiac output

34.4.1 Effects of exercise on breathing
Effect on exercise on breathing
Exercise Exercise (e.g. push ups, running)

Ventilation Respiratory centre is stimulated.
rate 
It sends more nerve impulses through the sympathetic nerve to the respiratory muscles.

Intercostal muscles and diaphragm muscles contract more rapidly and more forcefully.

The rate and depth of breathing increases.

The ventilation rate increases.

Gas More oxygen can be breathed in per unit time, so the oxygen concentration in the air sacs
exchange increases.
rate A steeper concentration gradient of oxygen between the air inside the air sacs and the blood in
the capillaries can be maintained, so oxygen diffuses into the blood more rapidly.
More carbon dioxide can be breathed out per unit time, so the carbon dioxide in the air sacs
decreases.
A steeper concentration gradient of carbon dioxide between the blood and air sacs is maintained,
so carbon dioxide diffuses out of the blood more rapidly.

The rate of gas exchange at the air sac increases.
 
Respiration It can increase the supply of oxygen to the cells During vigorous exercises, the amount of
rate and remove more carbon dioxide from the body oxygen needed for muscle contraction is much
rapidly. greater than that at rest. No matter how
 human increases the rate and depth of
The rate of aerobic respiration of the skeletal breathing, still the oxygen obtained cannot
muscle cells increases. More glucose is support aerobic respiration fast enough to
broken down to carbon dioxide. produce the amount of energy needed.
 
A larger amount of energy can be produced. The muscles carry out anaerobic respiration,
glucose is broken down to lactic acid, to
produce the extra amount of energy needed
within a short period of time.
Muscle  
contraction Larger amount of energy is produced to support more powerful muscle contraction.

Muscle The accumulation of lactic acid will cause muscle fatigue and convulsion.
fatigue The muscles fail to contract normally, and they begin to work inefficiently.
The accumulation of lactic acid is harmful to the body because lactic acid lowers the pH of the
blood. Changes in the blood pH affect the rates of enzymatic reaction.

Paying After vigorous exercise, the ventilation rate remains high for some time.
oxygen debt 
Gas exchange rate remains high.

This provide extra amount of oxygen for the breakdown of lactic acid into carbon dioxide and
water in liver and may change to glycogen for storage in the liver.
The amount of oxygen required to remove all lactic acid from muscle cells after exercise is called
oxygen debt.
For details of aerobic and anaerobic respiration, please refer to Chapter 22.
Practical 34.1 Investigation of the changes in breathing before and after exercise using a breath volume kit
(p.34-22)
Practical 34.2 Investigation of the changes in breathing rate before, during and after exercise using a data logger
(p.34-22)
Hormonal Control
Adrenaline
vervons Merv
ekin's sympathetic
return
Task 4
Having slow jogging for a while rather than sitting down after the vigorous exercise is recommended. Why?
 Slow jogging is effective to from blood because
 running increases the .
 Fast breathing increases the .
 Fast heartbeat increases the to deliver more oxygen to the liver
to .
34.4.2 Effect of exercise on cardiac output
Effect on exercise on cardiac output
Exercise Exercise (e.g. push ups, running)

Venous Increased lactic acid in Increased contraction of skeletal Increased depth of breathing cause
return blood drops the blood pH muscles compresses adjacent the thoracic pressure to become
veins. more negative during inhalation.
  
it stimulates the Both lead to the increase of volume of venous blood returning (venous
chemoreceptors in return) to the right atrium of the heart. It will distend the venae cavae.
medulla oblongata. 
It stimulates the stretch receptors in the vena cava and heart muscle.

Cardiac More nerve impulses are sent along the sensory nerve
output to stimulate the cardiovascular centre in the medulla oblongata.
 
It sends more nerve impulses through the sympathetic nerve to It sends more nerve impulses
the SA node. through the sympathetic nerve to
 the adrenal glands.
The SA node generates more electrical impulses that spread 
through the cardiac muscles. The adrenal glands secrete more
adrenaline into the blood.

It stimulates the SA node and the
SA node generates more electrical
impulses that spread through the
cardiac muscles.
 
The cardiac muscles contracts more frequently and more forcefully.
The heart rate and the stroke volume increase.

The cardiac output increases.

Blood The rate of blood circulation becomes faster.
circulation 
rate
Respiration  The supply of oxygen and glucose to skeletal muscle cells and cardiac muscle cells increases
rate so that those cells can carry out aerobic respiration at a faster rate.
 The removal of carbon dioxide and lactic acid from skeletal muscle cells and cardiac muscles
increases to prevent the accumulation of carbon dioxide and lactic acid in the muscles.
 The removal of heat from skeletal muscles and cardiac muscle increases to prevent the muscles
from overheating.

Muscle  
contraction Larger amount of energy is produced to support more powerful muscle
contraction.
Practical 34.3 Investigation of the changes in heart rate before and after exercise using a data logger (p.34-23)
Effect of exercise on the distribution of blood to different organs

Rate of blood
flow (mL/min)
Organ At During Interpretation
rest vigorous
exercise
Skeletal 1000 12500 The rate of blood flow Increases sharply. It is because
muscles  skeletal muscles need more oxygen and nutrients to support the muscle
contraction.
 it helps remove carbon dioxide and lactic acid away.
Heart 250 750 The rate of blood flow Increases sharply. It is because
 heart muscles need more oxygen and nutrients to support the faster and
stronger heartbeat.
Skin 400 1900 The rate of blood flow Increases sharply. It is because
 it supports vasodilation to promote heat loss by convection and radiation and
 it supports active sweating to promote heat loss by evaporation of sweat.
 This helps to lower the body temperature back to normal to reduce the risk of
heat stroke.
Gut 1400 600 The rate of blood flow decreases. It is because
 the drop in blood supply to gut and kidneys allows more blood to be delivered to
skeletal muscles, heart and skin that need more blood supply.
Kidneys 1200 600  Thus, the digestion and absorption of food and urine production are reduced.
Brain 750 750 The rate of blood flow remains unchanged. It is because
 the brain needs a constant supply of oxygen and nutrients all the time.
 The brain will be damaged when there is a shortage of blood supply.
Other 600 400
organs
Task 5
Please refer to ‘Extras: Do you know… Physical training enhances the efficiency of gas exchange and
blood circulation’ on p.34-24 of your book and answer the following questions.
(a) What is the difference between athletes and untrained people in breathing and cardiac output during
exercise?
 Athletes show a in depth of breathing
 and stroke volume during exercise.
 Hence the ventilation and the cardiac output of them athletes are higher than that of the untrained
people.
(b) Explain the cause of the difference found in part (a).
Physical training, especially aerobic exercises,
 
helps increase the mass and strength of the helps increase the thickness and strength of
muscles. the .
 
These muscles can to
enable the person to take in more oxygen per
breath.
 
The lungs can in The heart can pump in each
each breath. beat which leads to an increase in .
 
Athletes generally have a breathing
rate at rest than untrained people.
(c) Study the ‘Worked examples 34.1’ on p.34-24 of your textbook.

Regulation of Gas Content in Blood

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Part V Human Physiology: Regulation and Control (Chapter 34 Regulation of Gas Content in Blood) Page 1

HKDSE Biology Part V Human Physiology: Regulation and Control

34.1 Importance of regulation of gas content in blood

Regulate the gas content in blood

34.2 Control of breathing

Voluntary control by Involuntary control

Basic rhythm of Adjusted breathing

34.2.1 Voluntary control of breathing

Stimuli receptors t sensoryneurone brain centreofregulation

negative feedback mechanism Sth t s

Control of Basic breathing rhythm (Breathing at rest)

pH of blood rises. pH of blood falls.

For your reference only

34.3 Control of heartbeat

Four new structures in the heart

undle causing both atria to contract at the same time.

Ventricular Ventricular Ventricular

For your reference only

34.3.2 Control of cardiac output

34.3.2.1 Nervous control of cardiac output

Other factors affecting the nervous control of the cardiac output

34.3.2.2 Hormonal control of cardiac output

< Hormonal control < Nervous control >

34.4 Effects of exercise on breathing and cardiac output

Effect of exercise on the distribution of blood to different organs

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