3 Regulation of gas content

in blood

An AED

AED Think about...

1 How is the heart beat initiated?
A person can die within minutes if his/her heart suddenly stops
pumping blood. An automated external defibrillator* (AED) can be 2 Which part of our body controls
used in such a medical emergency. It sends an electric shock to the rate of heart beat?
the person’s heart to try to restore a normal rhythm of beating. In (Answers on p. 106)
Hong Kong, AEDs are available in many public areas like parks, sports
centres and public libraries.

automated external defibrillator (AED) 自動體外心臟除顫器 Acknowledgements and Important Notice:

All questions from the HKDSE, HKCEE and HKALE are reproduced by permission of the HKEAA.
Unauthorized use of the aforementioned questions in this electronic version is prohibited.
V Human Physiology: Regulation and Control
Cross-link
Refer to Bk 1B, Ch 8 for
details about the formation
of acid when carbon dioxide
dissolves in blood.
80
3.1 Importance of regulation of gas
content in blood
In Bk 3, Ch 21, we learnt that cells in our body need oxygen for
respiration to release energy. To ensure the cells get a steady supply of
oxygen, the oxygen content in blood must be kept stable.
Carbon dioxide is produced in respiration. When it dissolves in blood,
a weak acid is formed. This lowers the pH of the blood and hence
the pH of tissue fluid. If there is excess carbon dioxide in the blood
and tissue fluid, their pH will drop significantly. This affects enzyme
activities because enzymes can only function within a narrow range of
pH. This in turn affects the metabolic rate and normal functioning of
cells. Therefore, it is also important that the carbon dioxide content in
blood is kept stable.
Our body keeps the gas content in blood stable by:
❶ regulating the rate and depth of breathing to control the amount of
gas exchanged in the lungs, and
❷ regulating the rate and strength of heart beat to control the
amount of blood carried from the heart to the lungs and body cells.
The content of oxygen CO2 to air O2 from air
and carbon dioxide in blood
is kept stable by:
lung
❶ controlling the rate and
depth of breathing
❷ controlling the rate and
strength of heart beat
heart blood flow
capillary bed
body cell
body cells release body cells take in
CO2 into blood O2 from blood
Fig 3.1 Exchange and transport of gases in our body
 3 Regulation of gas content in blood

What is the importance of keeping the gas content in blood stable?

This ensures a steady supply of oxygen to body cells for
respiration, and maintains a stable blood pH so that enzymes can
function properly.

DSE
17(II)Q1a
3.2 Control of breathing
When we swim or sing, we can control our breathing voluntarily by the
motor area of the cerebrum. However, for most of the time, breathing
takes place involuntarily under the control of the respiratory centre*
in the medulla oblongata*. The respiratory centre serves to set a basic
rhythm of breathing, and help regulate the rate and depth of breathing
according to the body's needs.

Fig 3.2 We control our

breath voluntarily A Basic rhythm of breathing
during swimming
The respiratory centre has an intrinsic rhythmic activity that keeps
breathing going automatically. Details of how this happens are as
follows (Fig 3.3):

❶ The respiratory centre sends nerve impulses to

the intercostal muscles and diaphragm muscles.
Upon stimulation, these muscles contract so that
the rib cage moves upwards and outwards and
respiratory medulla the diaphragm becomes flattened. This leads to
centre oblongata inhalation.
send nerve ❶ ❷ ❷ After inhalation, the respiratory centre stops sending
impulses stop sending
inhalation
nerve impulses to the intercostal muscles and
nerve impulses
exhalation diaphragm muscles. Therefore, these muscles relax.
The rib cage moves downwards and inwards and the
diaphragm returns to its dome shape. Eventually the
lungs deflate due to the elastic recoil of the lungs
and exhalation occurs.

intercostal
muscles

diaphragm
muscles Fig 3.3 Control of the basic rhythm of breathing

medulla oblongata 延髓 respiratory centre 呼吸中樞

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V Human Physiology: Regulation and Control

B Regulation of rate and depth of breathing

When we are at rest, we take about 18 breaths per minute and about
500 cm3 of air is breathed in or out in each breath. The number of
breaths per minute is the rate of breathing while the volume of air that
we breathe in or out in each breath is the depth of breathing (or tidal
volume*). Both the rate and depth of breathing can be adjusted by the
respiratory centre to meet the changing demands of the body.

Detecting stimulus (carbon dioxide concentration in blood)

Oxygen concentration in Carbon dioxide concentration in blood is the main stimulus involved
blood is another stimulus, in the control of the rate and depth of breathing. When it rises above the
but its effect on breathing
is slight under normal normal level (e.g. when we hold our breath), the pH of the blood falls.
conditions. It only becomes This change in blood pH is detected by chemoreceptors in the aortic
an important factor when it bodies* located on the wall of the aorta, and the carotid bodies* located
drops significantly.
on the walls of the carotid arteries (Fig 3.4).
A 0.3% increase in carbon
dioxide concentration in
blood can double the rate of
breathing, whereas a 15%
drop in oxygen concentration
is required to achieve the
same effect.

carotid arteries*
(supply blood to
the head and neck)

aorta

Fig 3.4 A CT scan showing the aorta and carotid arteries

The respiratory centre also contains similar chemoreceptors, but

they actually detect changes in the pH of the cerebrospinal fluid rather
than the blood pH. These receptors are stimulated when carbon dioxide
diffuses from the blood into the cerebrospinal fluid.

aortic body 主動脈體 carotid artery 頸動脈 carotid body 頸動脈體 tidal volume 潮氣量

82
 3 Regulation of gas content in blood

The sympathetic nerve is
a part of the autonomic
nervous system. This will be
discussed in detail on p. 92.
Giving responses
When the chemoreceptors detect a fall in blood pH, they send nerve
impulses to the respiratory centre. After processing, the respiratory
centre sends more nerve impulses via the sympathetic nerve* to
the intercostal muscles and diaphragm muscles. This causes them
to contract faster and more strongly (i.e. the rate and depth of
breathing increase) (Fig 3.5).

As a result, carbon dioxide is removed from the blood at a higher rate.

Its concentration in the blood decreases and returns to normal. The
opposite occurs when carbon dioxide concentration in the blood falls.
The whole regulation process works by a negative feedback mechanism
(Fig 3.6 on p. 84).

❸ The respiratory centre

sends more nerve impulses
to the intercostal muscles
and diaphragm muscles,
respiratory centre causing them to contract
(contains chemoreceptors) faster and more strongly.

❷ Chemoreceptors send
nerve impulses to the
respiratory centre.

carotid bodies
(contain chemoreceptors)

aortic bodies
(contain chemoreceptors)
❶ A fall in blood pH
(caused by a rise in
CO2 concentration) is
detected by the
chemoreceptors in the
aortic bodies, carotid
bodies and respiratory
centre.

Fig 3.5 Adjusting the rate and depth of breathing by the respiratory centre

sympathetic nerve 交感神經

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V Human Physiology: Regulation and Control

Receptor Control centre Effector Response

more more
chemoreceptors nerve nerve faster and stronger
impulses impulses intercostal muscles
in aortic bodies, contraction of muscles
respiratory centre and diaphragm
carotid bodies and (i.e. rate and depth of
muscles
respiratory centre breathing increase)

CO2 concentration
CO2 concentration
in blood rises
in blood falls
→ blood pH falls
Stimulus

normal CO2
concentration in negative feedback
blood

CO2 concentration
CO2 concentration
in blood falls
in blood rises
→ blood pH rises

fewer fewer
chemoreceptors nerve nerve slower and weaker
impulses impulses intercostal muscles
in aortic bodies, contraction of muscles
respiratory centre and diaphragm
carotid bodies and (i.e. rate and depth of
muscles
respiratory centre breathing decrease)

Fig 3.6 Regulation of carbon dioxide concentration in blood by negative feedback mechanism

Altitude sickness
When a person ascends to a high altitude too quickly, the reduced
atmospheric pressure makes it difficult for haemoglobin to combine with
oxygen. Therefore, the oxygen content in the blood falls. This reduces
the amount of oxygen provided to body cells and may cause a condition
called altitude sickness*. Symptoms of altitude sickness include dizziness,
headache and vomiting. In severe cases, altitude sickness can lead to
coma and even death.

oxygen
cylinder

Fig 3.7 A woman uses a portable oxygen cylinder at high altitudes

to breathe in extra oxygen, preventing altitude sickness

altitude sickness 高山症

84
 3 Regulation of gas content in blood

Artificial respiration
Artificial respiration* is the process of helping a person who has
stopped breathing to breathe again. It is usually done by blowing exhaled
air into the person’s lungs (Fig 3.8).

exhaled air

Fig 3.8 A trainer demonstrating artificial respiration

Exhaled air still contains 16% oxygen which helps maintain oxygenation of
the blood. Moreover, it has a high carbon dioxide concentration (4%,
i.e. it contains about 100 times more carbon dioxide than atmospheric
air). This stimulates the respiratory centre to send more nerve impulses to
the intercostal muscles and diaphragm muscles to restore breathing.

1 How is the basic rhythm of breathing brought about?

The respiratory centre in the medulla oblongata has an intrinsic rhythm which sends nerve
impulses to the intercostal muscles and diaphragm muscles. These muscles contract and the
lungs finally inflate, resulting in inhalation.
After inhalation, the respiratory centre stops sending nerve impulses to the intercostal muscles
and diaphragm muscles. Thus, these muscles relax. The lungs finally deflate due to the elastic
recoil of the lungs and exhalation occurs.
2 What are the effects of carbon dioxide concentration in blood on the rate and depth of breathing?
When carbon dioxide concentration in blood rises above the normal level, the blood pH
falls. This change in blood pH is detected by chemoreceptors in the aortic bodies, carotid bodies
and respiratory centre.
The receptors send nerve impulses to the respiratory centre to stimulate it to send more nerve
impulses to the intercostal muscles and diaphragm muscles. This causes the muscles to contract
faster and more strongly, i.e. the rate and depth of breathing increase.
The opposite occurs when carbon dioxide concentration in blood falls below the normal level.

artificial respiration 人工呼吸

85
V Human Physiology: Regulation and Control

Hyperventilation
Some people experience rapid and deep breathing (a condition called
hyperventilation*) when they feel anxious. When this happens, the
carbon dioxide concentration in the blood falls because the amount of
carbon dioxide that is exhaled is greater than that produced in the
body. Due to low levels of carbon dioxide, blood vessels in the brain
constrict to reduce blood supply. This results in dizziness and a
headache. Severe hyperventilation can lead to loss of consciousness.
Some swimmers hyperventilate intentionally by taking many rapid,
deep breaths before competing in a race (usually a sprint). The Fig 3.9 Some swimmers try to
decreased carbon dioxide concentration in the blood tricks the hyperventilate themselves
respiratory centre into eliminating the need to breathe. Therefore, before a sprint, but this
the swimmers can swim with fewer breaths, helping them get better practice is dangerous
results. However, this is dangerous as a low oxygen concentration in
blood (due to prolonged breath-holding) can cause a swimmer to
become unconscious.

Level 1
1 Which of the following correctly shows the roles of the carotid
bodies, respiratory centre and diaphragm in the control of breathing?
Carotid bodies Respiratory centre Diaphragm
A receptor effector control centre
B receptor receptor, control centre effector
C effector control centre receptor
D control centre receptor effector p. 82, 83

Level 2
2 Which of the following statements about the control of breathing in
humans are incorrect?
(1) Breathing can be controlled voluntarily by the medulla oblongata.
(2) Oxygen concentration in blood is the main stimulus in the
control of breathing.
(3) Chemoreceptors in the aortic bodies and carotid bodies detect
carbon dioxide concentration in blood directly.
A (1) and (2) only B (1) and (3) only
C (2) and (3) only D (1), (2) and (3) p. 81, 82

hyperventilation 過度換氣

86
 3 Regulation of gas content in blood

Watch this to prepare for

3.3 Control of heart beat
your class and answer the
questions. A Initiation of heart beat
Video &
questions The heart is mainly made up of cardiac muscle*. Unlike most muscles
which contract only upon stimulation by a nerve impulse from outside,
contraction of cardiac muscle is initiated from within the muscle itself.
DSE Cardiac muscle is thus described as myogenic*. The following shows
13(II)Q1a how cardiac muscle cells coordinate in order to produce the heart beat.

Animation E1, 3.1 SA node*

(pacemaker*)
❶ left atrium

right atrium
❷ bundle of His*
AV node* ➌

left ventricle

right ventricle

Purkinje fibre*
Key:
transmission of electrical impulses ❹

Fig 3.10 Initiation of the heart beat

❶ The heart beat originates in a group of specialized cardiac muscle cells called
the sinoatrial node (SA node) located on the wall of the right atrium. The
SA node automatically generates electrical impulses to initiate a heart beat.
(As it also determines how fast the heart beats, the SA node is also called
the pacemaker.) The electrical impulses spread from the SA node to both
atria, causing them to contract at the same time.
❷ Meanwhile, the electrical impulses from the SA node travel to another group
of cells called the atrioventricular node (AV node) located on the wall
between the right atrium and right ventricle.

❸ After a short delay of about 0.1 seconds, the AV node generates new
electrical impulses. These impulses travel to the apex of the ventricles along
the septum through the bundle of His, that is a bundle of specialized
muscle fibres called Purkinje fibres.
❹ At the apex, the Purkinje fibres spread out through the walls of the
Why is it important that
? the ventricles contract
ventricles on both sides. They transmit the electrical impulses to the
from the bottom up ventricles, causing them to contract from the bottom up. As it takes time
and contract after the to transmit the electrical impulses to the ventricles, the ventricles contract
atria? slightly later than the contraction of the atria.

atrioventricular node (AV node) 房室結 bundle of His 房室束 ／希氏束 cardiac muscle 心肌 myogenic 肌生的
pacemaker 起搏點 Purkinje fibre 蒲金耶氏纖維 sinoatrial node (SA node) 竇房結
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V Human Physiology: Regulation and Control

The SA node generates nerve impulses to initiate a heart beat.

The SA node generates electrical impulses to initiate a heart beat.

Animation E1, 3.2 B Cardiac cycle

It is important that the atria and ventricles contract in a coordinated way.
If they contract out of sequence, the heart cannot pump blood efficiently.
The sequence of events in a single heart beat is called the cardiac cycle*.

Each cardiac cycle lasts about 0.8 seconds when a person is at rest. It can
‘Systole’ means ‘contraction’; be divided into three main phases: atrial systole*, ventricular systole*
‘diastole’ means ‘relaxation’. and diastole*. The table below shows details of each phase.

Atrial systole Ventricular systole

0–0.1 seconds 0.1–0.4 seconds

• Both atria contract. Early: Late:

Blood is pumped into the
ventricles through the
tricuspid and bicuspid
valves.
• The ventricles are in a
relaxed state and the
semilunar valves are closed.
• The atria relax and the
ventricles start to contract.
• The tricuspid and bicuspid
valves are closed to prevent the
backflow of blood into the atria.
The closing of valves produces
the first heart sound ‘lub’.
• The ventricles continue to
contract. The semilunar
valves are forced to open and
blood is pumped from the
ventricles into the aorta and
pulmonary artery.

atria semilunar bicuspid atria bicuspid semilunar aorta

contract valves closed valve open relax valve closed valves open

pulmonary
artery

tricuspid
valve open
deoxygenated oxygenated tricuspid ventricles start ventricles contract
blood blood valve closed to contract further

Atria contract Atria relax

Ventricles relax Ventricles contract

atrial systole 心房收縮 cardiac cycle 心動週期 diastole 舒張 ventricular systole 心室收縮

88
 3 Regulation of gas content in blood

Artificial pacemaker
If there is a defect in the pacemaker, the
heart may beat too fast, too slowly or
irregularly. A condition called arrhythmia*
results. Arrhythmias may lead to an
insufficient blood supply to organs, causing
damage to them.
artificial
In 1952, Paul Zoll built a large external
pacemaker
pacemaker that could send out electrical
impulses to the heart through the surface of Fig 3.11 Paul Zoll (1911– Fig 3.12 An X-ray showing an
a patient’s chest, helping restore the normal 1999) and his implanted artificial
rhythm of heart beat. Today, the pacemaker pacemaker pacemaker
has evolved to a small device that can be
implanted inside the body.

Diastole

0.4–0.8 seconds

Early: Late:
• Both atria and ventricles relax. The semilunar • The tricuspid and bicuspid valves are opened
valves are closed to prevent the backflow of and blood starts to flow into the ventricles. The
blood into the ventricles. The closing of valves cycle is repeated.
produces the second heart sound ‘dub’.
• Blood from the venae cavae and the pulmonary
veins flows into the atria.

bicuspid
atria relax semilunar valve open
valves closed

pulmonary
venae veins
cavae

ventricles relax tricuspid

valve open

Atria relax

Ventricles relax

arrhythmia 心律不齊

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V Human Physiology: Regulation and Control

Pressure changes in the heart

The direction of blood flow and the closure of valves in the heart are
related to differences in pressure between heart chambers. The following
shows the details.

Atrial Ventricular systole Diastole

systole
left atrium contract relax relax

left ventricle relax contract relax

16
pressure in aorta

12 B pressure rises
C
due to recoil of
aorta when
pressure (kPa)

semilunar valve
is closed
8

4 D
blood flows into
A
aorta in this period
pressure in left atrium

0
pressure rises due to bulging
of closed bicuspid valve into
left atrium pressure in left ventricle

first heart sound ‘lub’ second heart sound ‘dub’

0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8

time (s)
Fig 3.13 Pressure changes in the left atrium, left ventricle and aorta in a cardiac cycle

The maximum pressure
? in the left ventricle is
far higher than that in
the left atrium. Why?
Graph reading
Point A: The left ventricular pressure (blue line) starts to become higher
than the left atrial pressure (green line). The bicuspid valve is
closed and the first heart sound is produced.
Point B: The left ventricular pressure starts to become higher than the
aortic pressure (red line). Blood flows from the left ventricle to
the aorta and the semilunar valve is forced to open.
Point C: The semilunar valve is closed and the second heart sound is
produced.
Point D: The left ventricular pressure starts to become lower than the
left atrial pressure. Blood flows from the left atrium to the left
ventricle and the bicuspid valve is forced to open.

90
 3 Regulation of gas content in blood

C Cardiac output
1 What is cardiac output?
Cardiac output* is the volume of blood pumped out of the heart per
minute. It measures the performance of the heart as a pump. It depends
on two factors:
• stroke volume*, i.e. the volume of blood pumped out of the left
ventricle in each heart beat
• heart rate*, i.e. the number of heart beats per minute

We can calculate the cardiac output as follows:

cardiac output stroke volume heart rate

= ×
(mL/min) (mL/beat) (beats/min)

For example, when a person is at rest, the heart beats about 72 times per
minute and the stroke volume is about 70 mL.

Cardiac output of the person at rest = 70 mL/beat × 72 beats/min

= 5040 mL/min
≈ 5 L/min

The stroke volume is affected by two factors:

• venous return*, i.e. the volume of blood returning to the right

atrium from the venae cavae. This determines the volume of blood
that is available inside the left ventricle.

• strength of contraction of the cardiac muscle. This determines the

amount of blood that is pumped out of the heart.

venous return
strength of contraction of
(volume of blood
cardiac muscle
returning to the right atrium)

affect

stroke volume heart rate

(volume of blood pumped out of (number of heart beats
the left ventricle in each heart beat) per minute)

determine

cardiac output

Fig 3.14 Factors determining cardiac output

cardiac output 心輸出量 heart rate 心搏率 stroke volume 心搏量 venous return 靜脈回流

91
V Human Physiology: Regulation and Control

2 Nervous control of cardiac output

The medulla oblongata contains a cardiovascular centre* that controls
cardiac output. The cardiovascular centre receives nerve impulses from
receptors in various parts of the body, including:
• chemoreceptors in the aortic bodies and carotid bodies. These
receptors detect changes in blood pH, which is affected by the
concentration of carbon dioxide in blood (discussed on p. 82).
• baroreceptors* in the aorta and carotid arteries. These receptors
detect changes in blood pressure, which is affected by the blood
flow rate in the arteries.

• stretch receptors in the muscles and tendons. These receptors are

stimulated by limb movements.

When the cardiovascular centre receives nerve impulses from these

receptors, it processes the information and then sends nerve impulses to
the heart via two nerves: the sympathetic nerve* and the vagus nerve*
(or parasympathetic nerve*).

The rhythmical beating of
the heart is initiated by the
SA node. The sympathetic
nerve and the vagus nerve
only serve to adjust its rate
and stroke volume.
The sympathetic nerve and the vagus nerve are part of the autonomic
nervous system. They regulate the heart rate by affecting the SA node,
and the stroke volume by affecting the cardiac muscle. Their actions
are antagonistic* to each other: the sympathetic nerve increases the
heart rate and stroke volume while the vagus nerve decreases the heart
rate and stroke volume (Fig 3.15 on p. 93). The table below shows the
activities of these two nerves when a person is at rest or doing exercise.

At rest During exercise

The cardiovascular centre sends The cardiovascular centre sends

more nerve impulses via the
vagus nerve. The vagus nerve
becomes more active and releases
more acetylcholine*, a kind of
neurotransmitter. (Meanwhile, the
sympathetic nerve releases less
noradrenaline.)
The acetylcholine inhibits the
activity of the SA node and the
cardiac muscle, causing the heart rate
and stroke volume to decrease. As a
result, the cardiac output decreases
(Fig 3.16 on p. 93).
more nerve impulses via the
sympathetic nerve. The sympathetic
nerve becomes more active and
releases more noradrenaline*,
another kind of neurotransmitter.
(Meanwhile, the vagus nerve releases
less acetylcholine.)
The noradrenaline stimulates the
activity of the SA node and the
cardiac muscle, causing the heart rate
and stroke volume to increase. As a
result, the cardiac output increases
(Fig 3.16 on p. 93).

acetylcholine 乙酰膽鹼 antagonistic 對抗的 baroreceptor 壓力感受器 cardiovascular centre 心血管中樞

noradrenaline 去甲腎上腺素 parasympathetic nerve 副交感神經 sympathetic nerve 交感神經 vagus nerve 迷走神經
92
 3 Regulation of gas content in blood

❷ After processing, the

cardiovascular centre sends
nerve impulses to the SA
cardiovascular centre node and cardiac muscle
via the sympathetic nerve
and vagus nerve.

❶ Receptors send nerve

impulses to the
cardiovascular centre.
3a The sympathetic nerve
stimulates the activity of
the SA node and cardiac
muscle, increasing the
heart rate and stroke Receptors
volume.
carotid bodies
(contain chemoreceptors)

carotid arteries
sympathetic vagus
(contain baroreceptors)
nerve (+) nerve (–)
aortic bodies
3b The vagus nerve inhibits (contain chemoreceptors)
the activity of the SA node
and cardiac muscle, aorta
decreasing the heart rate (contains baroreceptors)
and stroke volume.

SA node

Fig 3.15 Nervous control of cardiac output

heart contracts slower

vagus nerve and weaker
more active releases more inhibits (–) → heart rate and stroke
At rest acetylcholine volume decrease
→ cardiac output
decreases
cardiovascular SA node and
centre in medulla cardiac muscle
oblongata in heart
heart contracts faster
and more strongly
During releases more → heart rate and stroke
exercise noradrenaline volume increase
sympathetic nerve stimulates (+)
more active → cardiac output
increases
Fig 3.16 How the cardiovascular centre regulates cardiac output when a person is at rest or doing exercise

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V Human Physiology: Regulation and Control

3 Hormonal control of cardiac output

Cross-link
Adrenaline is also involved
in thermoregulation. Refer
to Extended learning in
Ch 2 (p. 60) of this book for
details.
The endocrine system also plays a part in controlling cardiac output.
When a person is stressed or excited, the sympathetic nerve stimulates
the adrenal glands to release more adrenaline into the blood.
When the adrenaline reaches the heart, it stimulates the SA node and the
cardiac muscle to increase their activities. As a result, the heart rate and
stroke volume increase, i.e. the cardiac output increases. The increased
cardiac output prepares the body for action in emergencies (Fig 3.17).

1 When a person is stressed or excited, the 2 Adrenaline is transported around 3 Adrenaline acts on the SA
sympathetic nerve stimulates the adrenal the body by the blood. node and the cardiac muscle
glands* to release more adrenaline*. to increase cardiac output.

sympathetic
nerve
adrenal
gland

Fig 3.17 Hormonal control of cardiac output

Effects of adrenaline
During periods of stress or exercising, more adrenaline is released from the adrenal glands. Adrenaline
has many different effects on the body, but its overall effect is to prepare the body for ‘fight or flight’
responses. Some key effects of adrenaline are shown below.

increase sweat secretion

pupil dilation

increase cardiac output increase breathing

rate

increase blood pressure

dilation of bronchi
redistribute blood to muscles in lungs

convert more
glycogen in
muscles to glucose

adrenal gland 腎上腺 adrenaline 腎上腺素

94
 3 Regulation of gas content in blood

1 How is the heart beat initiated?

The SA node (pacemaker) automatically generates electrical impulses that spread to both atria
and cause them to contract. The electrical impulses also travel to the AV node. The AV node
generates electrical impulses, which pass to both ventricles and cause them to contract.
2 What happens to the heart in a cardiac cycle?

Atrial systole Ventricular systole Diastole

Time 0–0.1 s 0.1–0.4 s 0.4–0.8 s

Atria Contract Relax Relax

Ventricles Relax Contract Relax

Blood flow Atria to ventricles Right ventricle to Venae cavae to right

pulmonary artery; atrium; pulmonary veins
left ventricle to aorta to left atrium

Tricuspid and Open Close (gives the first Open

bicuspid valves heart sound)

Semilunar Close Open Close (gives the second

valves heart sound)

3 How is cardiac output controlled by the nervous system?

Cardiac output is controlled by the cardiovascular centre in the medulla oblongata. The centre
is linked to the heart via the sympathetic nerve and the vagus nerve.
At rest, the vagus nerve is more active and releases more acetylcholine. Acetylcholine
inhibits the activity of the SA node and cardiac muscle, causing the heart rate and stroke volume
to decrease. As a result, cardiac output decreases.
During exercise, the sympathetic nerve is more active and releases more noradrenaline.
Noradrenaline stimulates the activity of the SA node and cardiac muscle, causing the heart rate
and stroke volume to increase. As a result, cardiac output increases.
4 How is cardiac output controlled by the endocrine system?
When a person is stressed or excited, the sympathetic nerve stimulates the adrenal glands to
release more adrenaline. Adrenaline stimulates the activity of the SA node and cardiac muscle,
causing cardiac output to increase.

stimulates releases more

adrenal glands adrenaline
sympathetic
nerve releases more stimulates SA node increases cardiac
and cardiac muscle output
noradrenaline
cardiovascular
centre
vagus nerve releases more inhibits SA node decreases cardiac
acetylcholine and cardiac muscle output

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V Human Physiology: Regulation and Control

Directions: Questions 1 to 3 refers to the graph below, which shows

the pressure changes in the aorta and the left ventricle of a person over
a certain time interval.

16

aorta
12

pressure
(kPa) 8

left ventricle
4

0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2

time (s)

Level 1
1 At what time does blood start to be pumped out from the left
ventricle into the aorta?
A 0s
B 0.2 s
C 0.3 s
D 0.5 s p. 90

Level 2
2 What is the heart rate of this person at this time interval?
A 50 beats per minute
B 67 beats per minute
C 75 beats per minute
D 86 beats per minute p. 91

3 The heart rate of this person increases when

(1) the adrenal glands release more adrenaline.
(2) the sympathetic nerve becomes more active.
(3) the vagus nerve releases more acetylcholine.
A (1) and (2) only
B (1) and (3) only
C (2) and (3) only
D (1), (2) and (3) p. 92

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 3 Regulation of gas content in blood

DSE
12(II)Q1b, 14(II)Q1b,
3.4 Effect of exercise on breathing
15(II)Q1b, 16(II)Q1a,
19(II)Q1b
and heart beat
When we do exercise, our skeletal muscles contract more strongly,
creating different needs inside the body. Below are some examples.

1 Increase in demand for oxygen and glucose by

muscle cells
During exercise, skeletal muscles contract more strongly.
Thus their energy consumption is higher. To meet this
increased energy demand, the muscle cells need more
oxygen and glucose so that they can carry out aerobic
respiration at a higher rate.

2 Increase in production of carbon dioxide by

muscle cells

Because cells in skeletal muscles carry out aerobic

respiration at a higher rate during exercise, they produce
more carbon dioxide. Since too much carbon dioxide
in the blood may lower blood pH to a level that affects
enzyme activities, excess carbon dioxide has to be
removed.

3 Production of lactic acid by muscle cells

In addition to aerobic respiration, skeletal muscle cells
also carry out anaerobic respiration to provide additional
energy during vigorous exercise. In this process, lactic
acid is formed. An accumulation of lactic acid can
disrupt the mechanisms of muscle contraction and lower
blood pH, so it needs to be removed from the body.

In order to meet the above needs, both our breathing and heart beat
change while we are exercising. We will take a look at these changes in
the next two sections.

97
V Human Physiology: Regulation and Control

A Change in ventilation rate during exercise

During exercise, the respiratory centre in the medulla oblongata sends
more nerve impulses via the sympathetic nerve to the intercostal muscles
and diaphragm muscles. This causes the muscles to contract faster and
more strongly, i.e. both the rate and depth of breathing increase.
In other words, the volume of air breathed per minute (known as the
ventilation rate*) increases (Fig 3.18). The ventilation rate can be
calculated using the formula below.

depth of breathing
ventilation rate rate of breathing
= (or tidal volume) ×
(cm3/min) (no. of breaths/min)
(cm3/breath)

At rest During exercise

4000 4000
volume of air in lungs (cm3)
volume of air in lungs (cm3)

3000 3000

2000 2000

1000 1000

0 5 10 15 20 time (s) 0 5 10 15 20 time (s)

3 3
Depth of breathing = 500 cm /breath Depth of breathing = 2000 cm /breath
6 9
Rate of breathing = ( × 60) Rate of breathing = ( × 60)
20 20
= 18 breaths/min = 27 breaths/min
Ventilation rate = 500 x 18 Ventilation rate = 2000 x 27
= 9000 cm3/min = 54 000 cm3/min
Fig 3.18 Comparison of the rate and depth of breathing of a person at rest and during exercise

Importance of increased ventilation rate during exercise

An increased ventilation rate causes the concentration gradient of both
oxygen and carbon dioxide between the blood and the air in the air sacs
to become steeper. Therefore, the efficiency of gas exchange in the air
sacs increases. This helps:

• supply more oxygen to skeletal muscle cells so that the cells

can respire at a higher rate to release more energy for muscle
contractions.
• remove carbon dioxide from the body faster.

ventilation rate 換氣率

98
 3 Regulation of gas content in blood

After exercise, the ventilation rate remains high for some time. This
allows the body to take in more oxygen for the breakdown of lactic acid
Cross-link or for the conversion of lactic acid to glucose in the liver. The extra
Refer to Bk 3, Ch 21 for
more details about the amount of oxygen required to remove lactic acid after exercise is called
oxygen debt. the oxygen debt.

3.1
Practical E1, 3.1
Study of the changes in the rate and depth of breathing before and after
exercise using a breath volume kit (go to p. 165)

3.2
Practical E1, 3.2
Study of the changes in the rate and depth of breathing before and after
exercise using a data logger (go to p. 168)

B Change in cardiac output during exercise

During exercise, cardiac output increases due to the following:

• The cardiovascular centre in the medulla oblongata sends more nerve

impulses via the sympathetic nerve. The sympathetic nerve releases
more noradrenaline, which stimulates the activity of the SA node
and cardiac muscle. As a result, the heart beats faster and more
strongly. Hence cardiac output increases.
• The adrenal glands are also stimulated by the sympathetic nerve to
release more adrenaline. The increased level of adrenaline stimulates
the activity of the SA node and cardiac muscle, causing cardiac
output to increase.
• The venous return increases during exercise because:
a the stronger contraction of skeletal muscles squeezes veins
lying next to the muscles more. This enables more blood to
return to the heart via the venae cavae,
b the thoracic pressure becomes more negative as the depth
of breathing increases during exercise. This helps blood move
towards the heart via the venae cavae.
The larger venous return increases the stroke volume and therefore
increases cardiac output.

99
V Human Physiology: Regulation and Control
Go to Learning through
examples on p. 102 to learn
more about the distribution
of blood flow to different
parts of the body during
exercise.
respiratory centre
sympathetic
nerve
stimulates intercostal
muscles and diaphragm
muscles
ventilation rate ↑
Fig 3.19 Summary of the effects of exercise on breathing and heart beat
Practical E1, 3.3
100
Importance of increased cardiac output during exercise
An increased cardiac output leads to a rise in blood flow and blood
pressure, which help:
• supply more oxygen and nutrients to the skeletal muscles and
cardiac muscle so that the muscle cells can respire at a higher rate
to release more energy for muscle contractions, and
• remove carbon dioxide and lactic acid from muscle cells faster.
This avoids the accumulation of carbon dioxide and lactic acid in the
muscles.
Moreover, there is a diversion of blood to the skeletal muscles, cardiac
muscle and skin during exercise. The larger blood flow in the skeletal
and cardiac muscles allows for the faster removal of heat generated by
the muscles. An increased blood supply to the arterioles near the skin
surface promotes heat loss to the surroundings, preventing the body
from overheating.
During exercise
cardiovascular centre
sympathetic
nerve
releases more adrenal glands release
Supply to muscles: noradrenaline more adrenaline
oxygen ↑
stimulate SA node
nutrients ↑ and cardiac muscle
venous return ↑
(due to stronger
Remove from muscles: muscle contractions
and more negative
carbon dioxide ↑ cardiac output ↑ thoracic pressure)
lactic acid ↑
heat ↑
3.3
Study of the changes in heart rate before and after exercise using a data
logger (go to p. 171)

The tidal volume refers to
the volume of air that we
breathe in or out in each
breath when we are at rest.
Refer to p. 82 for details.
Regular exercise is greatly
beneficial to our physical
and mental health. Learn
more about it at:
https://www.lcsd.gov.hk/
en/healthy/active
3 Regulation of gas content in blood
C Benefits of regular exercise on lungs and
heart
Regular exercise brings long-term benefits to our lungs and heart. For
example:
• The intercostal muscles and the diaphragm muscles become
stronger. Thus, the tidal volume of our lungs becomes larger and
gas exchange becomes more efficient.
• The heart becomes stronger as the cardiac muscle wall becomes
thicker. It can contract more powerfully (i.e. stroke volume
increases). As more oxygen and carbon dioxide can be transported
during each heart beat, trained athletes usually have a lower heart
rate at rest than the general population.
1 How do the ventilation rate and cardiac output change during
exercise? What is the importance of these changes?
Change during exercise Importance
Ventilation rate • Helps supply more oxygen to
increases during skeletal muscle cells so that the cells
exercise. can respire at a higher rate to release
more energy for muscle contractions
• Helps remove carbon dioxide from
the body faster
Cardiac output • Helps supply more oxygen and
increases during nutrients to the skeletal muscles and
exercise. cardiac muscle so that the muscle cells
can respire at a higher rate to release
more energy for muscle contractions
• Helps remove carbon dioxide and
lactic acid from muscle cells faster
• Helps remove heat from muscles
2 Why does the ventilation rate remain high for some time after
exercise?
This allows the body to take in more oxygen to remove lactic
acid produced during anaerobic respiration.
101
V Human Physiology: Regulation and Control

Learning through examples Skill builder Skill practice

An investigation was carried out to study the distribution of cardiac output to different parts of the
body of a man at rest and during vigorous exercise. The bar chart below shows the results.

Key:
750
750 brain
15 000 heart
skeletal muscle
skin
distribution of kidney
cardiac output 10 000 12 500 abdomen
(mL/min) others

750
5000 250
1200
500
1100 1500

1400 600
600
600
0 400

at rest during vigorous exercise

a Based on the bar chart, state the effect of vigorous exercise on cardiac output of the man. (1 mark)
b Describe the changes in blood flow to the following parts of the body during exercise and explain
the importance of these changes.
i The skeletal muscles (4 marks)
ii The skin (3 marks)
c Suggest a reason why the blood flow to the brain remains unchanged during exercise. (2 marks)

Suggested answers

a Cardiac output increases during vigorous exercise. 1

b i Blood flow to skeletal muscles greatly increases during
exercise. 1 Presenting data in a
This helps supply more oxygen and nutrients to the muscle cells 1 bar chart

for respiration so that more energy is released for muscle Refer to p.103.
contractions. 1
This also enables a faster removal of carbon dioxide and lactic acid
from muscles. 1
ii Blood flow to the skin also increases during exercise. 1
Muscle contractions generate a lot of heat. 1
Supplying more blood to the arterioles near the skin surface helps
promote heat loss. 1
c The brain controls many vital functions like breathing and heart beat. 1
A constant blood flow to the brain ensures a stable supply of oxygen
and nutrients to brain cells for energy production. 1

102
 3 Regulation of gas content in blood

Learning through examples Skill builder Skill practice

Presenting data in a bar chart

A bar chart is often used to show the distribution of different items (i.e. discrete data*). In bar charts, the
quantities of the items are represented by the lengths of bars. The bars are evenly spaced and of equal
width.
There are different types of bar charts. The chart on p. 102 is a stacked bar chart. Below is another
type of bar chart presenting the same data. Which bar chart is easier for us to compare the blood
flow to each body part when the man is at rest and during vigorous exercise?
Key:
12 000
at rest
11 000
10 000 during vigorous
9000 exercise
8000
distribution of 7000
cardiac output 6000
(mL/min)
5000
4000
3000
2000
1000
0
brain heart skeletal skin kidney abdomen others
muscle

Learning through examples Skill builder Skill practice

The diagram below shows the distribution of cardiac output to four parts (P to S) of the body of a
man at rest and during exercise.
Which of the following combinations correctly Key:
identifies parts P, Q, R and S? at rest

P Q R S during
cardiac output (mL/min)

10 exercise
A kidney brain skin skeletal
distribution of

muscles
B kidney skeletal brain skin
muscles 5
C brain kidney skeletal skin
muscles
D brain skin skeletal kidney
muscles 0
P Q R S

Q25 (p. 116)

discrete data 離散數據

103
 Overview of body regulation during exercise

Water content
more water loss through
sweating and exhalation
↓
fall in water potential of blood
↓
detected by osmoreceptors in
hypothalamus
↓
hypothalamus (control centre)
↓
stimulates pituitary gland to
release more ADH
↓
increases permeability of second coiled
tubule and collecting duct to water
↓
larger proportion of water reabsorbed
↓
conserves more water

Body temperature
muscle contractions generate heat
↓
rise in body temperature
↓
detected by thermoreceptors in
hypothalamus and skin
↓
thermoregulatory centre in
hypothalamus (control centre)
↓
initiates responses in skin, e.g.
increased sweating, relaxation
of erector muscles and
vasodilation of arterioles
↓
promotes heat loss
↓
prevents body from over-heating

104
 Gas content
respiratory centre in medulla cardiovascular centre in medulla
oblongata (control centre) oblongata (control centre)
↓ ↓
sends more nerve impulses via sends more nerve impulses via
sympathetic nerve sympathetic nerve
↓ ↓
stimulates intercostal muscles sympathetic nerve releases more
and diaphragm muscles to noradrenaline, and adrenal glands
contract faster and more strongly release more adrenaline
↓ ↓
increases ventilation rate stimulate activities of SA node
↓ and cardiac muscle
• supplies more oxygen to skeletal ↓
muscle cells for respiration to increases cardiac output
provide more energy for muscle ↓
contractions • supplies more oxygen and
• removes carbon dioxide from nutrients to skeletal muscle cells
the body faster for respiration to provide more
energy for muscle contractions
• removes carbon dioxide and
lactic acid from muscles faster

Blood glucose
skeletal muscle cells consume more glucose
↓
fall in blood glucose level
↓
detected by chemoreceptors in pancreas
↓
pancreas releases more glucagon and
less insulin
↓
glucagon stimulates liver cells and muscle
cells to convert stored glycogen to glucose
↓
more glucose released into blood
↓
increases glucose supply to muscle cells

105
V Human Physiology: Regulation and Control

Recall Think about... (p. 79)

1 The SA node generates electrical impulses that cause both atria to contract.
When the impulses travel to the AV node, the AV node generates electrical
impulses to both ventricles, causing them to contract.
2 The cardiovascular centre in the medulla oblongata.

Suggested answers to ?
p. 87 To allow the ventricles to squeeze blood upwards into the aorta and
pulmonary arteries, and to ensure the ventricles do not start contracting
until they are filled with blood from the atria.
p. 90 The wall of the left ventricle is much thicker than that of the left atrium.
It can create a much greater force.

106
 3 Regulation of gas content in blood

Key terms
1 adrenal gland 腎上腺 12 heart rate 心搏率
2 adrenaline 腎上腺素 13 pacemaker 起搏點
3 aortic body 主動脈體 14 parasympathetic nerve 副交感神經
4 atrial systole 心房收縮 15 respiratory centre 呼吸中樞
5 atrioventricular node (AV node) 房室結 16 sinoatrial node (SA node) 竇房結
6 cardiac cycle 心動週期 17 stroke volume 心搏量
7 cardiac output 心輸出量 18 sympathetic nerve 交感神經
8 cardiovascular centre 心血管中樞 19 vagus nerve 迷走神經
9 carotid artery 頸動脈 20 ventilation rate 換氣率
10 carotid body 頸動脈體 21 ventricular systole 心室收縮
11 diastole 舒張 22 venous return 靜脈回流

Concept map

Gas content in blood

regulated by controlling

breathing heart beat

controlled by
controlled by once in one
respiratory centre in cardiovascular centre cardiac cycle
medulla oblongata in medulla oblongata

adrenal glands
sends nerve sends nerve
impulses to impulses to release
adrenaline
intercostal muscles and
SA node and cardiac muscle
diaphragm muscles stimulates
regulate regulate

ventilation rate cardiac output

(including rate and (including heart rate and
depth of breathing) stroke volume)

increase during

exercise

107
V Human Physiology: Regulation and Control

3 In an investigation, a healthy person was

Exercise asked to inhale air of different carbon dioxide
concentrations. His breathing rates were
recorded. The table below shows the result.
Section 3.2
Concentration of carbon Breathing rate
Level 1 dioxide in inhaled air (%) (breaths/min)

Directions: Questions 1 and 2 refer to the graph 1 18

below, which shows the changes in the lung 2 20
volume of a man at rest. 3 24
4 29

Based on the result, describe and explain the

relationship between the concentration of
lung
volume carbon dioxide in inhaled air and the breathing
rate. (4 marks)
p. 82, 83

time (s)
0 4 8
Level 2
MC 4 The graph below shows the effect of carbon
1 What is the rate of breathing of this man at dioxide concentration in inhaled air on the
rest? breathing pattern of a man.
A 10 breaths per minute
B 12 breaths per minute 2000 28

breathing rate (breaths/min)

depth of
depth of breathing (cm3)

1800 breathing 26
C 15 breaths per minute
1600 24
D 18 breaths per minute p. 82 1400 22
MC 1200 20
breathing
2 Which of the following graphs most likely 1000 rate 18
shows the changes in the lung volume of the 800 16
man if he was asked to inhale air with a high 600 14
400 12
carbon dioxide concentration?
200 10
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
A B carbon dioxide concentration in inhaled air (%)
lung volume

lung volume

a What is the depth of breathing when his

breathing rate is 18 breaths/min? (1 mark)
b Calculate the ventilation rate when the
carbon dioxide concentration in inhaled air
0 4 8 time (s) 0 4 8 time (s) is 3%. Show your working. (3 marks)
C D c What is the effect on breathing when
carbon dioxide concentration in inhaled air
lung volume

lung volume

is increased from 0% to 3%? (2 marks)

d Explain why the increase in depth of
breathing slows down when carbon dioxide
concentration in inhaled air rises above 4%.
0 4 8 time (s) 0 4 8 time (s) (1 mark)
p. 83 p. 82, 83

108
 3 Regulation of gas content in blood

Level 3 Section 3.3

5 A person breathed continuously into and out of
a plastic bag which was initially filled with room
Level 1
air. Measurements were taken at intervals and CE Bio 2008 II Q16, 17
the table below shows the results.
Directions: Questions 6 and 7 refer to the
Measurement information shown below. Diagram I shows a heart
with certain parts removed to reveal various valves.
Time (min) 0 3 6 9 12 15 18
Diagram II shows the change in the ventricular
Percentage volume of a person’s heart within a short period of
of CO2 inside time.
0.03 0.80 1.55 2.30 3.10 5.45 6.00
the plastic
bag (%) Diagram I

Depth of
0.65 0.73 0.79 0.91 1.23 1.84 2.11
breathing (L) IV
Rate of
I
breathing 14 14 15 15 15 16 27
(breaths/min)

Percentage III II
of CO2 in
5.5 5.7 5.9 6.1 6.3 6.5 6.7
alveolar air
(%)

Diagram II
a Calculate the ventilation rate of this person
ventricular
at 18 min. Show your working. (3 marks) volume (mL)
b Describe the effect of the increasing
250
percentage of carbon dioxide in the inhaled
air on the rate and depth of breathing from
0 min to 18 min. (3 marks)
c Suggest one situation in daily life in which
similar changes in breathing might occur. 100
(1 mark) 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9
time (s)
d Compare and explain the change in the
percentage of carbon dioxide inside the MC
plastic bag with that of alveolar air from 6 At 0.2 second, which of the valves in Diagram I
0 min to 18 min. (3 marks) are opened?
e In a similar investigation, soda lime was put A valves I and II
into the plastic bag to absorb the carbon B valves I and IV
dioxide breathed out by the person. It was C valves II and III
found that the person continued to breathe D valves III and IV p. 88, 89
normally for some time even though the MC
concentration of oxygen in the air inside 7 The heartbeat rate of the person is
the bag was continuously dropping. Explain A 86 beats per minute.
why. B 80 beats per minute.
Hint (p. 116) (2 marks) C 75 beats per minute.
p. 82, 83 D 67 beats per minute. p. 88, 89

109
V Human Physiology: Regulation and Control

CE Bio 2011 II Q13, 14 Level 2

Directions: Questions 8 and 9 refer to the following
11 AQA GCE (A) 2015
graph, which shows the pressure changes of the left
atrium, left ventricle and aorta in a cardiac cycle: Doctors investigated the relationship between
heart rate and arterial blood pressure. They
recruited healthy volunteers. For each
aorta volunteer, they recorded their normal arterial
blood pressure at rest. With each volunteer,
pressure

left they then carried out the following experiments.

ventricle
Experiment 1: They recorded heart rate at
left atrium
different blood pressures.
Experiment 2: They repeated experiment 1
P Q R S time after injecting a drug that
MC
8 At which time does the blood leave the left inhibited the parasympathetic
ventricle? nervous system.

A P B Q Experiment 3: They repeated experiment 1

C R D S p. 90 after injecting a drug that
MC
inhibited the sympathetic
9 At which time are both the semilunar valves nervous system.
and the bicuspid valve closed? Figure 1 shows the results for one volunteer.
A P B Q
C R D S p. 90 normal arterial blood
pressure at rest
160
10 The graph below shows the changes in blood
volume over time in the left ventricle of a 140 experiment 2 –
parasympathetic
heart rate (beats per minute)

man’s heart at rest. inhibited

120
160
100 experiment 1 –
140 no inhibition
blood volume (cm3)

of parasympathetic
120 80 or sympathetic
100 60
80 experiment 3 –
40 sympathetic
60 inhibited
40
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 0 6 8 10 12 14
time (s) arterial blood pressure (kPa) Figure 1

a What is the heart rate of this man at rest?

(1 mark) a Calculate the ratio of heart rate in
b How long does ventricular diastole last? experiment 2 to heart rate in experiment 3
(1 mark) at an arterial blood pressure of 10 kPa.
c Calculate the cardiac output of this man at Show your working. (2 marks)
rest. Show your working. (3 marks) b What do these data suggest about the
d What will happen to the cardiac output of control of heart rate by the parasympathetic
this man when he is stressed? Describe and sympathetic nervous systems in
how hormonal control is involved in response to changes in arterial blood
bringing about this change. (4 marks) pressure? (3 marks)
p. 91, 94 p. 92

110
 3 Regulation of gas content in blood

12 Compare and contrast the initiation and control 14 The activities of the left ventricle and left
of cardiac rhythm and respiratory rhythm in atrium during one cardiac cycle are illustrated
humans. (10 marks) in the following diagrams, A, B and C.
p. 81–83, 87, 92

13 DSE Bio 2013 II Q1a

The X-ray photograph below shows a small
electronic device that has been surgically
implanted into the chest cavity of a patient
suffering from heart disease. This device
maintains the proper rhythm of the patient’s A B C

heart. The graphs below show the changes in

wire leading to
pressure in the left ventricle and left atrium
the heart heart electronic device and the corresponding changes in volume of
the left ventricle during a single cardiac cycle of
a person at rest.
left
ventricle
pressure

left atrium
0

left ventricle
volume

a Which structure of the heart does the

device replace functionally? (1 mark) W X Y Z
b The structure mentioned in a triggers a time period

series of events that lead to the proper

a With reference to time period X,
functioning of the heart. Describe these
events. (4 marks) i which diagram, A, B or C, corresponds
to the activity of the heart during this
c During the cardiac cycle, there is a period
period? (1 mark)
of time in which both atria and ventricles
are in a relaxed state. Briefly describe the ii how is the activity of the heart during
pathway of blood flow returning from the this period related to the changes
lungs to the heart chambers during this in pressure and volume of the left
period. (3 marks) ventricle? (3 marks)

d With reference to a hormone, describe how iii describe the activities of the heart valve
it can bring about an increase in cardiac during this period. (2 marks)
output. (3 marks) b How would you expect the pressure
p. 87–89, 94 changes in the right ventricle to differ from
the left ventricle during the same period of
cardiac cycle? Explain your answer.
(2 marks)
p. 88–90

111
V Human Physiology: Regulation and Control

15 AQA GCE (A) 2012 Section 3.4

16
E1–3 a Give one reason why hormonal control
takes longer than nervous control. Level 1
(2 marks)
16 AQA GCE (A) 2013
Doctors investigated the effects of stress on
two groups of students, L and H. Psychological A woman was investigating her own fitness
tests had identified group L as low responders levels. Figure 1 shows her heart rate before,
to stress and group H as high responders. during and after exercise.

The doctors exposed both groups to stress by

asking them to solve problems in front of a

heart rate (beats per minute)

160
large audience. For each group, they calculated
mean increases in the following factors as a
120
result of this stress.
• Concentration of ACTH in blood.
80
• Concentration of adrenaline in the blood.
• Heart rate.
0
ACTH is a hormone that stimulates the adrenal 0 5 10 15 20 25
gland. The release of ACTH is controlled by time (minutes)
the hypothalamus.
rest exercise recovery
Their results are shown in Figure 1.
Figure 1
Mean increase
a Explain the change in heart rate during
Factor L H
(Low (High the first two minutes of exercising.
responders) responders) (2 marks)

Concentration b The woman noticed that her fitness had

of ACTH in 19.5 52.0 increased and yet her resting heart rate
blood (pg cm−3) had decreased. Her personal trainer said
that prolonged training often results in
Concentration
a decrease in resting heart rate although
of adrenaline
18.6 28.4 cardiac output remains the same.
in blood
Cardiac output is the amount of blood one
(pg cm−3)
ventricle pumps out in one minute.
Heart rate
Suggest how training helps resting heart
(beats per 23.3 30.0
rate to fall while cardiac output remains the
minute)
same. (2 marks)
Figure 1 p. 99–101

b Use the information provided to explain

why heart rate increases in response to
stress. (5 marks)
c In the same situation, the high responders’
concentration of ACTH in the blood
increases more than the low responders.
Suggest why. (2 marks)
p. 94

112
 3 Regulation of gas content in blood

17 Edexcel GCE (O) 2007 18 A scientist carried out an investigation to

study how level of exercise affects breathing.
Two students, A and B, ran round their school
A volunteer was invited to the investigation. At
field for two minutes.
first, the scientist measured the rate and depth
The table below shows their breathing rates of breathing of the volunteer at rest. Then
just before the exercise started, as soon as the volunteer was asked to cycle at a speed of
the exercise stopped and then at two minute 5 km h¯1 for 5 minutes. His rate and depth of
intervals for 10 minutes after the exercise had breathing were measured immediately after
stopped. cycling.
Breathing rate After resting for 15 minutes, the volunteer was
Time (breaths per minute) asked to cycle again but at a speed of 10 km h¯1
Student A Student B for 5 minutes. His rate and depth of breathing
were measured. The procedure was repeated
Just before start
15 13 for cycling speeds of 15 km h¯1, 20 km h¯1 and
of exercise
25 km h¯1. The table below shows the results.
As soon as
40 27
exercise stopped Cycling Rate of Depth of Ventilation
2 minutes after speed breathing breathing rate
34 18 (km h¯1) (breaths (dm3) (dm3 min¯1)
exercise stopped
per
4 minutes after minute)
26 14
exercise stopped
rest 13 0.6
6 minutes after
18 13 5 13 1.3
exercise stopped
10 14 2.0
8 minutes after
16 13
exercise stopped 15 16 2.5
10 minutes after 20 20 2.7
15 13
exercise stopped 25 26 3.0
a i For student A, calculate the maximum a Complete the table to show the ventilation
change in breathing rate caused by the rate of the volunteer when he was at rest
exercise. (1 mark) and cycling at different speeds.
ii For student B, how long did it take (3 marks)
for the breathing rate after exercise b Describe the change in the ventilation rate
to return to the rate just before the of the volunteer with an increase in cycling
exercise started? (1 mark) speed. (1 mark)
iii Suggest which student is more likely to c State the importance of the change in the
be a regular athlete. Give a reason for ventilation rate in b. (4 marks)
your answer. (3 marks)
d Briefly describe how the change in the
b Explain why the breathing rate does not ventilation rate in b is brought about.
return to normal as soon as the exercise (3 marks)
stops. (3 marks) p. 97, 98
p. 98, 99

113
V Human Physiology: Regulation and Control

MC
Level 2 21 CE Bio 2010 II Q43
MC People may feel dizzy if they sit down
19 Which of the following statements about a
immediately after vigorous exercise because
person doing vigorous exercise is incorrect?
A most glucose is used up during exercise
(1) The rate and depth of breathing increase.
and less is available to the brain.
(2) More oxygen is supplied to the skeletal
B the relaxation of skeletal muscles leads to a
muscle cells.
decrease in the blood flow to the brain.
(3) The percentage of oxygen in the air in the
C the accumulation of carbon dioxide in the
air sacs increases.
blood affects the functioning of brain cells.
A (1) only D a lot of oxygen is used for the breakdown
B (3) only of lactic acid and less is supplied to the
C (1) and (2) only brain. p. 99
D (2) and (3) only p. 98
MC 22 A student performed different activities in turn.
20 CE Bio 2007 II Q14 His pulse rate and the stroke volume of his
One day, Adam, Brenda, Calvin and Doris were heart were measured directly after the activities.
watching a football match of the World Cup. Cardiac output was then calculated from the
The following are their dialogues about the measurement. The results are shown in the
heartbeat rate of the football players. table below.

(1) Stroke Cardiac

Pulse rate
Hey! The football players Activity volume output
need more energy than us at (times/min)
(mL/beat) (mL/min)
rest, so their heartbeat rate is
Adam higher.
Sitting 70 82 5740

Walking 90 110 9900

(2)

No, they are well-trained. Running 150 130 19 500

They can breathe deeper such
Brenda that they have a lower
heartbeat rate. a Suggest one way to measure the student’s
pulse rate. (1 mark)

(3) b From the information given, describe the

Wrong! They have a stronger relationship between the level of activity
heart to pump blood. So, their
heartbeat rates should be
and the cardiac output of the student.
Calvin lower than ours. (1 mark)
c State the importance of the change in
cardiac output when the student changed
(4) from sitting to walking and then to
I partially agree with Calvin. running. (4 marks)
They have a lower hearbeat
rate because their arteriole d The student plans to do exercise for an
Doris walls are stronger to pump
more blood. hour every day. What would be the change
in his pulse rate at rest after one year?
(1 mark)
Whose view is correct? p. 99–101
A Adam’s B Brenda’s
C Calvin’s D Doris’s
p. 97–100

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 3 Regulation of gas content in blood

23 DSE Bio 2019 II Q1b 24 DSE Bio 2016 II Q1a

21
To investigate the effects of dehydration on E1–3
The table below shows how the relative
cardiovascular functions, professional cyclists percentages of energy contribution from
were divided into two groups (dehydrated anaerobic and aerobic respiration change with
group and hydrated group) and asked to ride a different durations of vigorous exercise:
cycling machine set at the same resistance for
120 minutes. The dehydrated group did not Relative percentage of
drink any fluid throughout the course of the Duration energy contribution
of vigorous
experiment, while the hydrated group drank Anaerobic Aerobic
exercise
an isotonic fluid to compensate for the water respiration respiration
loss during cycling. The table below shows the
10 seconds 95 5
changes in their cardiovascular functions:
30 seconds 85 15
Duration Heart rate Stroke volume Cardiac output
(beat min–1) (L) (L min–1)
1 minute 70 30
of
exercise Dehydrated Hydrated Dehydrated Hydrated Dehydrated Hydrated 2 minutes 50 50
(min) group group group group group group
8 minutes 30 70
10 138 139 0.138 0.136 19.0 18.9
12 minutes 15 85
60 155 148 0.120 0.129 18.6 19.1
30 minutes 5 95
110 168 150 0.093 0.128 15.7 19.2

a What is the relationship between the

a Over the course of the experiment, the duration of vigorous exercise and the
cycling speed of the hydrated group was energy contribution from the two
constant while that of the dehydrated group respiratory pathways? (1 mark)
dropped slowly. With reference to the data b For vigorous exercise of short duration
on cardiac output, explain the performance (10–30 seconds), energy mainly comes
of the two groups of cyclists in terms of the from the breakdown of the food store in
cycling speed. (5 marks) muscles.
b i With reference to the data on heart i Use a flowchart to show the two major
rate and stroke volume in the steps in converting this food store to
dehydrated group, which parameter led a usable form of energy through the
to the change in their cardiac output? anaerobic pathway. (2 marks)
(1 mark) (Note: Details of the intermediates in
ii With reference to water balance in the the pathway are not required.)
dehydrated group, explain the change ii Even though energy mainly comes from
in the parameter stated in i during the the anaerobic pathway, athletes who
course of the experiment. (2 marks) have just performed vigorous exercise
c Suggest why there was a greater increase for short duration still need to breathe
in heart rate in the dehydrated group as fast for a while. Explain the importance
compared to the hydrated group. (2 marks) of this phenomenon. (2 marks)
p. 99, 100 c During exercise, our sympathetic nervous
system is stimulated. Explain how this
will bring about physiological changes to
sustain the exercise. (4 marks)
p. 97–100

115
V Human Physiology: Regulation and Control
25 AQA GCE (AS) 2012 Level 3
a How is cardiac output calculated? (2 marks)
26
21
A sports scientist measured the rate of blood E1–3
flow to different organs in the body of a
long-distance runner. She took measurements
when the runner was at rest and when he was
running. The graph shows the results.
80
percentage of cardiac output
70
rate of blood flow as a
60
50
40
30
20
10
0 a
brain heart kidney liver skin muscle other
organ
at rest when running
The cardiac output of the runner:
• at rest was 5 dm3 per minute
• 3
when running was 25 dm per minute.
b Use this information to calculate the
volume of blood per minute received by
muscle when running. Show your working.
(2 marks)
c The sports scientist concluded that the
volume of blood reaching the brain of the
athlete per minute did not change much
when running. Use information from
the graph to explain why she drew this
conclusion. (2 marks) Hints
p. 100, 102
116
DSE Bio 2014 II Q1b
Cardiac output refers to the blood volume
supplying to the systemic circulation. The
diagram below shows some factors that affect
cardiac output:
strength of contraction
venous return of heart muscle
stroke volume heart rate
cardiac output
The contraction of which heart chamber
determines the stroke volume? (1 mark)
b Explain how the stroke volume is affected
by the venous return and strength of the
contraction of heart muscle. (2 marks)
c Explain one way in which the venous
return is increased when a person is doing
exercise. Hint (p. 116) (3 marks)
d The average running speed in a marathon
is usually much lower than that in a
100 m race. Explain why it is not possible
for marathon runners to run at the
same average speed as a 100 m runner
throughout a marathon.
Hint (p. 116) (5 marks)
p. 91, 99, 100
Q5 The sensitivity of chemoreceptors to carbon
dioxide and oxygen concentrations differs.
Q26c Venous return is affected by the contraction
of skeletal muscles and the change in
thoracic pressure.
Q26d The intensity of exercise affects the relative
energy contribution from aerobic respiration
and anaerobic respiration.
 3 Regulation of gas content in blood

Reading to learn
Read the article below and answer the questions.

Surviving at high altitudes

At high altitudes, the air is thin and the partial pressure of oxygen is relatively low. Haemoglobin may
not become fully saturated with oxygen and therefore body tissues cannot be adequately supplied with
oxygen. This problem is faced by people living at high altitudes like the Andes*, the Tibetan Plateau*
and the Ethiopian Highlands* (with altitudes ranging from 3000 to 5000 m).

Researchers have found that these people have adaptations in their bodies which allow them to live at
high altitudes successfully. These adaptations include:
• a barrel-shaped chest
• a larger lung tidal volume
• a higher concentration of haemoglobin in blood
• more capillaries per unit volume of muscle
However, not all people living at high altitudes have all of these adaptations. For example, Tibetans
do not have a barrel-shaped chest. The haemoglobin levels in their blood are also similar to those of
people living at sea level. How they can survive on the ‘roof of the world’ is still being researched.

Fig 3.20 A woman living at an altitude of 4319 m in the Andes

Questions
1 Suggest how the following adaptations enable people to live at high altitudes.
a A barrel-shaped chest and a larger lung tidal volume. (4 marks)
b More capillaries per unit volume of muscles. (2 marks)
2 How is blood able to contain a higher concentration of haemoglobin? (1 mark)

The Andes 安地斯山脈 The Ethiopian Highlands 衣索比亞高地 The Tibetan Plateau 青藏高原

117
 Self test Time allowed: 15 minutes Total: 10 marks

Two healthy individuals of similar body weight were asked to run at the same speed for 10 minutes. Their
heart rates were monitored before, during and after running. The graph below shows the results.

160

120

heart rate
(beats per minute)

80 individual A

individual B

40 time (min)
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16

start running finish running

a i Describe the change in heart rates of the two individuals during running and explain the roles of the
cardiovascular centre and adrenal glands in bringing about such change. (5 marks)
ii Explain the significance of the change in heart rate during running as described in i. (3 marks)
b Which individual, A or B, is more likely to be a well-trained athlete? Give one piece of evidence from the
graph to support your answer. (2 marks)

118