LIST OF COMMONLY KNOWN TOOLS, MACHINES

AND PROCESSES FOR REFERENCE

TOOLS, MACHINES & PROCESSES

Hand Tools: A hand tool is any tool that is not a power tool – that is,
one powered by hand (manual labour) rather than by an engine. Some
examples of hand tools are hammers, spanners, pliers, screwdrivers and
chisels. Hand tools are generally less dangerous than power tools. And one
can get good precision using these as well.

Machines: A machine is a powered tool consisting of one or more parts

that is constructed to achieve a particular goal. Machines are usually
powered by mechanical, chemical, thermal or electrical means, and are
frequently motorized. Power Tools are mobile versions of more of the
larger working machines. They run on small motors/rgulators and carry
out basic model making tasks with ease.

Processes: Are a set of interrelated tasks that, together, transform inputs

into outputs. These tasks may be carried out by people, nature, or
machines using resources; so an engineering process must be considered
in the context of the agents carrying out the tasks, and the resource
attributes involved. In relation to Design and Technology these tasks
comprise of the various production processes by which a product may
be created, for example moulding processes. It also deals with the basic
tasks of joining materials to each other that would help in the
development of an idea to a more realised state.
HAND TOOLS
CHISELS:

A chisel is a tool with a characteristically shaped cutting edge of blade on its

end, for carving or cutting a hard material such as wood, stone, or metal.
The handle and blade of some types of chisel are made of metal or wood
with a sharp edge in it.

In use, the chisel is forced into the material to cut it. The driving force may
be manually applied or applied using a mallet or hammer. In industrial use,
a hydraulic ram or falling weight (‘trip hammer’) drives the chisel into the
material to be cut.
Chisels have a wide variety of uses. Many types of chisel have been devised,
each specially suited to its intended use. Different types of chisel may be
constructed quite differently, in terms of blade width or length, as well as
shape and hardness of blade. They may have a wooden or plastic handle
attached or may be made entirely of one piece of metal.
BUTT CHISELS:
Butt chisels are short tools making them the perfect choice for critical,
accurate work. These tools will fit easily in the palm of your hand allowing a
much higher degree of control than standard length bench chisels. The finely
made German steel blades are properly hardened and tempered to assure
the sharp, long lasting edge Two Cherries tools are known for. 6 5/8” overall
length.

Most commonly used four pieces of this type of chisel are: 1/4”, 1/2”, 3/4”,
1” sizes (6mm, 12mm, 20mm, 26mm)
 BEVEL EDGE CHISELS:
CORNER CUTTING CHISELS:
The bevel-edged chisel is the most commonly used chisel in woodworking. A
bevel-edged chisel is beveled on one side, with square corners. This shape
The corner chisel is the traditional tool for squaring the corners of hinge re-
helps the bevel-edged chisel hold a fine edge for longer than most other
cesses, lock mortises and general joinery mortises. Forged from fine Sheffield
chisels, and the square shape allows it to fit into corners easily. These chisels
steel this unique tool has wooden or plastic handles, and is commonly used
can be used for paring, carving, cutting dovetails and many more
in the following dimensions: 1/4” x 1/4”, 1/2” x 1/2” and 3/4” x 3/4” with
woodworking tasks.
an overall length of 10”.
For use in fine cabinetry work; features a chrome-vanadium steel blade and
double-hooped boxwood handle. Boxwood is considered to be the best wood
for tool handles because of strength and shock-absorbing qualities. In
India we use Sheesham as an alternative to this wood. However today plastic
handles are also available.

BEVEL EDGE 1/8” CHISEL

BEVEL EDGE 3/8” CHISEL

BEVEL EDGE 1/2” CHISEL

SKEW PARING CHISELS:

These fine chisels are used for trimming and paring with a slicing action. The
skew pointed edge is perfect for working in hard-to-reach areas where
standard chisels cannot go. Mirror polished blades are attached to double
hooped hornbeam handles. Sold in right and left angled pairs.

Two blade widths available: 12mm and 20mm with an overall length: 9 1/2”.

BEVEL EDGE 3/4” CHISEL

BEVEL EDGE 1” CHISEL

BEVEL EDGE 1-1/2” CHISEL

DOVETAIL EDGE CHISELS:
Cleaning up the corners of dovetails and other intricate joints is a job for a
fine paring tool. These fishtail chisels feature a bevel on one side and a flat
back on the other. The narrow shaft and flared blade make it easier to ac-
cess areas where a straight chisel cannot go. If you enjoy paring and fitting
joints by hand, these special tools will bring much pleasure and accuracy
to your work. The German steel blades can be honed to a fine, razor sharp
edge. Octagon hornbeam handle, overall tool length is 10”.
MORTISE CHISELS:
When the going gets tough, the tough get - their registered motise chisels.
Designed for heavy work of all types, but originally conceived for cutting the
deep mortises required for timber-framed structures, heavy-section window
and door frames and other substantial works. Fitted with double steel hoops
on ash handles for robustness.
1/4” MORTISE CHISEL
1/2” MORTISE CHISEL
CRANCKED IN-CANNEL PARING CHISEL

Though ideal for fitting housed joints such as dadoes and sliding dovetails,
these paring chisels also excel at trimming joint projections, wooden pins,
screw plugs, etc. The 4-1/4" long bevel-edged blades (Rc57-59) are purposely 1-1/2” CRANCKED
short for easy maneuvering and have offset beech handles for work clear- IN-CANNEL PARING CHISEL
ance.

1/4” CRANCKED IN-CANNEL

PARING CHISEL

GOUGES

1/2” CRANCKED IN-CANNEL
PARING CHISEL
A modern gouge is similar to a chisel except its blade edge is not flat, but
instead is curved or angled in cross-section. The modern version is generally
hafted inline, the blade and handle typically having the same long axis. If
the angle of the plane of the blade is on the outer surface of the curve the
gouge is called an 'incannel' gouge, otherwise it is known as an 'outcannel'
gouge. Gouges with angled rather than curved blades are often called
'V-gouges' or 'vee-parting tools'. Variations include 'crank-neck' gouges,
'spoon-bent' gouges, etc. Gouges are used in wood working and arts.

1” CRANCKED IN-CANNEL
PARING CHISEL

SPANNERS:
A spanner (or wrench) is a tool used to provide grip and mechanical
advantage in applying torque to turn objects—usually rotary fasteners, such
as nuts and bolts—or keep them from turning.
BOX END WRENCH or RNG SPANNER
Widely regarded as the king of wrenches, this is a one-piece wrench with an
enclosed opening that grips the faces of the bolt or nut. The recess is
generally a six-point or twelve-point opening for use with nuts or bolt heads
with a hexagonal shape. The twelve-point fits onto the fastening at twice as
many angles, an advantage where swing is limited. Eight-point wrenches are
also made for square-shaped nuts and bolt heads. Ring spanners are often
double-ended and usually with offset handles to improve access to the nut
or bolt.
SPARK PLUG WRENCH or BOX/TUBE SPANNER
A tube with six-sided sockets on both ends. It is turned with a short length
of rod (tommy bar or T bar) inserted through two holes in the middle of the
tube.
COMBINATION WRENCH or COMBINATION SPANNER
A double-ended tool with one end being like an open-end wrench or
open-ended spanner, and the other end being like a box-end wrench or ring
spanner. Both ends generally fit the same size of bolt.
FLARE NUT / TUBE / LINE WRENCH or CROW’S FOOT SPANNER
A wrench that is used for gripping the nuts on the ends of tubes. It is similar
to a box-end wrench but, instead of encircling the nut completely, it has a
narrow opening just wide enough to allow the wrench to fit over the tube,
and thick jaws to increase the contact area with the nut. This allows for
maximum contact on plumbing nuts, which are typically softer metals and
therefore more prone to damage from open-ended wrenches.
OPEN END WRENCH or OPEN ENDED SPANNER
A one-piece wrench with a U-shaped opening that grips two opposite faces
of the bolt or nut. This wrench is often double-ended, with a different-sized
opening at each end. The ends are generally oriented at an angle of around
15 degrees to the longitudinal axis of the handle. This allows a greater range
of movement in enclosed spaces by flipping the wrench over.
PIN / HOOK / C SPANNER
A wrench with one or several pins or hooks, designed to drive spanner head
screws, threaded collars and retainer rings, shafts, and so on. Note the dif-
ference in the American and British senses of the word "spanner". In Ameri-
can English spanners are a subset of wrenches.
RATCHETING BOX WRENCH or RATCHETING RING SPANNER
A type of ring spanner, or box wrench, whose end section ratchets.
Ratcheting can be reversed by flipping over the wrench, or by activating a
reversing lever on the wrench. This type of wrench combines compact design
of a box wrench, with the utility and quickness of use of a ratchet wrench.
A variety of ratcheting mechanisms are used, from simple pawls to more
complex captured rollers, with the latter being more compact, smoother, but
also more expensive to manufacture. The one pictured also features a drift
pin on the tail.
BOX /SLUGGER / HAMMER WRENCH or FLOGGING SPANNER
This is a specialized thick, short, stocky wrench with a block end to the
handle specifically designed for use with a hammer, enabling one to impart
great force. Used commonly with large fasteners, especially a nut and stud
which both have index marks: the nut is screwed hand-tight, then further
tightened with the striking wrench a known number of index marks
calculated from the elasticity of the bolt or stud, thus giving precise torque
(preload). Striking wrenches also provide shock and high force used to
release large and/or stuck nuts and bolts; and when space does not allow
room for a large wrench.
ADJUSTABLE WRENCH or ADJUSTABLE SPANNER
The most common type of adjustable wrench in use today. The adjustable
end wrench differs from the monkey wrench in that the gripping faces of
the jaws are displaced to a (typically) 15 degree angle relative to the tool's
handle, a design feature that facilitates the wrench's use in close quarters.
The modern adjustable end wrench was invented by Johan Petter Johansson
of Bahco. The incorrect use of "Crescent® wrench" to describe this design
is derived from the Crescent® brand, owned by Apex Brands, Inc. Apex Tool
Group, LLC. The generic term is "adjustable wrench or adjustable spanner."
MONKEY WRENCH or GAS GRIP SPANNER
An old type of adjustable wrench with a straight handle and smooth jaws
whose gripping faces are perpendicular to the handle.
PIPE WRENCH IMPACT WRENCH or RATTLE GUN

A tool that is similar in design and appearance to a monkey wrench, but with A compressed air (pneumatic) powered wrench commonly used in car garages
self-tightening properties and hardened, serrated jaws that securely grip soft and workshops to tighten and remove wheel nuts. Includes a mechanism to
iron pipe and pipe fittings. Sometimes known by the original patent holder's provide repeating pulsed force, good for loosening stuck fasteners and also
brand name as a Stillson wrench. for overcoming stiction when tightening, to assure consistent tightness.

SOCKET WRENCH

A hollow cylinder that fits over one end of a nut or bolt head. It may include
a handle, if it does not then it is often just referred to as a socket and is
usually used with various drive tools to make it a wrench or spanner such as
a ratchet handle, a tee bar (sliding tommy bar) bar or a knuckle bar (single
axis pivot). It generally has a six-point, eight-point or twelve-point recess, CONE WRENCH or CONE SPANNER
may be shallow or deep, and may have a built-in universal joint. (The photo
shows both ratchet and sockets.) A thin open-end wrench used to fit narrow wrench flats of adjustable bear-
ing bicycle hubs. Called a "cone" wrench because it fits wrench flats of the
cone section of a "cup and cone" hub, this tool is also used with some other
adjustable hub bearings. The wrench is very thin so has little strength; to
compensate, cone wrenches typically have a large head. Most bicycle front
hubs use a 13 mm.
LUG WRENCH

A socket wrench used to turn lug nuts on automobile wheels. Also available
as a 4 way lug wrench.

PLIERS:

Pliers are a hand tool used to hold objects firmly, for bending, or physical
compression. Generally, pliers consist of a pair of metal first-class levers
joined at a fulcrum positioned closer to one end of the levers, creating short
jaws on one side of the fulcrum, and longer handles on the other side. This
arrangement creates a mechanical advantage, allowing the force of the
hand’s grip to be amplified and focused on an object with precision. The
jaws can also be used to manipulate objects too small or unwieldy to be
manipulated with the fingers.
SLIP JOINT PLIERS NEEDLE NOSE or LONG NOSE PLIERS

DIAGONAL PLIERS OR SIDE CUTTERS

HAND CRIMP PLIERS:

Hand crimp tool for insulated terminals and non-insulated terminals; also has
a wire cutter and stripper and screw cutters

LINEMAN’S PLIERS or COMBINATION PLIERS

PINCERS HAND CRIMP PLIERS

ELECTRICAL WIRE STRIPPING & TERMINAL CRIMPING PLIERS

LOCKING PLIERS

TONGUE & GROOVE PLIERS / MULTIPLE PLIERS

WIRE AND BOLT CUTTERS

VISE / VICE:

A vise or vice is a mechanical screw apparatus used for holding or clamping

a work piece to allow work to be performed on it with tools such as saws,
planes, drills, mills, screwdrivers, sandpaper, etc. Vises usually have one
fixed jaw and another, parallel, jaw which is moved towards or away from
the fixed jaw by the screw.
ENGINEERING BENCH VISE WOOD WORKING VISE

Engineer’s bench vise made of cast iron. Inset Image shows the vise with
soft jaws.

PIPE VISE

MACHINE VISE

A machine vise is used in a drill press / large cutting machines such as the
mitre saw or the radial axis arm saw and many more.
 BAND CLAMP

A band clamp (also known as a web clamp) is a type of clamp which allows
the clamping of items where the surfaces to be clamped are not parallel to
each other; where there are multiple surfaces involved; or where clamping
pressure is required from multiple directions at once.

CLAMPS

A clamp is a fastening device to hold or secure objects tightly together to

prevent movement or separation through the application of inward pressure.
In the United Kingdom and Australia, the term cramp is often used instead
when the tool is for temporary use for positioning components during con-
struction and woodworking; thus a G cramp or a sash cramp but a wheel
clamp or a surgical clamp. BAR / F CLAMP

An F-clamp, also known as a bar clamp or speed clamp and a “G-clamp”, is

a type of clamp. The name comes from its “F” shape. The F-clamp is similar
to a C-clamp in use, but has a wider opening capacity (throat). This tool is
used in woodworking while more permanent attachment is being made with
screws or glue, or in metalworking to hold pieces together for welding or
bolting.
C / G CLAMP GRIPE CLAMP

A C-clamp is a type of clamp device typically used to hold a wood or metal
workpiece, and are often used in, but are not limited to, carpentry and
welding. These clamps are called "C" clamps because of their C shaped
frame, but are otherwise often called G-clamps or G-cramps, because
including the screw part they are shaped like an uppercase letter G.
A gripe is a simple form of clamp used in building a clinker boat, for tempo-
rarily holding the strake which is being fitted onto the one to which it is to
be attached. The strake is relatively thin and wide so that it is necessary for
the tool to have a long reach while only a small movement is required.

C-clamps or G-clamps are typically made of steel or cast iron, though smaller
clamps may be made of pot metal.

MITER CLAMP

Miter clamps are designed to hold miter joints together. The earliest
PIPE CLAMP miter clamps are a simple spring in a C-shape with sharpened points that are
sprung onto the outside corner of the miter joint.
A pipe clamp is a type of clamp often employed in woodworking,piping or
cabinet shops. When referring to woodwork or cabinet shops, pipe clamps
are usually composed of commercially manufactured clamp heads or "jaws"
and a length of common threaded pipe. The capacity of the clamp is deter-
mined by the length of the pipe used. When referring to piping, pipe clamps
are used to connect the pipe to the pipe hanger assembly.
 SQUARE / ROBERTSON DRIVE

A square screw drive uses square fastener heads. They can be turned with
a crescent-type wrench, open-end wrench, or 8- or 12-point sockets. It is
less common today (although still easy to find) because the external hex is
now cost-competitive and allows better access for wrenching despite nearby
obstructions, with fewer degrees of swing on each stroke.

SCREWDRIVERS

A screwdriver is a tool for driving screws or bolts with special slots, and
sometimes for rotating other machine elements with the mating drive
system. The screwdriver is made up of a head or tip, which engages with a
screw, a mechanism to apply torque by rotating the tip, and some way to
position and support the screwdriver.

HEX DRIVE

A hex screw drive uses six-sided fastener heads. The fastener is known as a
hex head cap screw. It can be turned with an adjustable wrench,
combination wrench, and 6- or 12-point sockets. The hex drive is better than
square drive for locations where surrounding obstacles limit wrenching
access, because smaller wrench-swing arcs can still successfully rotate the
fastener.
PHILIPS SCREW DRIVE HEX KEY / ALLEN KEY DRIVE

Created by Henry F. Phillips, the Phillips screw drive was purposely designed A hex key or Allen key or wrench is a tool of
to cam out when the screw stalled, to prevent the fastener damaging the hexagonal cross-section used to drive bolts
work or the head, instead damaging the driver. This was caused by the and screws that have a hexagonal socket in
relative difficulty in building torque limiting into the early drivers. the head

SLOT / FLAT SCREW DRIVE

Hex Key Bolts
The slot screw drive has a single slot in the fastener head and is driven by a
flat-bladed screwdriver. It was the first type of screw drive to be developed,
and for centuries it was the simplest and cheapest to make.

Screw Driver Bits (for power tooling)

CROSS RECESS SCREW DRIVE

A cross-recess screw drive has two slots, oriented perpendicular to each

other, in the fastener head; a slotted screwdriver is still used to drive just
one of the slots.
 COPING SAW

A coping saw is a type of hand saw used to cut intricate external shapes and
interior cutouts in woodworking or carpentry.

SAW

A saw is a tool that uses a hard blade, wire, or chain with a toothed edge to
cut through softer materials. A saw may be worked by hand, or
powered by steam, water, electricity or other power. Some terms to be kept
in mind while working with a saw are:

- Heel: The end closest to the handle.

CROSSCUT SAW
- Toe: The end farthest from the handle.
- Bottom edge: Where the teeth are
A crosscut saw is a saw that is specially designed for making crosscuts. A
- Teeth: Small sharp points along the cutting side of the saw.
crosscut is a cut made horizontally through the trunk of a standing tree, but
- Rake: The angle of the front face of the tooth relative to a line per
the term also applies to cutting free lumber. “Crosscut saw” is a blanket
pendicular to the length of the saw. Teeth designed to cut with the grain
term that includes smaller traditional carpentry saws and larger saws used
(ripping) are generally steeper than teeth designed to cut across the
for forestry and logging work.
grain (crosscutting)
- Teeth Per inch : The amount of teeth residing in any one inch length of
a saw blade. The more the teeth the finer it cuts. Usually such blades
are used to cut metal.
- Kerf: Width of the saw cut.

Common tooth patterns found on crosscut saws

FRET SAW
The fretsaw is a saw used for intricate cutting work which often incorporates
tight curves. Although the coping saw is often used for similar work, the
fretsaw is capable of much tighter radii and more delicate work.
HACKSAW
A hacksaw is a fine-tooth saw with a blade held under tension in a frame,
used for cutting materials such as metal or plastics. Hand-held hacksaws
consist of a metal arch with a handle, usually a pistol grip, with pins for
attaching a narrow disposable blade. A screw or other mechanism is used to
put the thin blade under tension. The blade can be mounted with the teeth
facing toward or away from the handle, resulting in cutting action on either
the push or pull stroke. On the push stroke, the arch will flex slightly,
decreasing the tension on the blade.
KEYHOLE SAW
A keyhole saw (also called a pad saw, alligator saw, jab saw or drywall saw)
is a long, narrow saw used for cutting small, often awkward features in
various building materials.
RIP CUT SAW
In woodworking, a cut made parallel to the direction of the grain of the
workpiece is known as a rip cut. If one were to cut a tree trunk in half from
top to bottom, this would be a rip cut
A rip saw is a saw that is specially designed for making rip cuts.
PLANAR

A hand plane is a tool for shaping wood. When powered by electricity, the
tool may be called a planer. Planes are used to flatten, reduce the
thickness of, and impart a smooth surface to a rough piece of lumber or
timber. Planing is used to produce horizontal, vertical, or inclined flat
surfaces on workpieces usually too large for shaping.

HAMMERS

A hammer is a tool meant to deliver an impact to an object. The most

common uses are for driving nails, fitting parts, forging metal and breaking
up objects. Hammers are often designed for a specific purpose, and vary
widely in their shape and structure. The usual features are a handle and a
head, with most of the weight in the head.
BALL PEEN HAMMER
A ball-peen hammer, also known as a machinist's hammer, is a type of
peening hammer used in metalworking. it’s varants are: a cross-peen
hammer, point-peen hammer or chisel-peen hammer. It has a
hemispherical head. Though the process of peening has become rarer in
metal fabrication, the ball-peen hammer remains useful for many tasks, such
as striking punches and chisels.
GEOLOGIST’S HAMMER
A geologist’s hammer, rock hammer, rock pick or geological pick is a hammer
used for splitting and breaking rocks. In field geology, they are used to obtain
a fresh surface of a rock in order to determine its composition, nature,
mineralogy, history and field estimate of rock strength. In fossil collecting
and mineral collecting, they are employed to break rocks with the aim of
revealing fossils inside. Geologist’s hammers are also sometimes used for
scale in a photograph.
LUMP / CLUB HAMMER
A lump hammer or club hammer is a heavy one-handed hammer with a
double-faced head. It is useful for light demolition work, driving masonry
nails, and for use with a steel chisel when cutting stone or metal.[1] In this
last application, its weight drives the chisel more deeply into the material
being cut than lighter hammers.
MALLET
A mallet is a kind of hammer, usually of rubber, or sometimes wood smaller
than a maul or beetle and usually with a relatively large head.
SPLITTING MAUL CLAW HAMMER

A splitting maul also known as a block buster, block splitter or “Godevil”, is With one side for hammering nails the other side of this hammer is shaped
a heavy, long-handled axe used for splitting a piece of wood along its grain. like a claw. If the nails need to be taken out for any reason this hammer is
One side of its head is like a sledgehammer, and the other side is like an axe. very efficient as the nail can be placed between the claw and pulled out
using the head support of the nail (as shown in image 2).

STONEMASON’S HAMMER

A Stonemason’s hammer has one flat traditional face and a short or long
chisel-shaped blade. It can thus be used to chip off edges or small pieces of
stone without using a separate chisel. The chisel blade can also be used to
rapidly cut bricks or cinder blocks.
 ANCHOR BOLT

An anchor bolt is used to attach objects or structures to concrete.

FASTENERS

A fastener is a hardware device that mechanically joins or affixes two or

more objects together.

Fasteners can also be used to close a container such as a bag, a box, or an

envelope; or they may involve keeping together the sides of an opening of
flexible material, attaching a lid to a container, etc. There are also special-
purpose closing devices, e.g. a bread clip. Fasteners used in these manners BRASS FASTENERS
are often temporary, in that they may be fastened and unfastened repeat-
edly. A brass fastener, or split pin is a stationery item used for securing multiple
sheets of paper together.
Some types of woodworking joints make use of separate internal reinforce-
ments, such as dowels or biscuits, which in a sense can be considered fasten-
ers within the scope of the joint system
ANCHOR BOLT CABLE TIE

The buckle or clasp is a device used for fastening two loose ends, with one A cable tie, also known as a zip tie or tie-wrap, is a type of fastener, espe-
end attached to it and the other held by a catch in a secure but in an cially for binding several electronic cables or wires together and to organize
adjustable manner. cables and wires.

BUTTONS HOSE CLAMP

In modern clothing and fashion design, a button is a small fastener, most A hose clamp or hose clip is a device used to attach and seal a hose onto a
commonly made of plastic, but also frequently of seashell, which secures fitting such as a barb
two pieces of fabric together.
LOBSTER CLASP CLIPS

A lobster clasp, also known as a lobster hook, is a fastener that is held closed - Paper clip, a device for holding several sheets of paper together
by a spring. The lobster clasp is opened or closed by holding a small lever,
usually with a fingernail, long enough to apply, then it is attached (or
removed from) a short link-chain or a ring-like structure. Lobster clasps are
often used for necklaces, bracelets, and keychains.

- Crocodile clip, a temporary electrical paper

CLIPS

- Binder clip, a device used for holding thicker materials (such as large
volumes of paper) together

- Bread clip, a device for closing bags

- Rail clip, a rail fastener BUTTERFLY CLUTCH

A butterfly clutch is a device that attaches to the back of a pin to secure an

accessory to clothing.

- A hairpin clip, also known as a retaining pin, is a type of formed wire

used on a grooved shaft. It is designed to be easily installed and
uninstalled, and is reusable
DRAWING PIN
A drawing pin or thumbtack, is a short nail or pin with a circular, sometimes
domed, head, used to fasten items such as documents to a wall or board for
display.
FLANGE
A flange is an external or internal ridge, or rim (lip), for strength, as the
flange of an iron beam such as an I-beam or a T-beam; or for attachment to
another object, as the flange on the end of a pipe, steam cylinder, etc., or
on the lens mount of a camera; or for a flange of a rail car or tram wheel.
FROG
A frog is an ornamental braiding for fastening the front of a garment that
consists of a button and a loop through which it passes.
GROMMET
A grommet is a ring inserted into a hole through thin material, such as
fabric. Grommets are generally flared or collared on each side to keep them
in place, and are often made of metal, plastic, or rubber. They may be used
to prevent tearing or abrasion of the pierced material, to cover sharp edges
of the piercing, or both. A small grommet may also be called an eyelet, used
on shoes for lacing purposes
HOOK & EYE FASTENER
A hook-and-eye closure is a very simple and secure method of fastening
garments together. It consists of a metal hook, commonly made of flattened
wire bent to the required shape, and an eye (or “eyelet”) of the same
material into which the hook fits.
LATCH PINS

A latch is a type of mechanical fastener that is used to join two (or more) A pin is a device used for fastening objects or material together. It is usually
objects or surfaces together while allowing for the regular or eventual made of steel, or on occasion copper or brass. It is formed by drawing out a
separation of the objects or surfaces. thin wire, sharpening the tip, and adding a head.

There are various types of Pin Fasteners:

- A bobby pin is a type of hairpin

HOOK & EYE FASTENER

A clothespin or peg is a fastener used to hang up clothes for drying, usually

on a clothes line. Clothespins often come in many different designs.

- A clevis fastener is a three-piece fastener system consisting of a clevis,

clevis pin, and tang. The clevis is a U-shaped piece that has holes at the end
of the prongs to accept the clevis pin.
- A safety pin, also known as a baby pin, is a variation of the regular pin
which includes a simple spring mechanism and a clasp.
RIVET
A rivet is a permanent mechanical fastener. Before being installed a rivet
consists of a smooth cylindrical shaft with a head on one end. The end
opposite the head is called the buck-tail. On installation the rivet is placed
in a punched or drilled hole, and the tail is upset, or deformed, so that it
expands to about 1.5 times the original shaft diameter, holding the rivet in
place.
RUBBER BAND
A rubber band is a short length of rubber and latex formed in the shape of a
loop and is commonly used to hold multiple objects together.
RUBBER BAND
A wall plug or screw anchor or a dowel, is a fiber or plastic (originally wood)
dowel used to enable the attachment of a screw in material that is porous or
brittle or that would otherwise not support the weight of the object
attached with the screw.
SNAP FASTENER
A snap fastener (also called snap, popper, and press stud) is a pair of
interlocking discs commonly used in place of buttons to fasten clothing.
STAPLE
A staple is a type of two-pronged fastener, usually metal, used for joining or
binding materials together. Large staples might be used with a hammer or
staple gun for masonry, roofing, corrugated boxes and other heavy-duty uses.
Smaller staples are used with a stapler to attach pieces of paper together
STITCHES
Sewing is the craft of fastening or attaching objects using stitches made with
a needle and thread.
STRAP
A strap, is an elongated flap or ribbon, usually of fabric or leather. Straps
are used as part of clothing or baggage, or bedding such as a sleeping bag.
See for example spaghetti strap, shoulder strap. A strap differs from a belt
mainly in that a strap is usually integral to the item of clothing; either can
be used in combination with buckles.
TIE MEMBER FASTENERS TREASURE TAG FASTENERS

A tie, structural tie, or strap, is a structural component designed to resist A treasury tag or India tag is an item of stationery used to fasten sheets of
tension. paper together or to a folder.

TOGGLE BOLT TWIST TIE FASTENER

A toggle bolt is a fastener for hanging things on hollow walls such as drywall. A twist tie is a metal wire that is encased in a thin strip of paper or plastic
and is used to tie the openings of bags, such as garbage bags or bread bags. A
Toggle bolts have wings that open inside a hollow wall, bracing against it to twist tie is used by wrapping it around the item to be fastened, then twisting
hold the fastener securely. the ends together
ZIP FASTENERS
A zipper, or zip fastener, is a commonly used device for binding the edges of
an opening of fabric or other flexible material, as on a garment or a bag
VELCRO
Velcro is a company that produces the first commercially marketed fabric
hook-and-loop fasteners. Hook-and-loop fasteners consist of two
components: typically, two lineal fabric strips or, alternatively, round “dots”
or squares which are attached to the opposing surfaces to be fastened. The
first component features tiny hooks; the second features even smaller and
“hairier” loops.
SCREWS
A screw, or bolt, is a type of fastener characterized by a helical ridge, known
as an external thread or just thread, wrapped around a cylinder. Some screw
threads are designed to mate with a complementary thread, known as an
internal thread, often in the form of a nut or an object that has the internal
thread formed into it.
There are many types of screws. Some commonly used screws are described
in the following pages;
- Double Ended Screw / Dowel Screw / Hanger Bolt: A hanger bolt has wood
screw threads on one end and machine threads on the other. A hanger bolt is
used when it is necessary to fasten a metal part to a wood surface.
- Drywall Screw: Specialized screw with a bugle head that is designed to at-
tach drywall to wood or metal studs, however it is a versatile construction
fastener with many uses.
- Eye Screw: Screw with a looped head. Larger ones are sometimes called lag - Mirror Screw: This is a flat-head wood screw with a tapped hole in the
eye screws. Designed to be used as attachment point, particularly for head, which receives a screw-in chrome-plated cover. It is usually used to
something that is hung from it. mount a mirror.

- Sheet Metal Screw: Has sharp threads that cut into a material such as sheet
- Lag Bolts / Lag Screws: Lag bolts are usually used with an expanding insert metal, plastic or wood. They are sometimes notched at the tip to aid in chip
called a lag in masonry or concrete walls. removal during thread cutting.
- Wood Screw: A metal screw with a sharp point designed to attach two
pieces of wood together. Wood screws are commonly available with flat,
pan or oval-heads. A wood screw generally has a partially unthreaded shank
below the head.
These screws are also available as the black oxide self tapping screws with a
flat head and philips drive.
A Nut is a type of fastener with a threaded hole. Nuts are almost always used
opposite a mating bolt to fasten a stack of parts together. The two partners
are kept together by a combination of their threads’ friction, a slight stretch
of the bolt, and compression of the parts. In applications where vibration or
rotation may work a nut loose, various locking mechanisms may be
employed. There are various types of Nuts, some of them have been men-
tioned here:
From Left to Right
Wing Nut / Hex Nut / Hew Flange Nut / Slab Weld Nut
From Left to Right
Slotted Nut / Square Nut / T Nut / Cap Nut / Nylon Locking Nut &
Castellated Nut
A Nail is a pin-shaped, sharp object of hard metal or alloy used as a
fastener. Formerly wrought iron, today’s nails are typically made of steel,
often dipped or coated to prevent corrosion in harsh conditions or improve
adhesion. Nails are typically driven into the workpiece by a hammer, a
pneumatic nail gun, or a small explosive charge or primer. A nail holds
materials together by friction in the axial direction and shear strength
laterally. The point of the nail is also sometimes bent over or clinched after
driving to prevent falling out.

Nails are made in a great variety of forms for specialized purposes. Some of
the commonly used nails have been mentioned below.

Different types of nails: 1) Roofing nail, 2) Umbrella head roofing nail, 3)

Brass escutcheon pin, 4) Finish nail, 5) Concrete nail, 6) Spiral-shank nail,
and 7) Ring-shank nail (the barbs are a leftover component of the feed
system of a nail gun)
- Round Head Nails: A general-purpose nail for joining wood. Widely used - Roofing Nails: Commonly used to attach asphalt and for other roofing
where “rough” finishing is acceptable — in studwork, for example. The purposes. Smaller roofing nails are used to attach roofing felt. Because they
round head provides a good point of contact for a hammer but may split are exposed to the weather, they are often galvanized to prevent rust.
wood if driven down too far.

- Finish Nails: Similar to round-head nails, but the head is much smaller, and
sits flush with the wood’s surface to give a neater finish with reduced risk
of splitting. It can be recessed using a nail set to hide it completely.
- Masonry Nails: This hard, thicker nail has a small head and is usually made
of hardened zinc to enable it to penetrate masonry surfaces. It is generally
used to secure wood to stone or brick.

- Oval Head Nails: Similar to the round finish nail, but oval in cross-section
to minimize splitting of the wood. Most of the head sits below the wood’s
surface without the need for setting.
- Drywall Nail: Used for hanging drywall, the nail head is designed so that it - Siding Nail: Siding nails are galvanized. There are four types of
does not cut the paper face and sinks 1 inch into the frame. galvanization and a variety of sizes are available.

- Annular Ring Shank: Similar to round-head nail, but has rings all along the - Cap Nail: This nail has a plastic cap, and is used for nailing down building
shank, providing greater grip in wood that results in a more secure fabric, such as house wrap.
attachment.
- Upholstery Nail: Small, decorative, dome-headed nails used for securing - Corrugated Nails: Has a corrugated cross-section, and is usually used as an
upholstery to furnishings. Available in a variety of finishes to suit the style invisible connector for a mitered frame joint.
of furnishings.

- Carpet Nails: Used to hold down carpet before the introduction of gripper
rods, and still used in awkward corners, especially on stairs. Also known as
carpet tacks.

- Cut Clasp: An all-purpose nail, often used today for traditional-look,

ledge-and-brace door construction.
- Cut Floor Nail Fasteners: Similar to the cut clasp, but the head’s flat design
is suited to nailing down floorboards.

FILES

A file is a metalworking, woodworking and plastic working tool used to cut

fine amounts of material from a workpiece. It most commonly refers to
the hand tool style, which takes the form of a steel bar with a case hard-
ened surface and a series of sharp, parallel teeth. Most files have a narrow,
pointed tang at one end to which a handle can be fitted.

A similar tool is the rasp. This is an older form, with simpler teeth. As they
have larger clearance between teeth, these are usually used on softer, non-
metallic materials.

Related tools have been developed with abrasive surfaces, such as diamond
abrasives or silicon carbide. Because of their similar form and function,
these have also been termed ‘files’.
- Crossing files are half round on two sides with one side having a larger
radius than the other. Tapered in width and thickness. For filing interior
curved surfaces. The double radius makes possible filing at the junction of
two curved surfaces or a straight and curved surface.
- Crochet files are tapered in width and gradually tapered in thickness, with
two flats and radiused edges, cut all around. Used in filing junctions
between flat and curved surface, and slots with rounded edges.
- Knife files are tapered in width and thickness, but the knife edge has the
same thickness the whole length, with the knife edge having an arc to it.
Used for slotting or wedging operations.
- Pippin files are tapered in width and thickness, generally of a teardrop
cross section and having the edge of a knife file. Used for filing the junction
of two curved surfaces and making V-shaped slots.
- Three square files, also called triangular files, have a triangular
cross-section, which usually gradually tapers. Some files taper all the way
to a point (especially small ones). Three square files are used for many
cuts, such as cutting angles less than 90 degrees. They are often employed
for sharpening the teeth of wood saws.It has been pointed out that there's
no such thing as a "three square". Triangular files have 60 degree angles,
whereas "square" is 90 degrees. All this is true, but triangular files are
nevertheless commonly called "three square". Natural language does not
always follow the most apparent logic.
- Square files are gradually tapered and cut on all four sides. Used for a wide - Slitting files are parallel in width with a diamond shaped cross section.
variety of things. Thinner than knife files and use for filing slots.
- Nut files are fine, precise files in sets of graduated thickness, used by
luthiers for dressing the slots at the end of the neck which support the
strings of guitars, violins etc., in the correct position.

- Round files, also called rat-tail files, are gradually tapered and are used for
many tasks that require a round tool, such as enlarging round holes or
cutting a scalloped edge.
- Equalling files are parallel in width and thickness. Used for filing slots and - Pillar files are parallel in width and tapered in thickness for perfectly flat
corners. filing. Double cut top and bottom with both sides safe, these are long,
narrow files for precision work.

- Warding files are parallel in thickness, tapered in width, and thin. Like
a hand or flat file that comes to a point on the end. Used for flat work and
slotting.
- Dreadnought (curved teeth) and millenicut (straight teeth) files both
have heavily undercut, sharp but coarse teeth. Both can be used for rapidly
removing large quantities of material from thick aluminum alloy, copper or
brass. Today, the millenicut and dreadnought have found a new use in
removing plastic filler materials such as two-part epoxies or styrenes such
as those commonly used in automobile body repairs.
- Riffler files are small to medium sized files in an assortment of cross
- Farrier Rasp files are tanged horse rasps used mainly by horseshoers and
blacksmiths. They are flat with rasp cut on one side (upstanding teeth
arranged in rows with curved cutting edges of generally pyramidal shape
and have a cutting face with a positive rake or slope) and a double cut file
on the reverse side.
- Needle File: Needle files are small files that are used in applications where
the surface finish takes priority over metal removal rates but they are most
suited for smaller work pieces. They are often sold in sets, including
different shapes.
sectional shapes and profiles. The varying profiles and shapes enable them
to be used in hard to reach, or unusually shaped areas. They are often used
as an intermediate step in die making where the surface finish of a cavity
die may need to be improved
 - Barrel hinge: Is a sectional barrel secured by a pivot. A barrel is a
component of a hinge, that has a hollow cylinder shaped section where the
rotational bearing force is applied to the pivot, and may also have a screw
shaped section for fastening and/or driving the pivot.

HINGES

A hinge is a type of bearing that connects two solid objects, typically

allowing only a limited angle of rotation between them. Two objects
connected by an ideal hinge rotate relative to each other about a fixed axis - Pivot hinges: Pivot in openings in the floor and the top of the door frame.
of rotation. Hinges may be made of flexible material or of moving Also referred to as a double-acting floor hinge. This type is found in ancient
components. In biology, many joints function as hinges. dry stone buildings
- Butt/Mortise hinges: Usually in threes or fours, which are inset (mortised) - Continuous hinges, or piano hinges: This type of hinge is also known as a
into the door and frame. Most residential hinges found in the U.S. are made piano hinge. It runs the entire length of the door, panel, or box. Continuous
of steel, although mortise hinges for exterior doors are often made of brass hinges are manufactured with or without holes. These hinges also come in
or stainless steel to prevent corrosion. various thicknesses, pin diameters, and knuckle lengths.

- Butterfly hinges: These were known as dovetail hinges and can be found
on old desks and cabinets. The form of these hinges varied slightly between
manufacturers, and their size ranged from the very large for heavy doors to
the tiniest decorative hinge for use on jewellery boxes. Many hinges of this
- Case hinges: Case hinges are similar to a butt hinge however usually more type were exported to America to support the home trade’s limited supply.
of a decorative nature most commonly used in suitcases, briefcases and the They are still found to be both fairly cheap and decorative, especially on
like. small items.
- Concealed hinges: Used for furniture doors (with or without self-closing - Strap hinges: Strap hinges are an early hinge and used on many kinds of
feature, and with or without damping systems). interior and exterior doors and cabinets.

- H hinges: Shaped like an H and used on flush-mounted doors. Small H hinges

(3–4 in/76–100 mm) tend to be used for cabinets hinges, while larger hinges
(6–7 in/150–180 mm) are for passage doors or closet doors.

- Flag hinges: A flag hinge can be taken apart with a fixed pin on one leaf.
Flag hinges can also swivel a full 360 degrees around the pin. Flag hinges
are manufactured as a right hand and a left hand configuration.
SAND PAPERS / EMERY PAPERS
Sandpaper, also known as glasspaper, is a heavy paper with abrasive material
attached to its surface.
Sandpaper is part of the “coated abrasives” family of abrasive products. It
is used to remove small amounts of material from surfaces, either to make
them smoother (painting and wood finishing), to remove a layer of material
(e.g. old paint), or sometimes to make the surface rougher.
Below are a few grits of sandpapers shown for reference.
Sheets of sandpaper with different grits (40, 80, 150, 240, 600). The higher
the grit the smotther the finish. The lower the grit the more material can be
removed from the surface.
Along with the sand papers, there is a carbide stone (combination stone)
that is used by many wood workers and craftsmen as well as professionals to
sharpen files and other metals. This is known as the silicon carbide grinder
stone.
VARNISHES
Varnish is a transparent, hard, protective finish or film primarily used in
wood finishing but also for other materials. Varnish is traditionally a
combination of a drying oil, a resin, and a thinner or solvent. Varnish finishes
are usually glossy but may be designed to produce satin or semi-gloss sheens
by the addition of “flatting” agents.
There are different types of varnishes available. Some of them have been
mentioned here:
- Violin varnishing is a multi-step process involving some or all of the
following: primer, sealer, ground, color coats, and clear topcoat. Some
systems use a drying oil varnish as described below, while others use spirit
(or solvent) varnish. Touchup in repair or restoration is only done with spirit
varnish.
- Most resin or “gum” varnishes consist of a natural, plant- or insect-derived
substance dissolved in a solvent, called spirit varnish or solvent varnish. The
solvent may be alcohol, turpentine, or petroleum-based. Some resins are
soluble in both alcohol and turpentine. Generally, petroleum solvents, i.e.
mineral spirits or paint thinner, can substitute for turpentine. The resins
include amber, dammar, copal, rosin, sandarac, elemi, benzoin, mastic,
balsam, shellac, and a multitude of lacquers.
- Shellac is a very widely used single component resin varnish that is alco-
hol soluble. It is not used for outdoor surfaces or where it will come into
repeated contact with water such as around a sink or bathtub. The source
of shellac resin is a brittle or flaky secretion of the female lac insect, Kerria
lacca, found in the forests of Assam and Thailand
- Alkyds varnishes are chemically modified vegetable oils which operate well
in a wide range of conditions and can be engineered to speed up the cure
rate and thus harden faster. Better (and more expensive) exterior varnishes
employ alkyds made from high performance oils and contain UV-absorbers;
this improves gloss-retention and extends the lifetime of the finish.
- Spar varnish (also called marine varnish) was originally intended for use on
ship or boat spars, to protect the timber from the effects of sea and
weather. Spars bend under the load of their sails. The primary requirements
were water resistance and also elasticity, so as to remain adhering as the
spars flexed. Modified tung oil and phenolic resins are often used.
- Polyurethane varnishes are typically hard, abrasion-resistant, and durable
coatings. They are popular for hardwood floors but are considered by some
wood finishers to be difficult or unsuitable for finishing furniture or other
detailed pieces. Polyurethanes are comparable in hardness to certain alkyds
but generally form a tougher film. Compared to simple oil or shellac
varnishes, polyurethane varnish forms a harder, decidedly tougher and more
waterproof film.
- Lacquer is not the same as shellac and is not dissolved in alcohol. Lacquer
is dissolved in lacquer thinner, which is a highly-flammable solvent typically
containing butyl acetate and xylene or toluene. Lacquer is typically sprayed
on, within a spray booth that evacuates overspray and minimizes the risk of
combustion.
Lacquer may be considered different from varnish because it can be
re-dissolved later by a solvent
BUFFERS AND GRINDERS
Polishing and buffing are finishing processes for smoothing a workpiece’s
surface using an abrasive and a work wheel. Technically polishing refers to
processes that use an abrasive that is glued to the work wheel, while buffing
uses a loose abrasive applied to the work wheel. Polishing is a more
aggressive process while buffing is less harsh, which leads to a smoother,
brighter finish.
Buffing is a way to give a finish to a product and can be applied to various
materials such as: Metals, Acrylics and other Plastics, Glass as well as wood.
For each material to be buffed a separate buffing wheel is used.

- Acrylic varnishes are typically water-borne varnishes with the lowest

refractive index of all finishes and high transparency. They resist yellowing.
Acrylics have the advantage of water clean-up and lack of solvent fumes, but
typically do not penetrate into wood as well as oils. They sometimes lack the
brushability and self-levelling qualities of solvent-based varnishes. Generally
they have good UV-resistance.

In many cases, a grinder with two rotary disks is used with one buffing wheel
and one grinder wheel. The grinder wheel helps sharpening of files as well as
smoothening of various forms of metals. The roughness of the grinder stone
may differ depending upon the amount of material to be removed /
smoothened.
MEASURING TOOLS

We use measuring tools in our homes, garages or workshops, the outdoors

and in science labs. We use measuring tools personally on a daily basis. By
wearing a watch, to keep a track of time, or by keeping a calendar to keep Voltmeters:
a track of the days / months / years. In ones workspace we may use tools
like the inch tape / weighing machine / geometric set / right angles / incline
meters / timers / thermometers etc. for measurement purposes. These tools
help us to understand different units of measurements which are necessary
from time to time.

Some of these commonly used tools are:

- Tools to measure in the workshop, garage or outdoors include:

Compasses:

Tape measures:

Inclinometer:

Yardstick measures:

Calipers:

Tire Pressure Gauges:

 DRAWING TOOLS

Drawing tools are the tools used for technical drawing, including pens and
rulers. Drawing tools may be used for measurement and layout of drawings,
or to improve the consistency and speed of creation of standard drawing
Pedometer: elements. Many of the tools used for manual technical drawing are
obsolescent, where computer-aided drawing has become common.

Some of these tools are:

- Traditional and typical pens used for technical drawing are pencils and
technical pens.
Pencils in use are usually mechanical pencils with a standard lead
thickness. General line widths are 0.18 mm, 0.25 mm, 0.5 mm and 0.7 mm.
Hardness varies usually from HB to 2H. Softer lead gives a better contrast,
but harder lead gives more accurate track.

Blood Pressure Monitor:

- The drawing board is an essential tool. Paper will be attached and kept
straight and still, so that the drawing can be done with accuracy.

Scales:

Litmus paper (to measure PH Values)

- A T-square is a straightedge which uses the edge of the drawing board as - Rulers used in technical drawing are usually made of polystyrene. Rulers
a support. It is used with the drafting board to draw horizontal lines and to come in two types according to the design of their edge.
align other drawing instruments. Wood, metal, or plastic triangles with 30
and 60 degree angles or with two 45 degree angles are used to speed
drawing of lines at these commonly used angles.

- A drafting machine is a device which is mounted to the drawing board. It

has rulers whose angles can be precisely adjusted with a controlling - Templates contain pre-dimensioned holes in the right scale to accurately
mechanism. draw a symbol or sign.
ADHESIVES - Latex is the stable dispersion (emulsion) of polymer microparticles in an
aqueous medium. In its natural state the Latex glue is a great adhesive for
An adhesive is a material, typically liquid or semi-liquid, that adheres or thermocol and related materials.
bonds items together. Adhesives come from either natural or synthetic In open it dries within a minute,
sources. The types of materials that can be bonded are vast but adhesives and can be cut with a hot wire
are especially useful for bonding thin materials. Adhesives cure (harden) by much easir than fevicol.
either evaporating a solvent or by chemical reactions that occur between
two or more constituents.

Adhesives are advantageous for joining thin or dissimilar materials,

minimizing weight, and providing a vibration-damping joint. A disadvantage
of most adhesives is that most do not form an instantaneous joint, unlike
many other joining processes, because the adhesive needs time to cure.

Drying Adhesive: There are two types of adhesives that harden by drying:
solvent based adhesives and polymer dispersion adhesives, also known as - Wheatpaste (also known as potato paste, flour paste, rice paste, Marxist
emulsion adhesives. Solvent based adhesives are a mixture of ingredients glue, or simply paste) is a liquid adhesive made from vegetable starch and
(typically polymers) dissolved in a solvent. As the solvent evaporates, the water. In many cases flour is also used along with water to make this glue.
adhesive hardens. It works very well when you need to stick lots of pamphlets and posters to
the walls. This glue does not
Pressure sensitive adhesives (PSA): Form a bond by the application of light hamper the paints and is water
pressure to marry the adhesive with the adherend. They are designed with soluble, thus making it easily
a balance between flow and resistance to flow. The bond forms because the removable also.
adhesive is soft enough to flow (i.e. “wet”) to the adherend. The bond has
strength because the adhesive is hard enough to resist flow when stress is
applied to the bond. Once the adhesive and the adherend are in close
proximity, molecular interactions, such as van der Waals forces, become
involved in the bond, contributing significantly to its ultimate strength.

Contact adhesives: Are used in strong bonds with high shear-resistance like
laminates, such as bonding Formica to a wooden counter, and in footwear, as
in attaching outsoles to uppers.
Hot adhesives: Also known as hot melt adhesives, are thermoplastics applied
in molten form (in the 65-180 °C range) which solidify on cooling to form
strong bonds between a wide range of materials.
Natural adhesives are made from organic sources such as vegetable matter,
starch (dextrin), natural resins or from animals e.g. casein or animal glue.
- Butanone is an effective and common solvent and is used in processes
involving gums, resins, cellulose acetate and nitrocellulose coatings and in
vinyl films. For this reason it finds use in the
manufacture of plastics, textiles, in the production
of paraffin wax, and in household products such as
lacquer, varnishes, paint remover, a denaturing
agent for denatured alcohol, glues, and as a
cleaning agent.

Synthetic adhesives are based on elastomers, thermoplastics, emulsions,

and thermosets. Examples of thermosetting adhesives are: epoxy,
polyurethane, cyanoacrylate and acrylic polymers.
- Cyanoacrylate is the generic name for a family of fast-acting adhesives with
industrial, medical and household uses. They are commonly known as
“Super Glue” and “Krazy Glue”)
CUTTERS
A cutter is any tool that is used to remove material from the workpiece by
means of shear deformation. Cutting may be accomplished by single-point or
multipoint tools. Single-point tools are used in turning, shaping, plaining and
similar operations, and remove material by means of one cutting edge.
Milling and drilling tools are often multipoint tools.

Linear cutting tools include tool bits (single-point cutting tools) & broaches.
Rotary cutting tools include drill bits, countersinks and counterbores, taps
and dies, milling cutters, reamers, and cold saw blades. Other cutting tools,
such as bandsaw blades, hacksaw blades, and fly cutters, combine aspects of
- Epoxy resins, also known as polyepoxides are a class of reactive linear and rotary motion.
prepolymers and polymers. Epoxy has a wide range of applications,
including metal coatings, List of some commonly used cutters is provided below:
use in electronics /
electrical components, - Automatic Wire Stripper and Cutter: Steel body with ABS moving handle.
high tension electrical Wire stripper and cable cutter hardened and tempered SK5 steel. Strips and
insulators, cuts single stranded cable from 0.2 - 6mm diameter.
fiber-reinforced plastic
materials & structural
adhesives. Araldite is an
epoxy resin.

- Petroleum based glues such as fevi bond is a chemical based adhesive. It is

used to stick mostly synthetics, leathers and fabrics. However if it is used
to stick other petroleum - Tile Cutter with Tungsten Carbide: Tungsten Carbide cutting wheel with
bi-products such as integrated tile snapper. Plate construction with vinyl covered handles.
thermocol or styrofoam,
it tends to “eat” the
material.
- Adjustable tubing cutter with diecast body, hardened steel blade and two - Segmented blade, also known as “snap off blade” utility knife. This tool is
flare groove rollers. mostly used for paper cutting and not for heavy duty industrial purposes.
The adjusting knob
also incorporates a
retractable reamer
and spare cutting
wheel. These pipe
cutters come in
various sizes.

- Side Cutter: Induction heat treated and hardened steel components. Fully
chromed and polished jaw head for corrosion resistance. Fitted with
oversized comfort grip handles for extra comfort.

- Fixed blade light duty utility knife for handicrafts, model making and in
many cases also used for medical purposes (scalpel).

- Scissors: For cutting fabric (sheers) / leather and for cutting paper.
- A paper cutter (also referred to as paper trimmer or paper guillotine) is - An acrylic cutter has a swivel blade that provides for scoring to help re-
a tool often found in offices and classrooms, designed to cut a large set of move material. This blade is used for scoring and cutting of laminate and
paper at once with a perfectly straight edge. plastic sheet material. By scoring the surface, it enables the user to snap
break the material along an edge.

- A Khukuri is a curved steel knife with a razor-sharp edge used in combat

by the Gurkhas; has cultural and religious significance in Nepal. It is used in
many parts of the world as a cutting and shaping tool to smoothen bamboo
and various other types of wood.

- A glass cutter is a hand tool used to make a shallow score in one side of the
surface of flat glass that is to be broken in two pieces. The scoring
encourages the glass to break along the score, and not in an undesired
direction. Usually available with a diamond cutter at its tip/wheel, this tool
removes material by scoring, and finally the glass can be cut along a straight
edge. If desired this edge could have an organic shape as well.
 - Curved blade folding knives are somewhat faster cutting than their
straight counterparts because during the action the blade first creates a
peak in the cut, then knocks it off.

KNIVES & SAWS

A knife (plural knives) is a cutting tool with an exposed cutting edge or

blade, hand-held or otherwise, with or without a handle. Knife-like tools
were used at least two-and-a-half million years ago, as evidenced by the
Oldowan tools. Originally made of rock, flint, and obsidian, knives have
evolved in construction as technology has, with blades being made from
bronze, copper, iron, steel, ceramics, and titanium. Many cultures have their
unique version of the knife. Due to its role as humankind’s first tool, certain
cultures have attached spiritual and religious significance to the knife.

Most modern-day knives follow either a fixed-blade or a folding construction

style, with blade patterns and styles as varied as their makers and countries
of origin. - Straight blade knives are noticeably easier to control when cutting in and
amongst tight growth (without nicking adjacent twigs) and allow user the
A saw is a tool that uses a hard blade, wire, or chain with a toothed edge to ability to cut a straight hinge when felling weighty branches. They are
cut through softer materials. A saw may be worked by hand, or powered by easier to control and less likely to nick nearby branches than curved blades.
steam, water, electricity or other power. An abrasive saw uses a powered Straight blades also enable the user to manipulate hinge wood for
circular blade for cutting metal. precision log felling techniques. Although incredibly smooth and efficient
cutters, straight blades aren’t quite as fast cutting as their curved siblings.
In a modern serrated saw, each tooth is bent to a precise angle called its set.
The set of the teeth is determined by the kind of cut the saw is intended
to make. For example, a rip saw has a tooth set that is similar to the angle
used on a chisel. The idea is to have the teeth rip or tear the material apart.
Some teeth are usually splayed slightly to each side of the blade so that the
cut width (kerf) is wider than the blade itself and the blade does not bind
in the cut. The kerf of the blade is adjusted with a tool called a saw tooth
setter.

An abrasive saw uses an abrasive disc or band for cutting, rather than a
serrated blade.

Some of the commonly used saws for cutting and trimming along with making
grooves have been mentioned in the following pages.
- Blades of many knives and saws have also been redefined. These inlcude
both straight edge designs as well as curved edge blades to reduce tension
on the blade on to cut faster and in lesser time.

- Pruning shears, also called hand pruners, or secateurs are a type of

scissors for use with plants. They are strong enough to prune hard branches
of trees and shrubs, sometimes up to two centimetres thick. They are used in
gardening, arboriculture, farming, flower arranging, and nature conservation
where fine-scale habitat management is required.
 - A miter saw, also known as a chop saw or drop saw, is a power tool used
to make a quick, accurate crosscut in a workpiece. Common uses include
framing operations and the cutting of molding. Most miter saws are
relatively small and portable, with common blade sizes ranging from eight
to twelve inches.

- A table saw or sawbench is a woodworking tool consisting of a circular

saw blade, mounted on an arbor, that is driven by an electric motor (either
directly, by belt, or by gears). The blade protrudes through the surface of a
table, which provides support for the material, usually wood, being cut.

In a modern table saw, the depth of the cut is varied by moving the blade up
and down: the higher the blade protrudes above the table, the deeper the
cut that is made in the material. The angle of the cut can also be controlled.

MACHINES & POWER TOOLS

- A radial axis arm saw is a cutting machine consisting of a circular saw
mounted on a sliding horizontal arm. Invented by Raymond De Walt in 1922,
the radial arm saw was the primary tool used for cutting long pieces of
stock to length until the introduction of the power miter saw. In addition to
making length cuts, a radial arm saw may be configured with a dado blade
to create cuts for dado, rabbet or half lap joints. In addition some radial
arm saws allow the blade to be turned parallel to the back fence, allowing
a rip cut to be performed.
- A concrete saw (often known as a consaw or road saw) is a power tool used
for cutting concrete, masonry, brick, asphalt, tile, and other solid
materials. It can be a small hand-held cut-off saw, a big walk-behind saw or
other styles, and it may be powered by fuel, hydraulic or pneumatic
pressure, or electric motors.

- An abrasive saw, also known as a cut-off saw or metal chop saw, is a power
tool which is typically used to cut hard materials, such as metals. The
cutting action is performed by an abrasive disc, similar to a thin grinding
- A rotary saw, spiral cut saw, or cut out tool is a type of mechanically wheel. The saw generally has a built-in vise or other clamping arrangement,
powered saw used for making accurate cuts without the need for a pilot and has the cutting wheel and motor mounted on a pivoting arm attached
hole in wallboard, plywood, or another thin, solid material. to a fixed base plate

Another name commonly used to refer to this type of tool is RotoZip, from
the Rotozip Tool Corporation a company set up by Bob Kopras, an American
dry wall installer who pioneered this type of saw. Rotozip was later
acquired by Bosch Tool Corporation.
- A jigsaw standalone (the Scroll saw) and power tool are tools used for
cutting arbitrary curves, such as stencilled designs or other custom shapes,
into a piece of wood, metal, or other material. It can be used in a more
artistic fashion than other saws, which typically cut in straight lines only. In
this way, it is similar to the rasp and the chisel.
- A dragsaw is an early reciprocating saw using a six foot steel crosscut saw
to buck logs to length. Prior to the popularization of the chainsaw during
the Second World War, the dragsaw was a manner of taking the hard work
out of cutting wood.

- A reciprocating saw is a type of saw in which the cutting action is achieved

through a push and pull reciprocating motion of the blade.

The term reciprocating saw is commonly assigned to a type of saw used in

construction and demolition work. This type of saw, also known as a recipro
saw, sabre saw, or Sawzall (a trademark of the Milwaukee Electric Tool
Company) has a large blade resembling that of a jigsaw and a handle
oriented to allow the saw to be used comfortably on vertical surfaces.

- A sternal saw is a bone cutter used to perform median sternotomy, opening

the patient’s chest by splitting the breastbone, or sternum. It is a
reciprocating blade saw that resembles a jigsaw in appearance.
- A bandsaw is a power tool which uses a blade consisting of a continuous
band of metal with teeth along one edge to cut various workpieces. The
band usually rides on two wheels rotating in the same plane, although some
bandsaws may have three or four wheels. Bandsawing produces uniform
cutting action as a result of an evenly distributed tooth load.
- A chainsaw (or chain saw) is a portable mechanical saw, powered by
electricity, compressed air, hydraulic power, or most commonly a
two-stroke engine. It is used in activities such as tree felling, limbing,
bucking, pruning, by tree surgeons to fell trees and remove branches and
foliage, to fell snags and assist in cutting firebreaks in wildland fire
suppression, and to harvest firewood.
Other MACHINE TOOLS
Machine tools are used for shaping or machining metal or other rigid
materials, usually by cutting, boring, grinding, shearing or other forms of
deformation. Machine tools employ some sort of tool that does the cutting
or shaping. All machine tools have some means of constraining the workpiece
and provide a guided movement of the parts of the machine.
Today machine tools are typically powered other than by human muscle
(e.g., electrically, hydraulically, or via line shaft), used to make
manufactured parts (components) in various ways that include cutting or
certain other kinds of deformation.
Some of these Machines are:
- A tool and cutter grinder is used to sharpen milling cutters and tool bits
along with a host of other cutting tools.
It is an extremely versatile machine used to perform a variety of grinding
operations: surface, cylindrical, or complex shapes as well as sharpening of
a variety of files and smoothening of metals.
- A chainsaw (or chain saw) is a portable mechanical saw, powered by
electricity, compressed air, hydraulic power, or most commonly a
two-stroke engine. It is used in activities such as tree felling, limbing,
bucking, pruning, by tree surgeons to fell trees and remove branches and
foliage, to fell snags and assist in cutting firebreaks in wildland fire
suppression, and to harvest firewood.
- Random orbit sanders, also called Dual-Action or D.A. sanders (referring - A thickness planer is a woodworking machine which is used to create
to the rotation of the disk and the head) are hand-held power sanders boards that are of an even thickness throughout their length and flat on
where the action is a random orbit. Produced by both DeWalt and Bosch. both surfaces. These are available as noth manual and electricity operated
machines. It is also available as a power tool.

- A belt sander is a helpful tool used to sand down wood and other materials - A high speed blower, is used mainly to remove excess material in the form
for finishing purposes. It consists of an electrical motor that turns a pair of of small particles, for example dust particles or small wooden pieces from
drums on which a seamless loop of sandpaper is mounted. Belt sanders can corners where normally it is hard to reach. Post work it is used as a
be either hand-held, where the sander is moved over the material, or convenient way to remove particles that get stuck to the clothing as well.
stationary (fixed), where the material is moved to the sanding belt.
Stationary belt sanders are sometimes mounted on a work bench, in which
case they are called bench sanders. Stationary belt sanders are often
combined with a disc sander.
- A heat blower is an electromechanical device designed to
hot air over different surfaces of materials. In some cases also used to heat
materials to almost melting points. Heat blowers work better on smaller
products rather than larger as the area they heat is much smaller and more
focussed. It is a hand held device. A thermo setting machine and a vacuum
forming machine are larger variations of this device but with some added
functions.
- Vacuum forming is a simplified version of thermoforming, whereby a sheet
of plastic is heated to a forming temperature, stretched onto or into a
single-surface mold, and held against the mold by applying a vacuum
between the mold surface and the sheet.
DRILLS
A drill is a tool fitted with a cutting tool attachment or driving tool
attachment, usually a drill bit or driver bit, used for drilling holes in various
materials or fastening various materials together with the use of
fasteners. The attachment is gripped by a chuck at one end of the drill and
rotated while pressed against the target material. The tip, and sometimes
edges, of the cutting tool does the work of cutting into the target material.
This may be slicing off thin shavings (twist drills or auger bits), grinding off
small particles (oil drilling), crushing and removing pieces of the workpiece
(SDS masonry drill), countersinking, counterboring, or other operations.
Drills are commonly used in woodworking, metalworking, construction and
do-it-yourself projects.
There are many types of drills: some are powered manually, others use
electricity (electric drill) or compressed air (pneumatic drill) as the
motive power, and a minority are driven by an internal combustion engine
(for example, earth drilling augers). Drills with a percussive action (hammer
drills) are mostly used in hard materials such as masonry (brick, concrete
and stone) or rock. Drilling rigs are used to bore holes in the earth to obtain
water or oil. Oil wells, water wells, or holes for geothermal heating are
created with large drilling rigs. Some types of hand-held drills are also used
to drive screws and other fasteners. Some small appliances that have no
motor of their own may be drill-powered, such as small pumps, grinders, etc.
DRILLS - The rotary hammer drill (also known as a rotary hammer, roto hammer
drill or masonry drill) combines a primary dedicated hammer mechanism
- A hand drill (eggbeater drill) with a separate rotation mechanism, and is used for more substantial
material such as masonry or concrete.

- Pistol-grip (corded) drills have a pistol grip and are the most common
type of drill machines in use today. They are available in a huge variety of
subtypes. A less common type is the right-angle drill, a special tool used by
tradesmen such as plumbers and electricians.

- A cordless drill is an electric drill which uses rechargeable batteries. These

drills are available with similar features to an AC mains-powered drill.
They are available in the hammer drill configuration and most have a
clutch, which aids in driving screws into various substrates while not
damaging them.

- The hammer drill is similar to a standard electric drill, with the exception
that it is provided with a hammer action for drilling masonry. The hammer
action may be engaged or disengaged as required. Many companies have
now started to build drill machines with an option to convert the basic drill
into a hammer drill.
- A drill press (also known as pedestal drill, pillar drill, or bench drill) is a
fixed style of drill that may be mounted on a stand or bolted to the floor or
workbench. Portable models with a magnetic base grip the steel workpieces
they drill. A drill press consists of a base, column (or pillar), table, spindle
(or quill), and drill head, usually driven by an induction motor.
A drill press has a number of advantages over a hand-held drill:
- Less effort is required to apply the drill to the workpiece. The movement of
the chuck and spindle is by a lever working on a rack and pinion, which
gives the operator considerable mechanical advantage.
- The table allows a vise or clamp to be used to position and restrain the
work, making the operation much more secure.
- The angle of the spindle is fixed relative to the table, allowing holes to be
drilled accurately and consistently.
- Drill presses are almost always equipped with more powerful motors
compared to hand-held drills. This enables larger drill bits to be used and
also speeds up drilling with smaller bits.
WORKSHOP SAFETY & SAFETY TOOLS
Personal protective equipment (PPE) refers to protective clothing, helmets,
goggles, or other garment or equipment designed to protect the wearer’s
body from injury. The hazards addressed by protective equipment include
physical, electrical, heat, chemicals, biohazards, and airbourne particulate
matter. Protective equipment may be worn for job-related occupational
safety and health purposes, as well as for sports and other recreational
activities. “Protective clothing” is applied to traditional categories of
clothing, and “protective gear” applies to items such as pads, guards,
shields, or masks, and others.
The purpose of personal protective equipment is to reduce the user’s
exposure to hazards when engineering and administrative controls are not
feasible or effective to reduce these risks to acceptable levels.
Workshop related safety tools and practices involve:
- Respirators serve to protect the user from breathing in contaminants in the
air, thus preserving the health of one’s respiratory tract. There are two
main types of respirators. One type of respirator functions by filtering out
chemicals and gases or airborne particles from the air breathed by the user.
In a workshop setup, these contaminants may be the dust particles or the
fumes from the various paints/smoke. People with allergies must wear
either such masks or tie a wet handkerchief around the face to prevent anf
filter out as much of such ‘contamination’ as possible.
- Helmets attempt to protect the user’s head by absorbing mechanical
energy and protecting against penetration. Their structure and protective
capacity are altered in high-energy impacts. Beside their energy-absorption
capability, their volume and weight are also important issues, since higher
volume and weight increase the injury risk for the user’s head and neck. In
workshops a helmet is required also during welding processes as well as
cutting of metals, to prevent the sparks from hitting the face.
- Goggles or safety glasses are forms of protective eyewear that usually
enclose or protect the area surrounding the eye in order to prevent
particulates, water or chemicals from striking the eyes.
Gloves protect and comfort hands against cold or heat, damage by friction,
abrasion or chemicals, and disease; or in turn to provide a guard for what a
bare hand should not touch. Latex, nitrile rubber or vinyl disposable gloves
are often worn by health care professionals as hygiene and contamination
protection measures.
- An apron is an outer protective garment that covers primarily the front of
the body. It may be worn for hygienic reasons as well as in order to protect
clothes from wear and tear.
PRIMERS (PAINTS)

A primer or undercoat is a preparatory coating put on materials before

painting. Priming ensures better adhesion of paint to the surface, increases
paint durability, and provides additional protection for the material being
painted.

Primer is a paint product that allows finishing paint to adhere much better
than if it were used alone. For this purpose, primer is designed to adhere to
surfaces and to form a binding layer that is better prepared to receive the
paint. Because primers do not need to be engineered to have durable,
finished surfaces, they can instead be engineered to have improved filling
and binding properties with the material underneath.
 PROCESSES

Production engineering encompasses the application of castings, joining

processes, metal cutting & tool design, metrology, machine tools, machining
systems, automation, jigs and fixtures, and die and mould design. Production
engineering also overlaps substantially with manufacturing engineering and
industrial engineering.

In industry, once the design is realized, production engineering concepts

regarding work-study, ergonomics, operation research, manufacturing
management, materials management, production planning, etc., play
important roles in efficient production processes. These deal with integrated
design and efficient planning of the entire manufacturing system, which is
becoming increasingly complex with the emergence of sophisticated
production methods and control systems.

For the development of various object, at a prototype level or even as

mockups, many processes are involved.

PROCESSES
Thermoforming is a manufacturing process where a plastic sheet is heated
to a pliable forming temperature, formed to a specific shape in a mold, and
trimmed to create a usable product. The sheet, or “film” when referring to
thinner gauges and certain material types, is heated in an oven to a high-
enough temperature that it can be stretched into or onto a mold and cooled
to a finished shape.
In its simplest form, a small tabletop or lab size machine can be used to heat
small cut sections of plastic sheet and stretch it over a mold using vacuum.
This method is often used for sample and prototype parts. In complex and
high-volume applications, very large production machines are utilized to
heat and form the plastic sheet and trim the formed parts from the sheet in
a continuous high-speed process, and can produce many thousands of fin-
ished parts per hour depending on the machine and mold size and the size of
the parts being formed.
Thermoforming differs from injection molding, blow molding, rotational
molding, and other forms of processing plastics. Thin-gauge thermoforming is
primarily the manufacture of disposable cups, containers, lids, trays, blis-
ters, clamshells, and other products for the food, medical, and general retail
industries. Thick-gauge thermoforming includes parts as diverse as vehicle
door and dash panels, refrigerator liners, utility vehicle beds, and plastic
pallets. A simplified version of thermoforming is known as Vacuum Forming.
Vacuum forming is a simplified version of thermoforming, whereby a sheet
of plastic is heated to a forming temperature, stretched onto or into a
single-surface mold, and held against the mold by applying a vacuum
between the mold surface and the sheet. The vacuum forming process can
be used to make most product packaging and speaker casings. It is also used
to fabricate car dashboards.
Vacuum forming is usually restricted to forming plastic parts that are rather
shallow in depth. Thin sheets are formed into rigid cavities for unit doses of
pharmaceuticals and for loose objects that are carded or presented as point
of purchase items. Thick sheet is formed into permanent objects such as
turnpike signs and protective covers. Normally, draft angles must be
present in the design on the mold (a recommended minimum of 3°).
Otherwise, release of the formed plastic and the mold is difficult.
Here there is a perforated base, connected to a powerful vacuum machine.
After a mould is built as per the requirement, it is placed above the
perforated sheet. A plastic sheet is placed above the built mould which will
be formed. There is height adjustable heater on the top of the machine,
which is slided on to the sheet above the mould. Once the sheet is heated,
it is it starts to sag, and then is stretched over the mould. The vacuum is
started, and all the air a sucked out through the perforations, leaving a
shape similar to the mould made by the hot plastic sheet. This is the process
of Vacuum Forming.
Injection moulding is a manufacturing process for producing parts from both
thermoplastic and thermosetting plastic or other materials including
metals, glasses, elastomers and confections. Material is fed into a heated
barrel, mixed, and forced into a mold cavity where it cools and hardens to
the configuration of the cavity. After a product is designed, usually by an
industrial designer or an engineer, molds are made by a moldmaker from
metal, usually either steel or aluminum, and precision machined to form the
features of the desired part. Injection molding is widely used for
manufacturing a variety of parts, from the smallest component to entire
body panels of cars.
Some advantages of Injection Moulding are:
Blow moulding or blow forming is a manufacturing process by which
hollow plastic parts are formed. In general, there are three main types of
blow molding: extrusion blow molding, injection blow molding, and stretch
blow molding. The blow molding process begins with melting down the
plastic and forming it into a parison or preform. The parison is a tube-like
piece of plastic with a hole in one end in which compressed air can pass
through.
The parison is then clamped into a mold and air is pumped into it. The air
pressure then pushes the plastic out to match the mold. Once the plastic has
cooled and hardened the mold opens up and the part is ejected.

- Produces a solid or open-ended shape that has conformed to the contour of

the mold.
- Used to process both thermoplastic and thermosetting polymers.
- Simultaneous economic, engineering, and manufacturing feasibility
- Facilitates recycling post consumer waste, reject parts, and the melt
delivery system
The process of Rotational Moulding required a stainless steel or in some
cases an aluminium mould. A heated hollow mold is filled with a charge or
shot weight of material, it is then slowly rotated (usually around two
perpendicular axes) causing the softened material to disperse and stick to
the walls of the mould. In order to maintain even thickness throughout the
part, the mould continues to rotate at all times during the heating phase and
to avoid sagging or deformation also during the cooling phase.
Extrusion is a process used to create objects of a fixed, cross-sectional
profile. A material is pushed or drawn through a die of the desired
cross-section. The two main advantages of this process over other
manufacturing processes are its ability to create very complex cross-sections
and work materials that are brittle, because the material only encounters
compressive and shear stresses. It also forms finished parts with an excellent
surface finish.
Abrasive blasting or commonly known as “Sandblasting” is the operation
of forcibly propelling a stream of abrasive material against a surface under
high pressure to smooth a rough surface, roughen a smooth surface, shape a
surface, or remove surface contaminants. A pressurized fluid, typically air, or
a centrifugal wheel is used to propel the media.
This today can also be acheived using Laser etching over materials. However
sometimes the difference in production costs and the production time are
two factors that may be decisive for the user in chosing the processes.
Die casting is a metal casting process that is characterized by forcing molten
metal under high pressure into a mould cavity. The mold cavity is created
using two hardened tool steel dies which have been machined into shape and
work similarly to an injection mold during the process. Most die castings are
made from non-ferrous metals, specifically zinc, copper, aluminium,
magnesium, lead, pewter and tin based alloys.
The casting equipment and the metal dies represent large capital costs and
this tends to limit the process to high volume production. Manufacture of
parts using die casting is relatively simple, involving only four main steps,
which keeps the incremental cost per item low. It is especially suited for a
large quantity of small to medium sized castings, which is why die
casting produces more castings than any other casting process. Die castings
are characterized by a very good surface finish and dimensional consistency.
Sand casting is relatively cheap and sufficiently refractory even for steel
foundry use. In addition to the sand, a suitable bonding agent (usually clay)
is mixed or occurs with the sand. The mixture is moistened, typically with
water, but sometimes with other substances, to develop strength and
plasticity of the clay and to make the aggregate suitable for molding. The
sand is typically contained in a system of frames or mold boxes known a
flask. The mold cavities and gate system are created by compacting the sand
around models, or patterns, or carved directly into the sand. This process
uses metal as the molten material.
There are six steps in this process:
1. Place a pattern in sand to create a mold.
2. Incorporate the pattern and sand in a gating system.
3. Remove the pattern.
4. Fill the mold cavity with molten metal.
5. Allow the metal to cool.
6. Break away the sand mold and remove the casting.
Screen printing is a printing technique that uses a woven mesh to support
an ink-blocking stencil. The attached stencil forms open areas of mesh that
transfer ink or other printable materials which can be pressed through the
mesh as a sharp-edged image onto a substrate. A fill blade or squeegee is
moved across the screen stencil, forcing or pumping ink into the mesh
openings for transfer by capillary action during the squeegee stroke. A
number of screens can be used to produce a multicoloured image. In India
a maximum of upto 4-6 Colours can be printed. For more digital or rubber
printing on fabric is preferred.
A screen is made of a piece of mesh stretched over a frame. A stencil is
formed by blocking off parts of the screen in the negative image of the de-
sign to be printed; that is, the open spaces are where the ink will appear on
the substrate.
Woodblock printing is a technique for printing text, images or patterns used
widely throughout East Asia and originating in China in antiquity as a method
of printing on textiles and later paper.
The wood block is carefully prepared as a relief matrix, which means the
areas to show ‘white’ are cut away with a knife, chisel, or sandpaper leav-
ing the characters or image to show in ‘black’ at the original surface level.
The block was cut along the grain of the wood. It is only necessary to ink
the block and bring it into firm and even contact with the paper or cloth to
achieve an acceptable print. The content would of course print “in reverse”
or mirror-image, a further complication when text was involved. The art of
carving the woodcut is technically known as xylography, though the term is
rarely used in English.
A rotary printing press is a printing press in which the images to be printed
are curved around a cylinder. Printing can be done on large number of
substrates, including paper, cardboard, and plastic. Substrates can be sheet
feed or unwound on a continuous roll through the press to be printed and
further modified if required (e.g. die cut, overprint varnished, embossed).
Printing presses that use continuous rolls are sometimes referred to as “web
presses”.
There can be a single roller or many rollers at intervals through which the
material can pass and thus get printed.
Embossing / Debossing is a process for producing raised or sunken designs or
relief in materials such as paper plastic wood or metal. This process can be
made by means of matched male and female roller dies, or by passing the
material between rolls of the desired pattern. Although all materials can be
embossed or debossed, the most commonly used materials are the following
metals:
Gravure, also known as Intaglio, is the family of printing and printmaking
techniques in which the image is incised into a surface, and the incised line
or sunken area holds the ink. It is the direct opposite of a relief print.
Normally, copper or zinc plates are used as a surface or matrix, and the
incisions are created by etching or engraving.

- Aluminium (all alloys) Process: The Copper or Zinc plate is covered in an acid-resistant wax
- Aluminium (T1/T2) material. Using an etching needle, or an engraving tool, the image is
- Brass engraved into the plate. The plate is then dipped into acid. The acid bites
- Copper into the surface of the plate where it was exposed. The plate is removed
- Steel (All Alloys) from the acid bath, and the wax is removed to prepare for the next step in
- Zinc printing.
Ink is applied to the surface by wiping and/or dabbing the plate to
push the ink into the bitten grooves. The plate is and then rubbed with
a cloth to remove most of the excess ink. The final smooth wipe is often
done with newspaper or old public phone book pages, leaving ink only in the
incisions. A sheet of material is placed over the engraving, usually the
material is paper. A roller over the spread for a uniform printing. The image
is transfered on to the paper and a new sheet is placed. This process
continues till all the paint in the recess is used up.

Process of Embossing The metal is carved

The ink is filled into the recess

The paper is placed over the spread &

a roller is used to print

The paper is removed with the print

transfered on it

Process of Debossing
Letterpress is relief printing. It involves locking movable type into the bed
of a press, inking it, and rolling or pressing paper against it to form an
impression. This way of printing was used predominantly till the 19th
century.
Lithography is a method for printing using a stone (lithographic limestone)
or a metal plate with a completely smooth surface. Lithography originally
used an image drawn (etched) into a coating of wax or an oily substance
applied to a plate of lithographic stone as the medium to transfer ink to a
blank paper sheet, and so produce a printed page.
Lithography works because of the mutual repulsion of oil and water. The
image is drawn on the surface of the print plate with a fat or oil-based
medium (hydrophobic) such as a wax crayon, which may be pigmented to
make the drawing visible. After the drawing of the image, a solution is
applied that penetrates into the pores of the stone/metal, completely
surrounding the original image with a hydrophilic layer that will not accept
the printing ink. When the paint is applied, the ‘background’ does not accept
the paints due to the coat, but the printing image does, thus completing the
print that is transfered onto the paper.
Movable type printing is the system of printing and typography using
movable pieces of metal type, made by casting from matrices struck by
letterpunches. Movable type allowed for much more flexible processes than
hand copying or block printing. Letter press printing is also a similare
printing process, however in it the letters are not movable.
Dry transfers (also called rub-ons or rubdowns) are decals that can be
applied without the use of water or other solvent. The decal itself is on a
backing material such as paper or plastic sheeting much like a transparency.
The dry transfer is placed in the desired location with the backing side up.
The decal is then applied by burnishing the backing with a stylus or
similar object such as a ballpoint pen. The contact side of the decal includes
a pressure-sensitive adhesive; the combination of heat and pressure causes
the decal to stick better to the new surface than to the backing. When
the backing is removed, the decal remains. This allows for ink only where
needed even if the pattern is delicate, because the backing supports the
decal while it is being applied.
Offset printing is a commonly used printing technique in which the inked
image is transferred (or “offset”) from a plate to a rubber blanket, then to
the printing surface.
A few of its common applications include: newspapers, magazines,
brochures, stationery, and books. Compared to other printing methods,
offset printing is best suited for economically producing large volumes of
high quality prints in a manner that requires little maintenance.
Advantages of offset printing compared to other printing methods include:
- Consistent high image quality. Offset printing produces sharp and clean
images and type more easily than, for example, letterpress printing; this is
because the rubber blanket conforms to the texture of the printing surface.
- Quick and easy production of printing plates.
- Longer printing plate life than on direct litho presses because there is no
direct contact between the plate and the printing surface.
- Cost. Offset printing is the cheapest method for producing high quality
prints in commercial printing quantities.
- A further advantage of offset printing is the possibility of adjusting the
amount of ink on the fountain roller with screw keys.
Side view of the offset
printing process.
Multiple ink rollers are
used to distribute and
homogenize the ink.
Pad printing is a printing process that can transfer a 2-D image onto a 3-D
object. This is accomplished using an indirect offset (gravure) printing
process that involves an image being transferred from the cliché via a
silicone pad onto a substrate. Pad printing is used for printing on other-
wise impossible products in many industries including medical, automotive,
promotional, apparel, and electronic objects, as well as appliances, sports
equipment and toys.
Steps:
- Paint is applied to all the exposed etched artwork area, thus filling it with
ink. The top layer of ink becomes tacky as soon as it is exposed to the air
- The transfer pad presses down onto the printing plate momentarily. As the
pad is compressed, it pushes air outward and causes the ink to lift
(transfer) from the etched artwork area onto the pad.
- As the transfer pad lifts away, the tacky ink film inside the etched artwork
area is picked up on the pad. A small amount of ink remains in the printing
plate.
- As the transfer pad moves forward, the ink cup also moves to cover the
etched artwork area on the printing plate. The ink cup again fills the
etched artwork image on the plate with ink in preparation for the next
cycle.
- The transfer pad compresses down onto the substrate, transferring the ink
layer picked up from the printing plate to the substrate surface. Then, it
lifts off the substrate and returns to the home position, thus completing
one print cycle.
JOINERIES - Lap joint is a technique for joining two pieces of material by overlapping
them. A lap may be a full lap or half lap. In a full lap, no material is
Joinery is a part of woodworking that involves joining together pieces of removed from either of the members to be joined, resulting in a joint
wood, to produce more complex items. Some wood joints employ fasteners, which is the combined thickness
bindings, or adhesives, while others use only wood elements. of the two members. In a half
The characteristics of wooden joints - strength, flexibility, toughness & lap joint, material is removed
appearance derive from the properties of the joining materials and from how from each of the members so
they are used in the joints. Therefore, different joinery techniques are used that the resulting joint is the
to meet differing requirements. thickness of the thickest
member. Most commonly in half
Some of the most commonly seen joineries are: lap joints, the members are of
the same thickness and half the
- A butt joint is a joinery technique in which two members are joined by thickness of each is removed.
simply butting them together. The butt joint is the simplest joint to make
since it merely involves Half lap, mitred half lap, cross
cutting the members to the lap and dovetail lap joint are
appropriate length and shown in the image.
butting them together. It is
also the weakest because - A finger joint or comb joint, is a woodworking joint made by cutting a set
unless some form of of complementary rectangular cuts in two pieces of wood, which are then
reinforcement is used it relies glued. To visualize a finger joint
upon glue alone to hold it simply interlock the fingers of
together. Because the your hands at a ninety degree
orientation of the members angle; hence the name “finger
usually present only end joint.” It is stronger than a butt
grain to long grain gluing or lap joint, and often
surface, the resulting joint contributes to the aesthetics
is inherently weak. of the piece.

- A miter joint, sometimes shortened to miter, is a joint made by beveling

each of two parts to be joined,
usually at a 45° angle, to form
a corner, usually a 90° angle.
A disadvantage of a miter joint
is its weakness, but it can be
strengthened with a spline.
- A dovetail joint or simply dovetail is a joint technique most commonly used - A dado joint, also known as a housing or trench joinery, is a slot or trench
in woodworking joinery. Noted for cut into the surface of a piece of machinable material, usually wood.
its resistance to being pulled apart,
the dovetail joint is commonly used
to join the sides of a drawer to the
front. A series of pins cut to extend A ‘through dado’ involves cuts which
from the end of one board interlock run between both edges of the
with a series of tails cut into the end surface, leaving both ends open.
of another board. The pins and tails
have a trapezoidal shape. Once
glued, a wooden dovetail joint
requires no mechanical fasteners.

A through dovetail joinery

A secret miter dovetail joinery

A ‘stopped’ or ‘blind dado’ ends
before one or both of the cuts meets
the edge of the surface.

A sliding dovetail joinery

- Unlike the dado joint, the Groove joint runs along the grains of the wood.

A half blind dovetail joint

- A strong joint, the tongue and groove joint is widely used for re-entrant
angles. The effect of wood shrinkage is concealed when the joint is beaded
or otherwise moulded.[1] In expensive cabinet work, glued dovetail and
multiple tongue and groove are used.
Tongue and groove or T&G is a method of fitting similar objects together,
edge to edge, used mainly with wood: flooring, parquetry, panelling, and
similar constructions. Tongue and groove joints allow two flat pieces to
be joined strongly together to make a single flat surface. Before plywood
became common, tongue and groove boards were also used for sheathing
buildings and to construct concrete formwork.
- In light frame construction, a birdsmouth joint or bird’s beak cut is a
- The mortise and tenon joint in its basic form is both simple and strong.
Although there are many joint variations, the basic mortise and tenon
comprises two components: the mortise hole and the tenon. The tenon,
formed on the end of a member generally referred to as a rail, is inserted
into a square or rectangular hole cut into the corresponding member. The
tenon is cut to fit the mortise hole exactly and usually has shoulders that
seat when the joint fully enters the mortise hole. The joint may be glued,
pinned, or wedged to lock it in place.
woodworking joint that is generally used to connect a roof rafter to the
top plate of a supporting wall. It is an indentation cut into the rafter which
consists of a “seat cut” (the face of which rests on the top plate) and a
“heel cut” or “plumb cut” (the face of which lies parallel to the supporting
wall), forming a shape resembling a bird’s mouth.
- Pocket-hole joinery, or pocket-screw joinery, involves drilling a hole at
an angle -usually 15 degrees- into one workpiece, and then joining it to a
second workpiece with a self-tapping screw. The technique, in addition to
doweling, has its roots in ancient Egypt. Egyptians clamped two workpieces
together and bored a hole at an angle from the outside workpiece into the
second workpiece. They then inserted a dowel with glue, and cut it off
flush with the outermost surface.
- The dowel reinforced butt joint or simply dowel joint has been a very
common method of reinforcing butt joints in furniture for years. They are
common in both frame and carcase construction. Dowel joints are popular
in chairs, cabinets, panels and tabletops. They are also used to assist with
alignment during glue up.
- A biscuit joinery or sometimes plate joinery is a woodworking tool used
to join two pieces of wood together. A biscuit joiner uses a small circu-
lar saw blade to cut a crescent-shaped hole in the opposite edges of two
pieces of wood or wood composite panels. An oval-shaped, highly-dried and
compressed wooden biscuit is covered with glue, or glue is applied in the
slot. The biscuit is immediately placed in the slot, and the two boards are
clamped together. The wet glue expands the biscuit, further improving the
bond.