JAIPUR NATIONAL UNIVERSITY

Seedling school of law and governance

THE DELHI SULTANATE

Submitted to: Submitted by:

Dr. S. Krishnan Gauri Dwivedi
Associate professor BA LLB
SSLG, JNU 2ND SEM.
.

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 DECLARATION

This is to certify that the project work entitled “THE DELHI SULTANATE” submitted
by Gauri Dwivedi in the partial fulfillment of the award of U.G. B.A. LL.B of the
Jaipur national university, seedling school of law and governance is a record of her
work under my supervision and guidance. The matter embodied in the dissertation has
not been submitted elsewhere.

Date of submission: Supervisor:

14th April, 2021 Dr. S. Krishnan
Associate professor
SSLG

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I wish to express my sincere gratitude, regards and thanks to my respected project

guide Dr. S. Krishnan for his excellent guidance and unstained support. It is my
achievement to be guided by him. He is a constant soured of encouragement and
momentum that any intricacy becomes simple. I gained a lot of valuable and prompt
suggestions from him during my assignment work.

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 PREFACE

Until the rise of the west, India was possibly the richest country in the world. Such a country
presented an irresistible target for the ravening Mongols and their descendants who settled in
present day Afghanistan, Uzbekistan and Tajikistan, all within comparatively easy reach to
north-western India. The northwest was, at the time, a mish-mash of warring kingdoms, more
interested in settling scores with their neighbours than in unifying against the Mongols. It is
then unsurprising that Mahmud Ghaznavi’s armies so handily defeated those of the Indian
kings. He began a series of seventeen raids into northwestern India at the end of 10th century.
Nonetheless, he did not attempt to rule Indian territory except for Punjab, which was his
gateway to India.
The real founder of Muslim Empire in India was Shihab-ud-Din Muhammad ghori. He was a
small ruler in Afghanistan but was interested in conquering northern India and adding it to his
kingdom. He successfully conquered multan, Sindh and Punjab. The biggest resistance in his
path was the then ruler of Delhi, Prithviraj Chauhan. Prithviraj Chauhan defeated Ghori in the
First Battle of Tarain (1191). But in 1192 ghori defeated Chauhan in the Second Battle of
Tarain. He died in 1206 AD, leaving Qutub-ud-Din Aibak the charge, who established the
slave dynasty, the first of the delhi sultanate.
The Delhi Sultanate consists of five dynasties;
1. The Slave Dynasty
2. The Khilji Dynasty
3. The Tughlaq Dynasty
4. The Lodhi Dynasty
5. The Mughal Dynasty

Each of these dynasties have their own importance in the Indian history.

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Muhammad bin Qasim was the first muslim invader of India in 712 AD. He conquered
parts of Sindh.

Mahmud Ghaznavi was the eldest son of Subuktagin, the king of Ghazni (in present day
Afghanistan). He began a series of seventeen raids into northwestern India at the end of 10th
century. And due to the mish-mash of warring kingdoms more interested in settling scores
with the neighbours than in unifying against the invaders, the armies of mahmud
unsurprisingly defeated those kings. He never attempted to rule India except for Punjab,
which was his gateway to India. His expeditures was to mainly loot the riches of the temples
and palaces and was not interested in expanding his empire.

The real founder of muslim Empire in India was Shihab-ud-Din Muhammad Ghori he was
ruler of a small kingdom in Afghanistan. But he was interested in conquering northern India
and adding it to its kingdom, and not merely in getting gold and jewellery like Mahmud. He
first invaded Multan in 1175 AD and he captured Sindh by 1182 and Punjab by 1186 AD.
Prithviraj Chauhan the then king of delhi defeated him in the First Battle of Tarain (1191)
and Ghori defeated him in the Second Battle of Tarain (1192). He also defeated Jaichandra
(Gahadval Rajput, ruler of Kannauj) at the Battle of Chhandwar in 1194 AD. He also
destroyed Nalanda and Vikramshila University. He died in 1206 AD leaving Qutub-ud-Din
Aibak the charge who founded the first dynasty of the delhi sultanate THE SLAVE
DYNASTY.

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 THE DELHI SULTANATE
THE SLAVE DYNASTY

1. QUTUB-UD-DIN AIBAK :-
Qutubuddin Aibak, a ruler of medieval India, was the first ruler of the Delhi Sultanate and
also the founder of the Slave dynasty. He was a Turkish of the Aybak tribe and was the sultan
for only four years, 1206-1210.
He was captured in his childhood and sold as a slave to the chief Qazi of Nishapur, a town
situated in the north-eastern Iran.
He was finally purchased by the ruler of Ghor in central Afghanistan, Sultan Muhammad
Ghori. Qutubuddin Aibak, gradually rose to the rank of General and became one of the most
trusted nobles of Sultan Ghori.
The conquests of northern India were executed mainly by Qutb-ud-din Aibak, which helped
Ghori to consolidate his position there. Gradually, as Sultan Ghori concentrated on Central
Asia after 1192, he was given the independent charge of the conquests in India.
Though Qutb-ud-din Aibak started the construction of the Quwwat-ul-Islam mosque and the
Qutub Minar, which were among the earliest Muslim monuments in Delhi, he couldn’t
complete them. This mosque was built by destroying the Hindu temple, which was built by
Prithvi Raj, and certain parts of the temple were kept intact outside the mosque. These
architectures were later completed by his successor Iltutmish.
In 1210, Qutb-ud-din Aibak died in an accident while he was playing polo. He fell from the
horseback and was severely injured. He was buried in Lahore near the Anarkali bazaar.

2. ARAM SHAH :-
When aibak died all of a sudden at Lahore, Aram Shah was put on the throne. He was a weak
and worthless young man and was rejected by the people of Delhi. Iltutmish who was the
governor of Badaun at that time, defeated him and acquired the throne.

2. ILTUTMISH :-
Iltutmish, also called Shams al-Dīn Iltutmish, Iltutmish also spelled Altamsh, (died April
29, 1236), third and greatest Delhi sultan of the so-called Slave dynasty. Iltutmish was sold
into slavery but married the daughter of his master, Quṭb ud-Dīn Aibak, whom he succeeded
in 1211. He strengthened and expanded the Muslim empire in northern India and moved the
capital to Delhi, where he built the great victory tower, the Quṭb Mīnār.Iltutmish ascended

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the throne of Delhi at a time of crises. The difficulties which his master Aibak had faced were
not yet over.

Therefore, he did not find the throne a bed of roses. He had to face a number of difficulties at
home and from outside. After Aram Shah there were dangerous rivals like Taj-ud-din Yeldoz
of Ghazni and Nassiruddin Qubacha of Uch’s upper Sind & Multan. The Rajput states like
Ranthambhor, Jalor, Ajmer, Gwalior and others had stopped paying tributes and also had
declared their independence. Thus the Sultanate of Delhi was in a precarious position when
Iltutmish ascended the throne. It looked like almost non-existent. But Iltutmish was a man of
high courage and determination. He accepted the challenge and faced the problems bravely.
he was very smart and it shows in how he stopped the mongol invasion of chengiz khan, the
suppression of the Bengal revolt, and also suppressed the rajputs.

Iltutmish was the first Sultan of Delhi, who received the Investiture of Khalifa. In 1229 A.D.
the Khalifa of Baghdad, A1 Mustansir Billah, bestowed on Iltutmish the titles of “Sultan-i-
Azam” or the Sultan the great and “Nasir-amir-al-Mommin” or the Deputy of the leader of
faithful. This investiture not only guaranteed his right to the throne but also increased his
power and prestige in the Muslim world. As a mark of commemoration of this event,
Iltutmish introduced a coin inscribing his name thereon as the representative of Khalifa. This
was a great achievement of his life.

Iltutmish fell ill in 1235 A.D. due to continuous military operations. During his last
expedition against Bayana, he was attacked by severe illness and was brought to Delhi
immediately for treatment. But he could not recover from such illness and struggling with life
for about a year he breathed his last 1236.

3. RAZIYA SULTAN :-

Razia Sultana was the fifth Mamluk Sultan and the only female ever to rule as the Sultan of
Delhi. She was the daughter of the third ruler of the Delhi Sultanate, Shams-ud-din Iltutmish,
and granddaughter of the first Sultan of Delhi, Qutb ud din Aibak.

She received training in administration and became heir apparent of Iltutmish after her full-
brother Nasiruddin Mahmud died. However, her half-brother Rukn ud din Firuz was made
the Sultan following Iltutmish’s death, but he was later assassinated after being viewed as
unfit to rule.

This led Razia to emerge as the new ruler. She gave up purdah and proved to be an efficient
ruler both in administering her government and in leading forces at war. In her almost four
years of rule she established proper law and order, made governmental reforms,
infrastructural improvements and encouraged trade. Her half-brother Muiz ud-Din Bahram

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proclaimed himself king while she was in Bathinda. She tried to regain her power with help
of her husband Malik Ikhtiar-ud-din Altunia, a chief of Bathinda, but both of them were
killed. A biopic was made on her titled ‘Razia Sultan’ that released on September 16, 1983
and had Indian actress Hema Malini in the titular role. A historical drama television series on
her life titled ‘Razia Sultan’ with actress Pankhuri Awasthy playing the main role started
broadcasting in ‘& TV’ from March 6, 2015.

BALBAN :-

Ghiyas ud din Balban was the ninth sultan of the Mamluk dynasty of Delhi. His original
name was Baha Ud Din. He was an Ilbari Turk. When he was young he was captured by
the Mongols, taken to Ghazni and sold to Khawaja Jamal ud-din of Basra, a Sufi. The latter
then brought him to Delhi in 1232 along with other slaves, and all of them were purchased
by Iltutmish.
Balban belonged to the famous group of 40 Turkic slaves of Iltutmish. In spite of having only
a few military achievements, Balban reformed civil and military lines that earned him a stable
and prosperous government granting him the position, along with Shams ud-din Iltutmish and
the later Alauddin Khalji, of the one of the most powerful sultans of Delhi Sultanate.
Balban's reign, according to Ziauddin Barani, was to install 'Fear of the governing power,
which is the basis of all good government.' Furthermore, he "maintained that the Sultan was
the 'shadow of God' and introduced rigorous court discipline." He depended upon Turkish
nobility but formed an army of 2 lakh made up of all castes. A portion of this army was made
up of commandos. Balban had several military achievements during his vizierhood, first
raising the Mongol siege of Uch under Masud Shah in 1246. During his reign, Balban ruled
with an iron fist. He broke up the 'Chahalgani', a group of the forty most important nobles in
the court. Balban wanted to make sure everyone was loyal to the crown by establishing an
efficient espionage system, in the style of the Umayyad Barid. Sultan Balban had a strong
and well-organized intelligence system. Balban employed spies, barids, to inform on his
officials. He placed secret reporters and news-writers in every department. The spies were
independent authority who were only answerable to Sultan.
Ghiya Su Di Din Balban ruled as the Sultan from 1265 until his death in 1287. Today, Tomb
of Balban wherein a true arch and a true dome were built of the first time in India, lies within
the Mehrauli Archaeological Park in Delhi, adjacent to which stands that of his son Khan
Shahid and wall mosque. The domes of both the tombs have collapsed and the structures are
ruined structures were restored in the recent years when the conservation work began in the
park.

THE KHALJI DYNASTY

1. JALALUDDIN FIRUZ KHALJI :-

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Jalal-ud-din Khalji was the founder and first Sultan of the Khalji dynasty that ruled
the Delhi Sultanate from 1290 to 1320. Originally named Firuz, Jalal-ud-din started his
career as an officer of the Mamluk dynasty, and rose to an important position under
Sultan Muizzuddin Qaiqabad. After Qaiqabad was paralyzed, a group of nobles appointed his
infant son Shamsuddin Kayumars as the new Sultan, and tried to kill Jalal-ud-din. Instead,
Jalal-ud-din had them killed, and became the regent. A few months later, he deposed
Kayumars, and became the new Sultan.
As a Sultan, he repulsed a Mongol invasion, and allowed many Mongols to settle in India
after their conversion to Islam. He captured Mandawar and Jhain from
the Chahamana king Hammira, although he was unable to capture the Chahamana
capital Ranthambore. During his reign, his nephew Ali Gurshasp raided Bhilsa in
1293 and Devagiri in 1296.
Jalal-ud-din, was around 70 years old at the time of his ascension. He meted out lenient
punishments to the rebels, except in case of a dervish Sidi Maula, who was executed for
allegedly conspiring to dethrone him. Jalal-ud-din was ultimately assassinated by his nephew
Ali Gurshasp, who subsequently ascended the throne as Alauddin Khalji.

2. ALAUDDIN KHALJI :-
Alauddin was a nephew and a son-in-law of his predecessor Jalaluddin. When Jalaluddin
became the Sultan of Delhi after deposing the Mamluks, Alauddin was given the position
of Amir-i-Tuzuk (equivalent to master of ceremonies). Alauddin obtained the governorship
of Kara in 1291 after suppressing a revolt against Jalaluddin, and the governorship
of Awadh in 1296 after a profitable raid on Bhilsa. In 1296, Alauddin raided Devagiri, and
acquired loot to stage a successful revolt against Jalaluddin. After killing Jalaluddin, he
consolidated his power in Delhi, and subjugated Jalaluddin's sons in Multan.
Alauddin conquered the kingdoms of Gujarat (raided in 1299 and annexed in
1304), Ranthambore (1301), Chittor (1303), Malwa (1305), Siwana (1308),
and Jalore (1311). These victories ended several Hindu dynasties, including the Paramaras,
the Vaghelas, the Chahamanas of Ranastambhapura and Jalore, the Rawal branch of
the Guhilas, and possibly the Yajvapalas. His slave-general Malik Kafur led multiple
campaigns to the south of the Vindhyas, obtaining a considerable amount of wealth
from Devagiri (1308), Warangal (1310) and Dwarasamudra (1311). These victories forced
the Yadava king Ramachandra, the Kakatiya king Prataparudra, and the Hoysala king Ballala
III to become Alauddin's tributaries. Kafur also raided the Pandya kingdom (1311), obtaining
much treasure and many elephants and horses.
During the last years of his life, Alauddin suffered from an illness, and relied on Malik Kafur
to handle the administration. After his death in 1316, Malik Kafur appointed Shihabuddin,
son of Alauddin and his Hindu wife Jhatyapali, as a puppet monarch. However, his elder
son Qutbuddin Mubarak Shah seized the power shortly after his death.

THE TUGHLAQ DYNASTY

1. GHIYYASUDDIN TUGHLAQ :-

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Ghiyath al-Din Tughluq, Ghiasuddin Tughlaq, or Ghazi Malik (Ghazi means 'fighter for
Islam) was the founder of the Tughluq dynasty in India, who reigned over the Sultanate of
Delhi from 1320 to 1325. He founded the city of Tughluqabad. His reign was cut short after
five years when he died under mysterious circumstances in 1325.
According to Khusrau's Tughluq Nama, Tughluq spent a considerable time searching for a
job in Delhi, before he joined the imperial guard of Jalaluddin Khalji. Khusrau states that
Tughluq first distinguished himself in the early 1290s, during the Siege of Ranthambore, in
which the Khalji forces were led by Ulugh Khan. Khusrau suggests that Tughluq was reduced
to obscurity for a brief period after Jalaluddin was killed by his nephew Alauddin Khalji. This
probably happened because, unlike many other nobles, Tughluq did not quickly change his
loyalty to Alauddin.
After Alauddin's death in 1316, Malik Kafur controlled the Sultanate's administration for a
brief period with Alauddin's minor son Shihabuddin Omar as a puppet ruler. In July 1320,
Mubarak Shah was murdered as a result of a conspiracy by his Hindu-origin general Khusrau
Khan, who became the ruler of Delhi. Tughluq was one of the governors who refused to
recognize Khusrau Khan as the new Sultan. Tughluq's army defeated Khusrau Khan's forces
at the Battle of Saraswati and the Battle of Lahrawat. Khusrau Khan fled from the battlefield,
but was captured and killed a few days later. Tughluq was proclaimed the new ruler on 6
September 1320.
In 1324, Tughluq turned his attention towards Bengal, currently in the midst of a civil war.
After victory, he placed Nasiruddon on the throne of West Bengal as a vassal state, and East
Bengal was annexed. On his way back to Delhi, he fought with Tirhut (north Bihar). At
Afghanpur in February 1325, the wooden pavilion used for his reception collapsed, killing
him and his second son Prince Mahmud Khan. Ibn Battuta claimed it was a conspiracy,
hatched by his vizier, Jauna Khan (Khwajah Jahan).
2. MUHAMMAD BIN TUGHLAQ :-
Muhammad bin Tughluq was the Sultan of Delhi from 1325 to 1351. He was the eldest son
of Ghiyas -ud -Din -Tughlaq, the founder of the Tughluq dynasty. His wife was the daughter
of the Raja of Dipalpur. Ghiyas-ud-din sent the young Muhammad to the Deccan to
campaign against king Prataparudra of the Kakatiya dynasty whose capital was
at Warangal in 1321 and 1323.
Muhammad has been described as an "inhuman eccentric" with bizarre character by the
accounts of visitors during his rule. He is also known for wild policy swings. Muhammad
ascended to the Delhi throne upon his father's death in 1325. He was interested in medicine
and was skilled in several languages — Persian, Arabic, Turkish and Sanskrit. Ibn Battuta,
the famous traveler and jurist from Morocco, was a guest at his court and wrote about his
suzerainty in his book
. In 1327, Tughluq ordered to move his capital from Delhi to Daulatabad (in present-
day Maharashtra) in the Deccan region of India. Muhammad bin Tughlaq himself had spent a
number of years as a prince on campaign in the southern states during the reign of his father.
Daulatabad was also situated at a central place so the administration of both the north and the
south could be possible. In 1334 there was a rebellion in Mabar. While on his way to
suppress the rebellion, there was an outbreak of bubonic plague at Bidar due to which
Tughluq himself became ill, and many of his soldiers died. While he retreated back to
Daulatabad, Mabar and Dwarsamudra broke away from Tughluq's control. This was followed
by a revolt in Bengal. Fearing that the sultanate's northern borders were exposed to attacks, in

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1335, he decided to shift the capital back to Delhi, allowing the citizens to return to their
previous city.
In 1330, he issued token currency; that is coins of brass and copper were minted whose value
was equal to that of gold and silver coins. This also disrupted trade and commerce. The token
currency had inscriptions in Persian and Arabic marking the use of new coins instead of the
royal seal and so the citizens could not distinguish between the official and the forged coins.
Records show that the use of token currency had stopped by 1333 as Ibn Battuta who came
to Delhi in 1334 and wrote a journal made no mention of this currency.

3. FIROZ SHAH TUGHLAQ :-

Sultan Firoz Shah Tughlaq was a Muslim ruler of the Tughlaq dynasty, who reigned over
the Sultanate of Delhi from 1351 to 1388. He succeeded his cousin Muhammad bin
Tughlaq following the latter's death at Thatta in Sindh, where Muhammad bin Tughlaq had
gone in pursuit of Taghi the ruler of Gujarat.
We know of Firoz Shah Tughlaq in part through his 32-page autobiography, titled Futuhat-
e-firozshahi. He was 42 when he became Sultan of Delhi in 1351. He ruled until 1388. At his
succession, after the death of Muhammad Tughlaq, he faced many rebellions, including in
Bengal, Gujarat and Warangal. Nonetheless he worked to improve the infrastructure of the
empire building canals, rest-houses and hospitals, creating and refurbishing reservoirs and
digging wells. He founded several cities around Delhi,
including Jaunpur, Firozpur, Hissar, Firozabad, Fatehabad. Most of Firozabad was destroyed
as subsequent rulers dismantled its buildings and reused the spolia as building materials, and
the rest was subsumed as New Delhi grew.
After firoz shah Tughlaq many kings sat on the throne but no one stayed for a long time. In
1394 the throne fell to Nasiruddin mahmud Tughlaq, in his reign timur invaded India.

THE SAYYID DYNASTY

Khizr khan founded the dynasty. He helped timur in his invasion, so he was given the
governship of Lahore, multan and dipalpur. When he got possession of delhi, his position was
very weak and he didn’t take up the title of king and contended himself with that of rayat-i-
ala. Khizr khan’s three sucessors were Mubarak khan, Muhammad khan and alauddin alam
shah. Sayyid dynasty’s 37 years remained troubled with external invasions, internal chaos,
etc.

THE LODHI DYNASTY

1. BAHLUL LODHI:-

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Buhlool Khan Lodi was the chief of the Pashtun Lodi tribe. Founder of the Lodi
dynasty from the Delhi Sultanate upon the abdication of the last claimant from the
previous Sayyid rule. Bahlul became sultan of the dynasty on 19 April 1451 .
In 1479, Sultan Bahlul Lodi defeated and annexed Sharqi dynasty based at Jaunpur. Bahlul
did much to stop rebellions and uprisings in his territories, and extended his holdings
over Gwalior, Jaunpur and upper Uttar Pradesh. Just like the previous Delhi Sultans, he
kept Delhi the capital of his kingdom. In 1486, he appointed his son, Babrak Shah
as viceroy of Jaunpur. In time, this proved to be problematic, as his second son, Nizam Khan
(Sikandar Lodi) was named successor, and a power struggle ensued upon his death in July
1489. The site of his grave is disputed. The Archeological Survey of India has long
designated a building close to the shrine of the noted Sufi saint Nasiruddin Chirag-e-Delhi in
a locality that goes by his name, 'Chirag Delhi', as Bahlul Lodi's tomb. Other historians argue
that the Sheesh Gumbad in the Lodi Gardens is actually to be identified with his tomb.
2. SIKANDER LODHI :-
Sikandar Lodi (died 21 November 1517), born Nizam Khan, was an Afghan Sultan of
the Delhi Sultanate between 1489 and 1517. He became the next ruler of the Lodi
dynasty after the death of his father Bahlul Lodi in July 1489.The second and most successful
ruler of the Lodi dynasty of the Delhi sultanate, he was also a poet of the Persian language
and prepared a diwan of 9000 verses. Sikandar was a capable ruler who encouraged trade
across his territory.
He expanded Lodi territory into the regions of Gwalior and Bihar. He made a treaty
with Alauddin Hussain Shah and his kingdom of Bengal. In 1503, he commissioned the
building of the present-day city of Agra. Agra was founded by him.
Before Sikandar's time, the judicial duties in smaller villages and towns were performed by
local administrators, while the Sultan himself consulted the scholars of the Islamic law
(sharia). Sikandar established sharia courts in several towns, enabling the qazis to administer
the sharia law to a larger population. Although such courts were established in areas with
significant Muslim population, they were also open to non-Muslims, including for non-
religious matters such as property disputes.
3. IBRAHIM LODHI :-
Ibrahim Khan Lodi (died 21 April 1526) was an Afghan Sultan of the Delhi Sultanate, who
became Sultan in 1517 after the death of his father Sikandar Lodi. He was the last ruler of
the Lodi dynasty, reigning for nine years until 1526, when he was defeated and killed at
the Battle of Panipat by Babur's invading army, giving way to the emergence of the Mughal
Empire in India.
Ibrahim was an ethnic Pashtun. He attained the throne upon the death of his father, Sikandar,
but was not blessed with the same ruling capability. He faced a number of rebellions. Ibrahim
Lodi also displeased the nobility when he replaced old and senior commanders with younger
ones who were loyal to him. His Afghan nobility eventually invited Babur to invade India.
In 1526, the Mughal forces of Babur, the king of Kabulistan (Kabul, present Afghanistan),
defeated Ibrahim's much larger army in the Battle of Panipat. He was killed in the battle. It is
estimated that Babur's forces numbered around 12,000–30,000 men and had between 20 and
24 pieces of field artillery. Ibrahim Lodi had around 100,000–120,000 men along with at
least 300 war elephants.

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 THE MUGHAL EMPIRE
1. BABUR :-
Babur (14 February 1483 – 26 December 1530), born Zahīr ud-Dīn Muhammad, was the
founder of the Mughal Empire and first Emperor of the Mughal dynasty (r. 1526–1530) in
the Indian subcontinent. He was a descendant of Timur and Genghis Khan through his father
and mother respectively. Babur started for Lahore, Punjab, in 1524 but found that Daulat
Khan Lodi had been driven out by forces sent by Ibrahim Lodi. When Babur arrived at
Lahore, the Lodi army marched out and his army was routed. In response, Babur burned
Lahore for two days, then marched to Dibalpur, placing Alam Khan, another rebel uncle of
Lodi, as governor. Alam Khan was quickly overthrown and fled to Kabul. In response, Babur
supplied Alam Khan with troops who later joined up with Daulat Khan Lodi, and together
with about 30,000 troops, they besieged Ibrahim Lodi at Delhi. He easily defeated and drove
off Alam's army and Babur realised Lodi would not allow him to occupy the Punjab.
In November 1525 Babur got news at Peshawar that Daulat Khan Lodi had switched sides,
and he drove out Ala-ud-Din. Babur marched on to Delhi via Sirhind. He reached Panipat on
20 April 1526 and there met Ibrahim Lodi's numerically superior army of about 100,000
soldiers and 100 elephants. In the battle that began on the following day, Babur used the
tactic of Tulugma, encircling Ibrahim Lodi's army and forcing it to face artillery fire directly,
as well as frightening its war elephants. Ibrahim Lodi died during the battle, thus ending the
Lodi dynasty.
Babur then marched onto Lahore to confront Daulat Khan Lodi, only to see Daulat's army
melt away at their approach. Daulat surrendered and was pardoned. Thus within three weeks
of crossing the Indus River Babur had become the master of Punjab. He also fought two
battles with Rana Sanga; Battle of Khanwa and Battle of Chanderi.
It is generally agreed that, as a Timurid, Babur was not only significantly influenced by the
Persian culture, but also that his empire gave rise to the expansion of the Persianate ethos in
the Indian subcontinent. He emerged in his own telling as a Timurid Renaissance inheritor,
leaving signs of Islamic, artistic literary, and social aspects in India. Babur died in Agra at the
age of 47 on 5 January [O.S. 26 December 1530] 1531 and was succeeded by his eldest son,
Humayun. He was first buried in Agra but, as per his wishes, his mortal remains were moved
to Kabul and reburied in Bagh-e Babur in Kabul sometime between 1539 and 1544.

2. HUMAYUN :-
Nasir-ud-Din Muḥammad (6 March 1508 – 27 January 1556), better known by his regnal
name, Humayun, was the second emperor of the Mughal Empire, who ruled over territory in
what is now Afghanistan, Pakistan, Northern India, and Bangladesh from 1530 to 1540 and
again from 1555 to 1556. Like his father, Babur, he lost his kingdom early but regained it
with the aid of the Safavid dynasty of Persia, with additional territory. At the time of his
death in 1556, the Mughal Empire spanned almost one million square kilometres.
When Humayun came to the throne of the Mughal Empire, several of his brothers revolted
against him. Another brother Khalil Mirza (1509–1530) supported Humayun but was
assassinated. The Emperor commenced construction of a tomb for his brother in 1538, but
this was not yet finished when Humayun was forced to flee to Persia. Sher Shah destroyed
the structure and no further work was done on it after Humayun's restoration. Shortly after
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Humayun had marched on Gujarat, Sher Shah Suri saw an opportunity to wrest control of
Agra from the Mughals. He began to gather his army together hoping for a rapid and decisive
siege of the Mughal capital. Upon hearing this alarming news, Humayun quickly marched his
troops back to Agra allowing Bahadur to easily regain control of the territories Humayun had
recently taken. In February 1537, however, Bahadur was killed when a botched plan to
kidnap the Portuguese viceroy ended in a fire-fight that the Sultan lost.
In June 1539 Sher Shah met Humayun in the Battle of Chausa on the banks of the Ganges,
near Buxar. This was to become an entrenched battle in which both sides spent a lot of time
digging themselves into positions. The major part of the Mughal army, the artillery, was now
immobile, and Humayun decided to engage in some diplomacy using Muhammad Aziz as
ambassador. Humayun agreed to allow Sher Shah to rule over Bengal and Bihar, but only as
provinces granted to him by his Emperor, Humayun, falling short of outright sovereignty.
The two rulers also struck a bargain in order to save face: Humayun's troops would charge
those of Sher Shah whose forces then retreat in feigned fear. Thus honour would, supposedly,
be satisfied. Once the Army of Humayun had made its charge and Sher Shah's troops made
their agreed-upon retreat, the Mughal troops relaxed their defensive preparations and returned
to their entrenchments without posting a proper guard. Observing the Mughals' vulnerability,
Sher Shah reneged on his earlier agreement. That very night, his army approached the
Mughal camp and finding the Mughal troops unprepared with a majority asleep, they
advanced and killed most of them. The Emperor survived by swimming across the Ganges
using an air-filled "water skin", and quietly returned to Agra. Humayun was assisted across
the Ganges by Shams al-Din Muhammad.
Sher Shah Suri had died in 1545; his son and successor Islam Shah died in 1554. These two
deaths left the dynasty reeling and disintegrating. Three rivals for the throne all marched on
Delhi, while in many cities leaders tried to stake a claim for independence. This was a perfect
opportunity for the Mughals to march back to India.
The Mughal Emperor Humayun gathered a vast army, which included the Baloch tribes of
Leghari, Magsi and Rind, and attempted the challenging task of retaking the throne in Delhi.
Humayun placed the army under the leadership of Bairam Khan, a wise move given
Humayun's own record of military ineptitude, and it turned out to be prescient as Bairam
proved himself a great tactician. At the Battle of Sirhind on 22 June 1555, the armies
of Sikandar Shah Suri were decisively defeated and the Mughal Empire was re-established
in India.
On 24 January 1556, Humayun, with his arms full of books, was descending the staircase
from his library when the muezzin announced the Azaan (the call to prayer). It was his habit,
wherever and whenever he heard the summons, to bow his knee in holy reverence. Trying to
kneel, he caught his foot in his robe, slipped down several steps and hit his temple on a
rugged stone edge. He died three days later. His body was laid to rest in Purana
Quila initially, but, because of an attack by Hemu on Delhi and the capture of Purana Qila,
Humayun's body was exhumed by the fleeing army and transferred to Kalanaur in Punjab
where Akbar was crowned.

3. AKBAR :-
Abu'l-Fath Jalal-ud-din Muhammad Akbar (October 1542– 27 October 1605), popularly
known as Akbar the Great, and also as Akbar I was the third Mughal emperor, who
reigned from 1556 to 1605. Akbar succeeded his father, Humayun, under a regent, Bairam
Khan, who helped the young emperor expand and consolidate Mughal domains in India.

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Mughal India developed a strong and stable economy, leading to commercial expansion and
greater patronage of culture. Akbar himself was a patron of art and culture. He was fond of
literature, and created a library of over 24,000 volumes written
in Sanskrit, Urdu, Persian, Greek, Latin, Arabic and Kashmiri, staffed by many scholars,
translators, artists, calligraphers, scribes, bookbinders and readers. He did much of the
cataloging himself through three main groupings. Akbar also established the library of
Fatehpur Sikri exclusively for women, and he decreed that schools for the education of both
Muslims and Hindus should be established throughout the realm. He also encouraged
bookbinding to become a high art. Holy men of many faiths, poets, architects, and artisans
adorned his court from all over the world for study and discussion. Akbar's courts
at Delhi, Agra, and Fatehpur Sikri became centres of the arts, letters, and
learning. Timurid and Perso-Islamic culture began to merge and blend with indigenous Indian
elements, and a distinct Indo-Persian culture emerged characterized by Mughal style
arts, painting, and architecture. Disillusioned with orthodox Islam and perhaps hoping to
bring about religious unity within his empire, Akbar promulgated Din-i-Ilahi, a syncretic
creed derived mainly from Islam and Hinduism as well as some parts
of Zoroastrianism and Christianity.
Akbar was accorded the epithet "the Great" because of his many accomplishments, including
his record of unbeaten military campaigns that consolidated Mughal rule in the Indian
subcontinent. The basis of this military prowess and authority was Akbar's skilful structural
and organisational calibration of the Mughal army. The Mansabdari system in particular has
been acclaimed for its role in upholding Mughal power in the time of Akbar. The system
persisted with few changes down to the end of the Mughal Empire, but was progressively
weakened under his successors.
Urged by Bairam Khan, who re-marshalled the Mughal army before Hemu could consolidate
his position, Akbar marched on Delhi to reclaim it. His army, led by Bairam Khan, defeated
Hemu and the Sur army on 5 November 1556 at the Second Battle of Panipat, 50 miles
(80 km) north of Delhi. Soon after the battle, Mughal forces occupied Delhi and then Agra.
Akbar made a triumphant entry into Delhi, where he stayed for a month. Then he and Bairam
Khan returned to Punjab to deal with Sikandar Shah, who had become active again. In the
next six months, the Mughals won another major battle against Sikander Shah Suri, who fled
east to Bengal. Akbar and his forces occupied Lahore and then seized Multan in the Punjab.
In 1558, Akbar took possession of Ajmer, the aperture to Rajputana, after the defeat and
flight of its Muslim ruler. The Mughals had also besieged and defeated the Sur forces in
control of Gwalior Fort, the greatest stronghold north of the Narmada river.
By 1559, the Mughals had launched a drive to the south into Rajputana and Malwa. However,
Akbar's disputes with his regent, Bairam Khan, temporarily put an end to the expansion. The
young emperor, at the age of eighteen, wanted to take a more active part in managing affairs.
Urged on by his foster mother, Maham Anga, and his relatives, Akbar decided to dispense
with the services of Bairam Khan. After yet another dispute at court, Akbar finally dismissed
Bairam Khan in the spring of 1560 and ordered him to leave on Hajj to Mecca. Bairam Khan
left for Mecca but on his way was goaded by his opponents to rebel. He was defeated by the
Mughal army in the Punjab and forced to submit. Akbar forgave him, however, and gave him
the option of either continuing in his court or resuming his pilgrimage; Bairam chose the
latter. Bairam Khan was later assassinated on his way to Mecca, allegedly by an Afghan with
a personal vendetta.
The attempt was made when Akbar was returning from a visit to the dargah of Hazrat
Nizamuddin near Delhi, by an assassin shooting an arrow. The arrow pierced his right

15
shoulder. The assassin was apprehended and ordered beheaded by the Emperor. The culprit
was a slave of Mirza Sharfuddin, a noble in Akbar’s court whose rebellion had recently been
curbed.
In 1593, Akbar began military operations against the Deccan Sultans who had not submitted
to his authority. He besieged Ahmednagar Fort in 1595, forcing Chand Bibi to cede Berar. A
subsequent revolt forced Akbar to take the fort in August 1600. Akbar
occupied Burhanpur and besieged Asirgarh Fort in 1599, and took it on 17 January 1601,
when Miran Bahadur Shah refused to submit Khandesh. Akbar then established the Subahs of
Ahmadnagar, Berar and Khandesh under Prince Daniyal. "By the time of his death in 1605,
Akbar controlled a broad sweep of territory from the Bay of Bengal to Qandahar and
Badakshan. He touched the western sea in Sind and at Surat and was well astride central
India."

4. JAHANGIR :-
Nur-ud-din Muhammad Salim, known by his imperial name, Jahangir (31 August 1569 –
28 October 1627), was the fourth Mughal Emperor, who ruled from 1605 until his death in
1627. His imperial name (in Persian) means 'conqueror of the world', 'world-conqueror' or
'world-seizer' (Jahan: world; gir: the root of the Persian verb gereftan: to seize, to grab).
Prince Salim succeeded to the throne on Thursday, 3 November 1605, eight days after his
father's death. Salim ascended to the throne with the title of Nur-ud-din Muhammad Jahangir
Badshah Ghazi, and thus began his 22-year reign at the age of 36.
Under Jahangir, the empire continued to be a war state attuned to conquest and expansion.
Jahangir's most irksome foe was the Rana of Mewar, Amar Singh, who finally surrendered in
1613 to Khurram's forces. In the northeast, the Mughals clashed with the Ahoms of Assam,
whose guerilla tactics gave the Mughals a hard time. In Northern India, Jahangir's forces
under Khurram defeated their other principal adversary, the Raja of Kangra, in 1615; in the
Deccan, his victories further consolidated the empire. But in 1620, Jahangir fell sick, and so
ensued the familiar quest for power. Nur Jahan married her daughter to Shahryar, Jahangir's
youngest son from his other queen, in the hope of having a living male heir to the throne
when Jahangir died.
Jahangir was responsible for ending a century long struggle with the state of Mewar. The
campaign against the Rajputs was pushed so extensively that they were made to submit with
great loss of life and property.
Jahangir posted Islam Khan I to subdue Musa Khan, an Afghan rebel in Bengal, in 1608.
Jahangir also thought of capturing Kangra Fort, which Akbar had failed to do in 1615.
Consequently, a siege was laid and the fort was taken in 1620, which "resulted in the
submission of the Raja of Chamba who was the greatest of all the rajas in the region." The
district of Kistwar, in the state of Kashmir, was also conquered.
The east India company first came to India during the reign if Jahangir, he first denied them
trade rights but when Khurram got ill and the britishers helped he gave them the trading
rights.
Jahangir died on the journey from Kashmir to Lahore, near Sarai Saadabad in Bhimber in
1627. To embalm and preserve his body, the entrails were removed; these were buried
inside Baghsar Fort near Bhimber in Kashmir. The body was then conveyed by palanquin
to Lahore and was buried in Shahdara Bagh, a suburb of that city. The elegant mausoleum is
today a popular tourist attraction site.
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5. SHAH JAHAN :-
Shahab-ud-din Muhammad Khurram (5 January 1592 – 22 January 1666), better known
by his regnal name, Shah Jahan ( 'King of the World'), was the fifth Mughal emperor, and
reigned from 1628 to 1658. Under his reign, the Mughal Empire reached the peak of its
cultural glory. Although an able military commander, Shah Jahan is best remembered for his
architectural achievements. His reign ushered in the golden age of Mughal architecture. Shah
Jahan commissioned many monuments, the best known of which is the Taj Mahal in Agra, in
which is entombed his favourite wife, Mumtaz Mahal. His relationship with Mumtaz Mahal
has been heavily adapted into Indian art, literature and cinema. He owned the royal treasury
and several precious stones such as the Kohinoor and has thus often been regarded as the
wealthiest Indian in history.
Shah Jahan is considered the most competent of Emperor Jahangir's four sons. Jahangir's
death in late 1627 spurred a war of succession, from which Shah Jahan emerged victorious
after much intrigue. He put to death all of his rivals for the throne and crowned himself
emperor in January 1628 in Agra, under the regnal title "Shah Jahan" (which was originally
given to him as a princely title). His rule saw many grand building projects, including the Red
Fort and the Shah Jahan Mosque. Foreign affairs saw war with the Safavids and conflict with
the Portuguese, and positive relations with the Ottoman Empire. Domestic concerns included
putting down numerous rebellions, and the devastating famine from 1630-32.
Shah Jahan left behind a grand legacy of structures constructed during his reign. He was one
of the greatest patrons of Mughal architecture. His most famous building was the Taj Mahal,
which he built out of love for his wife, the empress Mumtaz Mahal. Its structure was drawn
with great care and architects from all over the world were called for this purpose. The
building took twenty years to complete and was constructed from white marble underlaid
with brick. Upon his death, his son Aurangzeb had him interred in it next to Mumtaz Mahal.
Among his other constructions are the Red Fort also called the Delhi Fort or Lal
Qila in Urdu, large sections of Agra Fort, the Jama Masjid, the Wazir Khan Mosque, the Moti
Masjid, the Shalimar Gardens, sections of the Lahore Fort, the Mahabat Khan
Mosque in Peshawar, the Mini Qutub Minar in Hastsal, the Jahangir mausoleum—his father's
tomb, the construction of which was overseen by his stepmother Nur Jahan and
the Shahjahan Mosque. He also had the Peacock Throne, Takht e Taus, made to celebrate his
rule. Shah Jahan also placed profound verses of the Quran on his masterpieces of
architecture.
In September 1657, Shah Jahan fell seriously ill. This set off a war of succession among his
four sons in which his third son, Aurangzeb, emerged victorious and usurped his father's
throne. Shah Jahan recovered from his illness, but Emperor Aurangzeb put his father under
house arrest in Agra Fort from July 1658 until his death in January 1666. He was laid to rest
next to his wife in the Taj Mahal.

5. AURANGZEB :-
Muhi-ud-Din Muhammad (3 November 1618 – 3 March 1707), commonly known By
Aurangzeb (Persian: "Ornament of the Throne") or by his regnal title Alamgir (Persian:
"Conqueror of the World"), was the sixth Mughal emperor, who ruled over almost the
entire Indian subcontinent for a period of 49 years. Widely considered to be the last effective
ruler of the Mughal Empire, Aurangzeb compiled the Fatawa-e-Alamgiri, and was among the

17
few monarchs to have fully established Sharia law and Islamic economics throughout the
Indian subcontinent. He was an accomplished military leader whose rule has been the subject
of praise, though he has also been described as the most controversial ruler in Indian history.
He was a notable expansionist; during his reign, the Mughal Empire reached its greatest
extent, ruling over nearly all of the Indian subcontinent. During his lifetime, victories in the
south expanded the Mughal Empire to 4 million square kilometres, and he ruled over a
population estimated to be over 158 million subjects, Under his reign, India surpassed Qing
China to become the world's largest economy and biggest manufacturing power, worth nearly
a quarter of global GDP and more than the entirety of Western Europe, and its largest and
wealthiest subdivision, the Bengal Subah, signaled proto-industrialization.
Aurangzeb was noted for his religious piety; he memorized the entire Quran,
studied hadiths and stringently observed the rituals of Islam. Unlike his predecessors,
including his father Shah Jahan, Aurangzeb considered the royal treasury to be held in trust
for the citizens of his empire. He did not enjoy a luxurious life and his personal expenses and
constructions of small mosques were covered by his own earnings, which included the
sewing of caps and trade of his written copies of the Quran. He also patronized works
of Islamic and Arabic calligraphy.
Aurangzeb has been subject to criticism. Critics argue that his policies abandoned his
predecessors' legacy of pluralism and religious tolerance, citing his introduction of
the jizya tax and other policies based on Islamic ethics, demolition of Hindu temples, the
executions of his elder brother Dara Shikoh, Maratha king Sambhaji and the Sikh Guru Tegh
Bahadur, and the prohibition and supervision of behaviour and activities that are forbidden in
Islam such as gambling, fornication, and consumption of alcohol and narcotics. Some
historians question the historicity of the claims of his critics, arguing that his destruction of
temples has been exaggerated, and noting that he also built temples, paid for their
maintenance, employed significantly more Hindus in his imperial bureaucracy than his
predecessors did, and opposed bigotry against Hindus and Shia Muslims.
Unlike his predecessors, Aurangzeb considered the royal treasury to be held in trust for the
citizens of his empire. He made caps and copied the Quran to earn money for his
use. Aurangzeb constructed a small marble mosque known as the Moti Masjid (Pearl
Mosque) in the Red Fort complex in Delhi. However, his constant warfare, especially with
the Marathas, drove his empire to the brink of bankruptcy just as much as the wasteful
personal spending and opulence of his predecessors.
the conquest of the Deccan, to which Aurangzeb devoted the last 26 years of his life, was in
many ways a Pyrrhic victory, costing an estimated hundred thousand lives a year during its
last decade of futile chess game warfare. The expense in gold and rupees can hardly be
accurately estimated. Aurangzeb's encampment was like a moving capital – a city of tents 30
miles in circumference, with some 250 bazaars, with a 1⁄2 million camp followers, 50,000
camels and 30,000 elephants, all of whom had to be fed, stripped the Deccan of any and all of
its surplus grain and wealth.
Even when ill and dying, Aurangzeb made sure that the populace knew he was still alive, for
if they had thought otherwise then the turmoil of another war of succession was likely. He
died at his military camp in Bhingar near Ahmednagar on 3 March 1707 at the age of 88,
having outlived many of his children. He had only 300 rupees with him which were later
given to charity as per his instructions and he prior to his death requested not to spend
extravagantly on his funeral but to keep it simple. His modest open-air grave
in Khuldabad, Aurangabad, Maharashtra expresses his deep devotion to his Islamic beliefs. It

18
is sited in the courtyard of the shrine of the Sufi saint Shaikh Burhan-u'd-din Gharib, who
was a disciple of Nizamuddin Auliya of Delhi.

After Aurangzeb there were a string of weak rulers and in one sense the Mughal empire was
on a downfall and this was the end of the Delhi Sultanate as well. The East India Company
nearly ruled all of India and in September 1857 Bahadur Shah Zafar II was arrested and the
Mughal Empire was officially over.

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 BIBLIOGRAPHY
BOOKS REFFERED:
 General knowledge by Tarun Goyal, 2016
 Lucent’s general knowledge, 2016
SITES REFFERED:
 www.britainica.com
 www.wikepedia.com

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