Hierarchical relations between the clauses:

Matrix clause: contains the same elements as the overall sentence. Are always finite, though they may contain
finite or nonfinite subordinate clauses.
Superordinate clause: are not themselves subordinate to anything else.
Subordinate clause: are subordinated to a superordinate clause.
A complementiser: introduces the subordinate clause.

finite and non-finite clauses: each contains a tensed or non-tensed main verb.
⬡ If-clauses are always finite
⬡ That-clauses are frequently finite
⬢ the nonfinite forms of the verb are: the to-infinitive, the bare infinitive, the -ing
participle and the -ed participle. These can be with and without Subjects. Small
Clauses are clauses that lack an overt verb, but can be said to contain an implicit
verb be.

Realisations of:

The subject:
⬩NPs functioning as Subject
⬩PPs functioning as Subject: they are usually phrases that specify a location or
time interval., and, the main verb of the sentence is often, though not
exclusively, a form of the verb to be.
⬩AdjP functioning as Subject
⬩AdvP functioning as Subject
⬩Finite clauses functioning as Subject: can be introduced by a conjunction or by
a Wh-word
⬩Nonfinite clauses functioning as Subject: only to-infinitive clauses, bare infinitive
clauses, -ing participle clauses and small clauses can perform the function of subject
(not the -ed participle clauses). All of those can take, or not, a subject of their
own.
⬫To-infinitive clauses with a Subject of their own:.
⬫To-infinitive clauses without a Subject of their own: are either not introduced at all
or they are introduced by a Wh-word
⬫Bare infinitive clauses functioning as Subject: are quite rare
⬫-ing participle clauses with or without a Subject of their own.
⬫Small Clauses functioning as Subject.

When the clause has no Subject of its own, one is usually implied and can easily be inferred.

The Predicate and Predicator: consists of everything but the Subject. Predicates are Verb Phrases and
Predicators are always main verbs.

The Direct Object: are usually constituents which refer to an entity that can be said to undergo the action
denoted by the verb. Can be realised by: Noun Phrases, Prepositional Phrases, finite clauses and nonfinite
clauses.
⬩NPs functioning as Direct Object
⬩PPs functioning as Direct Object: tend to be locative phrases or phrases
specifying a time span.
⬩Finite clauses: That-clauses or Wh-clauses
⬩Nonfinite clauses functioning as Direct Object: can be realised by all five types (to-infinitive
clauses, bare infinitive clauses, -ing participle clauses, -ed participle clauses and small clauses)
⬫To-infinitive clauses with or without a subject of their own: either they are not
introduced at all or by a wh-word but only when they don’t have a subject of their own.
⬫Bare infinitive clauses functioning as Direct Object
⬫-ing participle clauses with or without a Subject of their own.
⬫-ed participle clauses functioning as DO
⬫small clauses
When the clause has no Subject of its own, Subject is recoverable from the matrix clause.
The Indirect Object: as the Goal, Receiver or Beneficiary of the activity denoted by the verb.
⬩NPs functioning as Indirect Object
⬩Wh-clauses functioning as IO

Adjuncts: are constituents that tell you more about the how, when, where or why of the activity or situation
expressed by the sentences they occur in. Adjuncts can be Adverb Phrases, Prepositional Phrases, Noun
Phrases, finite clauses, nonfinite clauses and small clauses. Notice that the Adjunct clause can be in
sentence-initial or sentence-final position.
⬩AdvPs functioning as Adjunct: can express a variety of meanings, for example
manner, viewpoint, degree, frequency, etc.
⬩PPs functioning as Adjunct: can also express a multiplicity of semantic notions:
manner, location, instrument and time, among others.
⬩NPs functioning as Adjunct: usually specify time when [today, yesterday, this
second, last year…]
⬩Finite clauses functioning as Adjunct: there is a wide variety of meanings that
such clauses can express, the most important of these are time [as soon as,
since, until, when, whenever, while,...], reason [because, since, as], condition
[if, even, unless], result [so/that], and purpose
⬩Nonfinite clauses functioning as Adjunct: they can express the same range of meanings
as their finite counterparts.
⬫To-infinitive with or without a Subject of their own.
⬫Bare infinitive clauses: are very rare. Onñly the ones introduced by rather, than or
sooner than, can function as Adjunct.
⬫-ing participle clauses with or without a Subject of their own.
⬫-ed participle clauses with or without a Subject of their own.
⬫small clauses.

The Subjects of the Adjunct clauses are understood as being the same as the Subjects of the matrix clauses.
⭗All of this has been to demonstrate the fact that there exists no one-to-one
relationship between function and form in language, and this is why the two
notions need to be kept apart. With the exception of Predicators, all grammatical functions
can be
performed
by different
form classes,
and all form
classes
can perform a
variety of

grammatical functions, as the table below shows.