1 Sahu

Manufacturing Technology
Dr. Ranjeet Kumar Sahu
Assistant Professor
Lecture # 3
Department of Mechanical Engineering

National Institute of Technology Karnataka
Surathkal, Mangaluru, India
Outline of the Lecture
• Fundamentals of Metal Forming
• Mechanism of Plastic deformation

Metal forming processes
• Metal forming processes  Metal working processes or
Mechanical working of metals
• Process in which desired size and shape are obtained through

plastic deformation of a metal  under applied mechanical force
• Plastic deformation takes place when the stress caused in the

metal due to the applied forces exceeds the yield strength
• Note: Plastic deformation is the deformation which is permanent

and occurs beyond the elastic range of the material
• Reduces internal voids or cavities present & makes metal dense
• Impurities present get elongated with the grains, get broken and
dispersed throughout the metal  improves mechanical strength
of a metal/product
• Process is economical  desired shape, size and finish can be

obtained without any significant loss of material
• Plastic deformation of a metal can be achieved in 2 ways:
 Deformation by slip
 Deformation by twinning
Mechanism of plastic deformation
• The mechanism of plastic deformation is different for crystalline
and amorphous materials
• Crystalline material  Plastic deformation can be achieved in 2

ways:
 Deformation by slip
 Deformation by twinning
• Amorphous material  Plastic deformation can be achieved by

viscous flow mechanism in which atoms slide past one another
under applied stress without any directionality
Contd….
Deformation by slip :
 Each grain of a metal consists of a number of unit cells arranged in a

number of planes
 Slip of metal takes place along a plane which is subjected to highest

shear stress due to the applied forces
 This indicates that deformation of a metal occurs by slip

Contd….
Deformation by twinning:
 Deformation occurs along a crystal plane where one portion of the crystal
changes in orientation
 This indicates that deformation of a metal occurs by twinning
 Twinned portion of the crystal is mirror image of parent crystal

Contd….
Difference between slip and twinning
Slip Twinning
(1) Quantity of bulk deformation is more (1) Quantity of bulk deformation is less
(2) Crystal orientation is same before (2) Crystal orientation is not same
and after the deformation before and after the deformation
(3) Atomic displacement is more than (3) Atomic displacement is less than
the inter atomic separation the inter atomic separation
(4) Occurs on relatively wide spread (4) In the twinned region of a crystal
planes every atomic plane is involved in the
deformation
Assistant Professor
Lecture # 4

• Recrystallisation Phenomena
• Hot and Cold Working
• Strain Hardening
• Classification of Metal Forming Processes

Recrystallisation
• Plastic deformation of a metal  metal flow in the solid state along

specific directions  plastic flow of the metal
• Crystals or grains of the metal get elongated in the direction of

metal flow, and thus the shapes of the grains are changed
• As a result, new grains/crystals are formed at various locations in

the metal
• This process of formation of new grains /crystals is known as

recrystallisation
Recrystallisation temperature
• Recrystallisation temperature (RCT)  new grains are

completely formed during plastic deformation of a metal
• RCT = 1/3 to 1/2 of melting point of most of the metals

Hot working and Cold working
Hot working (Working temperature  0.5 Tm to 0.75 Tm)
• Mechanical working of a metal takes place above the

recrystallisation temperature
• i.e. Deforming the material at a temperature more than the

recrystallisation temperature  (with/without heating)
Cold working (Working temperature  ≤ 0.3 Tm)
• Mechanical working of a metal takes place below the

• i.e. Deforming the material at a temperature less than the

Comparison of hot working and cold working
Hot working Cold working
(1) It is carried out above the RCT (1) It is carried out below the RCT
(2) No internal or residual stresses are (2) Internal or residual stresses are
developed developed
(3) Strain hardening of metal does not takes (3) Strain hardening of metal takes place
place
(4) Grains of a metal are refined (4) Grains of a metal are distorted
(5) Cracks are eliminated (5) Cracks propagate and new cracks may
develop
(6) Uniformity of metal composition (6) Loss of uniformity of metal composition
(7) Poor surface finish is obtained (7) Better surface finish is obtained
(8) Dimensional accuracy is difficult to (8) Better dimensional accuracy can be

achieve obtained
Strain hardening
• Strain hardening  work hardening  process of making a metal
harder and stronger through plastic deformation
• When a metal is plastically deformed there is a movement of

dislocation of atoms
• More dislocations within a material, more they will interact and

become pinned
• This will result in a decrease in the mobility of the dislocations and

strengthening of the material
• This type of strengthening is known as strain hardening

Annealing
• Annealing  heat treatment process  heating the metal or alloy

to a certain temperature, and subsequently cooling it very slowly
• Materials after cold working are subjected to annealing process to
 relieve stresses
 reduce hardness
 increase ductility
 soften the metal
 refine grain size

Classification of metal forming processes
Metal forming processes
Bulk metal Sheet metal

forming forming
Rolling Shearing
Drawing
Forging
Spinning
Extrusion
Wire /Tube Bending

drawing
Stretch
Embossing
HERF
Assistant Professor
Lecture # 1

Organization
• CONTENTS TO BE COVERED
• RECOMMENDED TEXT BOOKS
• GLIMPSE OF MANUFACTURING
• IMPORTANCE OF MT
• CLASSIFICATION OF MPs
Contents to be covered
• Conventional machining processes Dr. Ramesh M R

Dr. MRR
• Non-traditional machining operations and analysis Dr. RKS
Dr. SCJ
• Sheet metal forming processes

Dr. Ranjeet Ku. Sahu
• Work and tool holding devices
• Mechanics of metal removal processes Dr. Sudhakar C Jambagi

Assessment and Evaluation
Assessment tool Weightage (%)
Online Continuous Evaluation

50
(Quizzes/Assignments)
Mid Semester Online Exam 20
End Semester Online Exam 30

Recommended text books
• Manufacturing Engineering and Technology by S. Kalpakjian &
S.R. Schmid, 4th edition, Pearson Education, Asia, 2002
• Manufacturing Technology- Foundry, Forming and Welding by P.N

Rao, TMH, New Delhi, 2001
• Manufacturing Science and Engineering by A. Ghosh and A.K.

Mallik, Affiliated East West press (p) Ltd, New Delhi, 2002
• Principles of Manufacturing Materials and Processes by James S.

Campbell, Tata McGraw-Hill, New Delhi, 1983
• Non-Conventional Machining by P.K. Mishra,, 6th Edition Narosa

Publishing house, 1997
Glimpse of Manufacturing
• Manufacturing  make or create something by some techniques
• Objects/products around you

Contd….
• Narrow sense  Manufacturing  converting raw materials into
products using technical processes and machining operations
• Broad sense  Production  converting I/Ps into O/Ps
Production Production without manufacturing

Raw
Design materials Manufacturing
 Literary work
(Tangible items)
Processes
 Work presented to public, etc.

Assistant Professor
Lecture # 2

Contents
• Importance of MT
• Classification of Conventional MPs
• Need for Non-traditional MPs
• Classification of Non-traditional MPs

Importance of manufacturing for human kind?
• Backbone of any industrialized nation
• Vital ingredient of engineering sciences  provides various

objects/products that are essential for the human kind
• Improved the quality of products through proper design
Conventional manufacturing techniques/processes
1. Casting 3. Fabrication
2. Forming 4. Material removal

Classification of Conventional MPs
Conventional Manufacturing Processes
Material
Casting Forming Joining removal
Sand Rolling Gas welding Turning
Shell Forging Arc welding Drilling
Investment
Wire/Tube Resistance
drawing welding Milling
Pressure
Thermit
Die Extrusion welding Grinding
Centrifugal Sheet metal Soldering Shaping &

Planning
Brazing
Slush
Broaching
Need for Non-traditional MPs
• In today’s manufacturing industry, to meet the market demands for:
 exotic materials processing
 innovative design and manufacture of products
 miniaturized products
 high strength to weight ratio parts
 high quality products with less cost, increased productivity and

more reduction in wastage of material
Non-traditional MPs meet the above demands

Classification of Non-traditional MPs
Non-traditional Manufacturing Processes
Newer casting Advanced forming and Micro-electronic Composites Additive Non-traditional

powder metallurgy devices fabrication manufacturing manufacturing machining
Expandable High speed Photo- Hand Stereo- Mechanical

pattern forging Lithography lay-up Lithography energy based
Plaster Semi-solid Wet chemical Laminated Thermal energy

Vacuum
metal etching object manuf based
bagging
Ceramic
Peen Dry plasma Resin Selective laser Chemical and
forming etching transfer sintering Electrochemical
Vacuum energy based
Super Cryogenic dry Injection Fused

Squeeze plastic etching deposition
moulding
modeling
Single
crystal Comminution Diffusion 3D printing
Compression
growing
moulding
Single crystal
turbine
blades Pultrusion
Directional
solidification Filament
winding, etc.
Assistant Professor
Lecture # 5

• Introduction to sheet metal forming
• Categories of sheet metal operations
• Brief list of sheet metal operations

Sheet metal forming
• Sheet metal  metallic sheet with thickness < 5 mm
• Sheet metal forming  working of thin sheets/plates with simple

machines and tools to form a desired shape and size
• Sheet metal components  automobiles, type writers, toys,

aerospace, household, laboratory, shops, etc.
• Examples of sheet metal work  boxes, cabinets, funnels, ducts,

automobiles body, aircraft body, etc.
Contd….
• Materials used in sheet metal work
 Steel (most commonly used)  tanks, boxes, AC ducts, roof

flashing, etc.
 Stainless steel  residential, institutions, kitchen tables,

utensils, etc.
 Copper  architectural purpose
 Aluminium  roofs
 Lead  gutters and downspouts
 Zinc  roof flashing, cabinet tops, etc.

Categories of sheet metal operations
• Two major categories of sheet metal operations
 Cutting operations
 Forming operations
Cutting operations
• Cutting is used to separate large sheets into smaller pieces, to cut

out part perimeters, and to make holes in parts
• Cutting of sheet metal is achieved by a shearing action between

two sharp cutting edges
Contd….
(a) (b) (c) (d)
Shearing of sheet metal between two cutting edges
(a) Just before the punch contacts w/p

(b) Punch begins to push into w/p, causing plastic deformation
(c) Punch compresses and penetrates into w/p causing a smooth cut surface
(d) Fracture is initiated at the two cutting edges that separate the sheet
• Various sheet metal cutting operations include shearing, blanking,

punching (piercing), and cutoff, parting, slotting, perforating,
notching, trimming, shaving and fine blanking
Contd….
Forming operations
• Forming operations are used to form sheet metal parts into their
required shapes and sizes
• Various operations under this category include:
 Bending
 Deep/cup drawing
 Spinning
 Embossing and coining
 Stretch forming
 HERF
Brief list of Sheet metal operations
• Shearing • Perforating • Drawing
• Blanking • Notching • Spinning
• Punching • Trimming, Shaving • Embossing
• Cutoff, Parting • Fine blanking • Coining
• Slotting • Bending • Stretch & HERF

Assistant Professor
Lecture # 6

• Important Sheet metal cutting operations
 Shearing
 Blanking and Punching
• Other sheet metal cutting operations

Shearing
• Cutting sheet metal along a straight line
• Upper blade pushes the sheet metal towards lower blade
• Sheet metal is pressed between the blades, plastic deformation

occurs, fracture initiates and finally shearing takes place
Contd….
Blanking and Punching
• Blanking and piercing  sheet metal sheared to a desired shape
• Blanking  cutting a piece of material along a closed outline in a

single step from a sheet metal stock using punch and die
• Punching  making holes in a sheet
Blanking Punching
Contd….
Cutoff Parting Slotting
Perforating Notching Trimming
Shaving Fine blanking

Assistant Professor
Lecture # 7

• Other sheet metal cutting operations
 Cutoff
 Parting
 Slotting, Perforating and Notching
 Trimming
 Shaving and Fine blanking

Cutoff Parting Slotting
Perforating Notching Trimming
Shaving Fine blanking

Contd….
Cutoff
• It is a shearing operation in which blanks are separated from a

metallic strip by cutting the opposite sides of the part in sequence
• A new part is produced with each cut
• Features of cutoff operation that distinguishes from conventional

shearing are:
 cut edges are not necessarily straight
 blanks can be placed on the strip in such a way that scrap is

avoided
Contd….
Parting
• It is used to cut a metallic strip by a punch with two cutting edges

that match the opposite sides of the blank
• This operation is required when the outline of the part has an

irregular shape and that does not include exact placing of the
blanks on the metallic strip
• Parting is less efficient than cutoff because in parting there is some

scrap is found
Contd….
Slotting
• It is sometimes called as punching operation that is used to cut an
elongated or rectangular hole
Perforating
• It is the simultaneous punching of a pattern of holes in sheet metal
• The hole pattern is usually for decorative purposes, or to allow
passage of light, liquid or gas
Notching
• It is the process of cutting out a portion of metal from the side of
metallic sheet/strip
• Semi-notching is the process of cutting a portion of metal from the
interior of the sheet/strip
Contd….
Trimming
• It is the process of cutting/removing the excess metal on a formed

part (e.g. impression die forged part/cup drawn part) and establish
size
• Examples:
 Trimming the flash of an impression die forged part before the

part is to be used
 Trimming the upper portion of a deep drawn cup to leave the

desired dimensions on the cup
Contd….
Shaving
• Shaving is a secondary cutting or secondary operation that is
typically performed on parts that have been previously cut
• It is used (after blanking or piercing) to remove the burrs left on the
product to obtain close dimensional tolerances
• It is performed with very small clearance to obtain accurate
dimensions and make the edges smooth and straight
Fine blanking
• It is used to blank sheet metal with close dimensional tolerances
and smooth, straight edges in single step
• The process is usually used for somewhat small sheet stock
thickness
Assistant Professor
Lecture # 8

• Analysis of sheet metal cutting
 Effect of clearance
 Determination of punch and die size
 Determination of cutting force
• Design rules for sheet metal cutting

Analysis of sheet metal cutting
• The process parameters in sheet metal cutting include:
 clearance between punch and die
 thickness of metallic sheet stock
 type of metal
 strength of metal
 length of the cut

Contd….
Effect of clearance
• In sheet metal cutting operations,
c = 4% - 8% of the sheet metal thickness (t)
• If the clearance is too small, then the fracture lines tend to pass
each other, causing double burnishing and larger cutting forces
• If the clearance is too large, the metal becomes squeezed

between the cutting edges and an excessive burr results
Note: In shaving and fine blanking operations, clearance is approx.

1% of stock thickness
Contd….
Too small clearance Too large clearance
• In practice, the clearance depends on the type of sheet metal and

its thickness.
Recommended clearance = Act
Ac = clearance allowance (determined according to type of metal)

t = thickness of sheet metal stock
Contd….
Determination of punch and die sizes
• For blanking operation  size of the die determines size of the

blank
• For punching operation  size of the punch determines size of the hole
• Let us consider a circular part cut either by blanking/punching operation

Contd….
• Due to the geometry of the sheared edge, the outer dimension of
the part cut out of the sheet will be larger than the hole size
• Punch and die sizes for a circular blank of diameter Db

determined as:
Punch diameter (blanking punch diameter) = Db – 2c

Die diameter (blanking die diameter) = Db
• Punch and die sizes for a circular hole of diameter Dh determined

as:
Punch diameter (hole punch diameter) = Dh
Die diameter (hole die diameter) = Dh + 2c
Contd….
• In order to come out the blank/slug through the die, die opening
must have an angular clearance of 0.25° to 1.5° on each side
Determination of cutting force in sheet metal cutting
• Cutting force, F = σs × t × L
σs = shear strength of the sheet metal
t = thickness of metallic sheet stock
L = length of the cut edge = perimeter length of the blank or hole

being cut (in case of blanking, punching and slotting)
• Cutting force, F = 0.7 × σult × t × L (using tensile strength)

Contd….
Assumptions:
(1) The minor effect of clearance in determining L can be neglected
(2) For determination of ‘F’ (both equations), the entire cut along the
sheared edge length L is assumed to be made at the same time
• By providing a cutting edge angle (shear angle) either on the

punch or die, the cutting force can be reduced, but total energy
required is the same
Design rules for sheet metal cutting
• Diameters of punched holes should not be less than the thickness
of the metallic sheet stock
• Minimum distance between the holes or the edge of the stock

should be at least equal to the stock thickness
• The width of any projection or slot should be at least equal to the

metal thickness
• Arrange the pattern of parts on the metallic strip to minimize scrap

Contd….
# Numerical
A round disk of 150 mm diameter is to be blanked from a strip

of 3.2 mm thickness, half-hard cold rolled steel whose shear
strength = 310 MPa. Determine:(a) appropriate punch and die
diameters, and (b) blanking force.
Assistant Professor
Lecture # 9

• Sheet metal Bending
• Types of bending
• Analysis of sheet metal bending

Sheet Metal Bending
• Making angled metallic sheet parts/profiles by applying
mechanical force on a sheet
• Straining of the metal sheet around a straight axis
• Metal on the inner side of the neutral plane is compressed, and

outer side of the neutral plane is stretched
Metal on inside of neutral axis

Bending of sheet metal is compressed & on outside of
neutral axis is stretched
Contd….
Types of bending
• V-bending
• Edge bending
• U-bending
V-bending Edge bending U-bending

Contd….
V-bending:
• Performed with a V-shaped punch and die
• Simple and inexpensive, press brake and low production
Edge bending:
• Performed with a wiping die
• Cantilever type loading of the sheet metal is involved
• Pressure pad required, costly and high production
Edge bending:
• Performed with a U-shaped punch and die

Analysis of sheet metal bending
• Important terms in sheet metal bending are:
 thickness of sheet metal (t)
 width of sheet metal (w)
 bend angle (α)
 included angle (α’)
 bend radius (R)
 bend allowance (Ab)
 springback (SB or φ) Important considerations for bending

 bending force (F)
Assistant Professor
Lecture # 10

• Analysis of sheet metal bending
 Important terms
 Bend allowance
 Springback
 Bending force
Analysis of sheet metal bending
• Important terms in sheet metal bending are:
 thickness of sheet metal (t)
 width of sheet metal (w)
 bend angle (α)
 included angle (α’)
 bend radius (R)
 bend allowance (Ab)
 springback (SB or φ) Important considerations for bending

 bending force (F)
Contd….
• The sheet metal of thickness ‘t’ is bent through an angle called
the bend angle (α)
• This results in a sheet metal part with an included angle α’,
i.e. included angle of bent sheet metal, α’ = 180°- α
• The bend radius R is usually specified on the inside of the part
• The bend is made over the width of the workpiece (w)
Note: The position of the neutral axis depends on the bend radius
and bend angle
Contd….
General considerations for bending
• The sharper the bend, the more likely the surface is stressed
beyond the yield point
• bends should be made with the bend axis perpendicular to the

rolling direction, i.e. longitudinal bends are good than transverse
bends
Important considerations for bending

• Bend allowance (Ab)
• Springback (SB or φ)
• Bending force (F)

Contd….
Bend Allowance (Ab)
• It is the amount of stretching that occurs in bending
(OR) it is the length of stretching of the final bent section
(OR) it is the length of the neutral axis in bend

Contd….
• If the bend radius is small relative to sheet stock thickness, the
metal tends to stretch during bending
2 ( R  Kbat )
• Bend allowance,Ab 
360
Ab = bend allowance (mm)
α = bend angle in degrees
R = bend radius (mm), t = stock thickness (mm)
Kba = constant = factor to estimate stretching
If R < 2t, Kba = 0.33

If R ≥ 2t, Kba = 0.5
Contd….
Springback effect
• Since all materials have a finite E, plastic deformation is always
followed by some elastic recovery when the load is removed
• In bending, this elastic recovery is called springback
• Springback not only occurs in flat sheets and plates, but also in
solid/hollow bars and tubes of any cross-section
CB = amount of springback
Assistant Professor
Lecture # 11

• Analysis of sheet metal bending (continued…..)
 Springback
 Bending force
Contd….
Springback effect
• Springback occurs because of the variation in bending stresses
across the thickness
Strain distribution Stress distribution
Elastic & plastic deformation zones Changing stress patterns in a bend

Contd….
• The metallic region closer to the neutral axis has been stressed
to value below the elastic limit
• This elastic deformation zone is a narrow band on both sides of

the neutral axis
• The metallic region farther away from the neutral axis has
undergone plastic deformation, and is beyond the yield strength
• Upon removal of bending load at the end of the deformation, the

elastic band tries to return to the original flat condition
• This indicates that the elastic energy remains in the bent part,
causing it to recover partially towards its original shape. This
elastic recovery is called springback
Contd….
• Springback (SB/φ) can be expressed as,
 '   'b

 'b
α’ = included angle of the bent sheet metal part

α’b = included angle of the forming tool/bending tool
During bending After bending

Contd….
• SB equation represents increase in included angle of bent sheet
part relative to the included angle of the forming tool after the
punch is removed
• The Figure shows that springback in bending results in

decrease in bend angle and increase in bend radius
• During the operation, the sheet stock is forced to take the radius
Rt and included angle α’b determined by the punch in V-bending
• After the punch is removed, the sheet stock springs back to

radius R and included angle α’
Contd….
Another expression for springback
• As shown in the Figure, after springback the final bend angle (αf)
is smaller than the angle (αi) to which the part was bent, and the
bend radius Rf becomes larger than Ri
Ri Ri y 3 Ri y
• Springback,    4( )  3( ) 1
Rf Et Et
• Springback increases as R/t ratio increases, σy increases and E

decreases
Springback in bending
Contd….
Important Note
• Springback is the property of a material which depends on:
 the type of material
 elastic modulus (inversely proportional to springback)
 yield strength
 thickness of material
 bend radius
Contd….
Compensation for springback
• Springback in forming operations can be compensated or

minimized by overbending, bottoming and stretch forming
Overbending
• In overbending, the punch angle and radius are made slightly

smaller than the specified angle on the final part, so that the
sheet metal springs back to the desired value
• i.e. in overbending, the sheet metal has to bend

at an angle and radius smaller than the desired
angle of the final part.
Contd….
Compensation for springback
Bottoming
• It involves squeezing the sheet metal part at the end of the

stroke of the punch, thus plastically deforming it in the bend
area
Stretch forming
• It is also known as stretch bending in which the

part is subjected to tension while being bent
Bottoming
Contd….
Bending force
• The bending force for sheets and plates can be determined by

assuming that the process is one of simple bending of a
rectangular beam
• Bending force depends on the strength of the material, length of

the bend, thickness of the sheet and die opening dimension
• The maximum bending force (excluding friction),
k y Lt 2
F 
D
Contd….
σy = yield stress of the metal (MPa)
L = length of the bend (mm)
t = thickness of the sheet stock (mm)

V-die Wiping die
D = die opening dimension
k = constant = value depends on the

type of bending
V-die
For V-bending, k = 1.3
For edge bending, k = 0.3
For U-bending, k = 0.7
Wiping die
Contd….
• For a V-die bending, the bending force equation is often

modified as,
 ult Lt 2
F
D
σult = ultimate tensile strength of the material (Mpa)
• The above equation can be applied well to the situations in

which the punch-tip radius and the sheet thickness are relatively
small compared to the die opening
Assistant Professor
Lecture # 12

• Numerical in bending
• Miscellaneous bending operations
 Flanging, Hemming, Seaming and Curling
 Channel, air, offset, corrugating and tube bendings

# Numerical in bending
A sheet-metal blank is to be bent as shown in Figure below. The

elastic modulus of the metal is 205×103 MPa, yield strength is 275
MPa, and tensile strength is 450 MPa. Determine (a) the starting
blank size and (b) the bending force if a V-die is used with a die
opening dimension of 25 mm.
Miscellaneous bending operations
• Flanging • Air bending
• Hemming • Offset bending
• Seaming • Corrugating
• Curling • Tube forming
• Channel bending • etc.

Contd….
Flanging
• Flanging is a bending operation in which the edge of a flat sheet

metal part is bent usually at 90° to form a flange
• It is used to strengthen or stiffen sheet metal
• Flanging are of three types:
 Straight flanging
 Stretch flanging
 Shrink flanging
Contd….
Straight, stretch and shrink flanging
• In straight flanging, the flange can be formed over a straight bend

axis
• In stretch flanging, the flange can be formed by stretching the edge

of sheet metal (i.e. bending sheet over a curved bend axis)
• In shrink flanging, the flange can be formed by shrinking the edge

of sheet metal (i.e. bending sheet over a curved bend axis)
Straight flanging Stretch flanging Shrink flanging

Contd….
Hemming (Flattening)
• Hemming is the process of bending the edge of the sheet metal

over on itself
• This process increases the stiffness of the part, improves its

appearance, and eliminates sharp edges on the part
Hemming
Contd….
Seaming
• In seaming, the two sheet metal edges are assembled by

hemming
• Double seams are made by similar process using specially shaped

rollers for water tight and air tight joints
Seaming
Contd….
Curling (Beading)
• In curling, the periphery of the sheet metal is bent into the cavity of
a die and thus, forms into a roll or curl
• The bead imparts stiffness to the bent part, improve appearance of

the part and eliminate exposed sharp edges on the part
• Examples of products made by curling include hinges, pots and

pans, and pocket-watch casing
Bead forming with a single die Bead forming with two dies
Contd….
Other bending operations
Channel bending Air bending Offset bending Corrugating
Stretch bending Draw bending Compression bending Mandrels

Methods of tubes bending and forming
Assistant Professor
Lecture # 13

• Concept of Deep drawing
• Mechanics of Deep drawing
• Stages in Deep drawing
• Quantification of cup/deep drawability

Deep drawing
• Deep drawing used to make cup-shaped or box-shaped parts-
beverage cans, food containers, cooking pots, pans, kitchen
sinks, canisters, automobile fuel tanks, ammunition shells, etc.
• A sheet metal blank is placed over a die cavity and then the
metal is pushed into the die opening with a punch
Contd….
Mechanics of deep drawing
c  clearance between punch and die

Db  blank diameter
Dp  punch diameter
Rp  punch corner radius
Rd  die corner radius
Fh  blank holding force
F  drawing force
c = 10% more than the thickness of sheet metal = 1.1 t
If c < t, then ironing occurs

Contd….
Stages in deep drawing
Contd….
• Stage I: As the punch pushes the sheet, it is subjected to
bending. Sheet bending occurs over the punch and die corner
• Stage II: Side cup wall region straightening  sheet metal bent
over the die corner straightened in the clearance region
• Stage III: Friction between sheet and die, and blank holder
surfaces (Fh) opposes the movement of sheet into die opening
• Stage IV: Compression occurs at the edge of the sheet. Since

the perimeter is reduced, thickening of flange occurs
• Stage V: The cup part is made with some thinning in side wall
Quantification of cup drawability
• Drawing ratio, DR = Db/Dp
• Reduction, R = (Db - Dp)/Db
• Limiting values for drawing operation: DR ≤ 2; R ≤ 0.5
• Note: Thickness to diameter ratio (t/Db) of sheet blank > 1%
• Max drawing force, Fmax   D pt ut ( DR  0.7 )
 2 2
• Blank holding force, Fh  0.015 yp  Db  ( D p  2.2t  2 Rd ) 
Contd….
# A cup drawing operation is performed in which the inside
diameter = 80 mm and the height = 50 mm. The stock thickness
= 3 mm, and the starting blank diameter = 150 mm. Punch and
die radii = 4 mm. Tensile strength = 400 MPa and a yield
strength = 180 MPa for this sheet metal. Determine: (a) drawing
ratio, (b) reduction, (c) drawing force, and (d) blank holder force.
• A drawing operation is used to form a cylindrical cup with inside

diameter 75 mm and height 50 mm. The starting blank size is
138 mm and the stock thickness is 2.4 mm. Determine whether
the operation is feasible? If yes, calculate the (a) drawing force
and (b) holding force, given that the tensile strength of the sheet
metal (low-carbon steel) = 300 MPa and yield strength =175
MPa. The die corner radius = 6 mm.
Assistant Professor
Lecture # 14

• Redrawing
• Drawing without BH
• Plastic anisotropy
• Deep drawing defects

Important Note
(1)During drawing operation, the movement of the blank into the

die cavity induces compressive hoop stresses in the flange,
which tend to cause the flange to wrinkle
Wrinkling can be reduced if a blank holder is loaded by a certain

force
(2) The wall of the cup is mainly subjected to a longitudinal tensile

stress due to the punch force
Elongation under this stress causes the cup wall to become

thinner, and if excessive, can cause tearing of the cup
Redrawing
• It is the process of carrying out deep drawing in more than one
step in order to form a complete part
Guidelines for successful redrawing
• 1st draw  maximum reduction of the staring blank: 40% - 45%
• 2nd draw  30%
• 3rd draw  16%
Redrawing
Contd….
Example
• Containers that are too difficult to draw in one operation

generally undergo redrawing
• Due to the volume constancy of the sheet metal, the cup

becomes longer as it is redrawn to smaller diameters
Reverse redrawing
• In this process, the cup is placed upside down in the die and
thus it is subjected to bending in the direction opposite to its
original configuration
Reverse redrawing
Contd….
Deep drawing without blank holder
• For a large t/Db ratio, drawing without BH is possible
i.e. deep drawing may also be carried out successfully without a

BH, provided that the sheet metal is sufficiently thick to prevent
wrinkling
• The die used must have the funnel or cone shape to permit the
material to be drawn properly into the die cavity
• Limiting value for drawing without BH:
Db – Dp < 5t
Contd….
Ironing
• If the clearance between the punch and die is sufficiently large,
the drawn cup will have thicker walls at its rim than at its base
• This indicates that the cup rim diameter has been reduced more
(and thus becomes thicker) than the material constituting the
rest of the cup wall
• As a result, the cup will develop non-uniform wall thickness
• The thickness of the cup wall can be controlled by a process

known as ironing, wherein a drawn cup is pushed through one
or more ironing rings
Contd….
Normal or plastic anisotropy of the sheet metal
• In deep drawing operation, the metallic sheets (i.e. cold rolled

sheets) usually have anisotropy in their planar direction
• This indicates that the metallic sheet material exhibit some

anisotropy property in the sheet plane  normal or plastic
anisotropy of the sheet metal
• A useful parameter to quantify plastic anisotropy is plastic strain

ratio (R)
R = εw/εt εw = true plastic strain in width direction
εt = true plastic strain in thickness direction

Note
(1) Higher the R, large resistance to thinning
(2) For isotropic materials, R = 1
(3) For anisotropic materials, R >1 or R <1
• Since the sheet metal have anisotropy in its planar direction, the
average of the R value has to be taken to quantify all the
variations in the sheet surface
Average R, Ravg = (R0 + 2R45 + R90)/4

Deep drawing defects
Defects Description
Wrinkling
 Waviness developed on the flange

 Waviness retained in cup wall region if
the flange is drawn into die hole
Tearing
 Crack near the base of the cup

 Occurs due to high tensile stresses causing
thinning and failure at this place
Deep drawing defects
Defects Description
Earing
 Height of cup wall have peaks and valleys

 Occurs due to anisotropy in the sheet plane
Surface scratches
 Occurs due to rough punch, dies and poor

lubrication
Assistant Professor
Lecture # 15

• Embossing and Coining
• Stretch Forming
• Forming limit diagram

Embossing
• Make raised features on sheets
• Sheet metal drawn to shallow depths with male and female dies
• Used for making decoration items like number plates, name

plates, jewelry, etc.
Contd….
Coining
• Make impressions on sheet metal
• Squeeze sheet metal  flow of metal takes place at top layer of

metal
• Used for minting coins, making medals, etc.

Contd….
Stretch forming
• Sheet metal forming process in which the sheet is intentionally
stretched and simultaneously bent to have shape change
• The sheet is held by jaws on each end and stretched and bent
over a die block, so that it forms the shape of the die
• The combined effect of stretching and bending results in

relatively less spring back in the part
Contd….
• Advantages: Simple, economical and versatile
• Limitations:
 Low volume production
 Complicated shapes cannot be produced
 Parts with sharp contours cannot be produced
• Applications:
 Aircraft wing skin panels
 Automobile door panels
 Window frames
Contd….
Forming limit diagram
• FLD quantifies the formability of a sheet metal
• FLC  amount of safe strains that can be incorporated into the

sheet metal  locus of all the limit strains in different strain
paths of sheet metal
Assistant Professor
Lecture # 16

• Spinning and its types
• Comparison of spinning and deep drawing
• HERF and its types

Spinning
• Spinning is a metal-forming process in which an axially
symmetric part is gradually shaped over a mandrel by means of
a rounded tool or roller
• The tool or roller applies a very localized pressure to deform the

work by axial and radial motions over the surface of the part.
• Produce cups, cones, hemispheres and tubes

Contd….
Types of Spinning
• Conventional spinning
• Shear spinning
• Tube spinning
Conventional spinning
Contd….
• The spinning setup consists of a machine similar to center lathe.
To the headstock of the spinning machine, the mandrel/form
block is fixed (which acts as an impression of the part to be
made)
• The axi-symmetry sheet metal blank (sheet metal disc) is

attached/clamped to the mandrel by means of a freely rotating
wooden block from the tail stock
• After clamping, the blank is rotated to its operating speed. The

spinning speed depends on blank material, thickness and
complexity of the desired shape.
Contd….
• The roller is pressed and moved gradually on the blank
(deforms the blank against the mandrel by axial and radial
motions over the surface of the blank) so that the blank takes
the shape of the form block/mandrel
• The manipulation of spinning tool (roller) is a highly skilled art.

The rounded tool or roller is moved back and forth on the blank
so that thinning should not takes place anywhere on the blank
• The tool position is controlled either by human operator

(manually/manual spinning) or numerical control
(automatic/power spinning)
Contd….
• Power spinning has the capability to apply large force, resulting
in faster cycle time and greater work size capacity. It can control
the spinning process in a better manner than manual spinning
• Conventional spinning bends the sheet metal around the outside

surface of moving mandrel. Therefore the thickness of the sheet
metal after spinning remains (more or less) same relative to the
starting disc thickness
• But the diameter of the sheet metal after spinning (resulting

part) is reduced than before spinning (starting disc)
Contd….
Shear spinning
• Sheet metal blank is attached to the rotating mandrel and
gradual force is applied on the blank using a roller
• The roller deforms the blank by shearing over the surface of the
blank, so that the blank takes the shape the mandrel
• Outside dia of the shear strained part remains same but wall
thickness is reduced (thinning of metal takes place)
Contd….
Tube spinning
• Similar to shear spinning except that the starting w/p is a tube
rather than a sheet metal disk
• Used to reduce wall thickness and increase the length of a tube

using a roller pressed against the tube externally or internally
• Form profiles in the walls of the mandrel by controlling the path

of the roller as it moves tangentially along the wall
Comparison of spinning and cup deep drawing
Spinning Cup deep drawing

(1) More time required for making a cup (1) Less time required for making a cup
(2) More skill is required in the process (2) Less skill is required in the process
(3) Suitable for small scale production (3) Suitable for large scale production
(4) Large parts can be made easily (4) ) Large parts cannot be made easily
(5) Complicated and re-entrant shapes (5) Complicated and re-entrant shapes
are possible to make are difficult to make
Contd….
HERF
• In HERF, large amount of energy is applied on the sheet metal

in a very short time to form a desired shape and size
• Types of HERF:
 Explosive forming
 Electro-hydraulic forming
 Electromagnetic forming
Contd….
Explosive forming
Electro-hydraulic forming Electromagnetic forming

Assistant Professor
Lecture # 17

• Presses and its types
• Stamping die
• Types of stamping die

Presses
• Press  machine tool used for sheet metal working having a
stationary bed and powered ram
• Ram can be driven either by mechanical or hydraulic power

Contd….
Types of Presses
Fly Presses Mechanical Presses
Hydraulic
Presses
Comparison between Hydraulic and Mechanical drive
Hydraulic drive system Mechanical drive system

(1) Provides longer ram stroke (1) Provides shorter ram stroke
(2) Large force can be applied (2) Large force can be applied at the
throughout the entire stroke bottom of the stroke
(3) Runs slower (3) Runs faster
(4) Suited to deep drawing operation (4) ) Suited to blanking, punching and
coining operations
Contd….
Dies
• Die  single tool acts as an impression of the part to be made
• Punch and die  tool set also known as stamping die

Contd….
Types of stamping Dies
• Simple die
• Compound die
• Combination die
• Progressive die
Assistant Professor
Lecture # 18

• Concept of jigs and fixtures
• Purpose of jigs and fixtures
• Elements of jigs and fixtures
• Types of jigs and fixtures
• Applications
• Factors considered for design of jigs and fixtures

Jigs and Fixtures
• Jigs and fixtures?
• Purpose of jigs and fixtures?
• Methods of locating, supporting and clamping of workpiece

and guidance of cutting tool
Contd….
Jigs and Fixtures
• Jig is a mechanical device used to locate, support & hold the

workpiece, & also guide the tool to perform a specific operation
• Fixture is used to locate, support & hold the workpiece to

perform a specific operation
Contd….
Purpose of Jigs and Fixtures
• Higher batch productivity
• Better accuracy
• Consistent quality
• Repeatability
• Interchangeability
W– without jigs and fixtures F– using jigs and fixtures
A– automatic machine tools

Difference between Jigs and Fixtures
Jigs Fixtures
(1) Locate, support and hold the (1) Locate, support and hold the
workpiece, and guide the cutting tool workpiece
(2) Not fixed on work table (2) Fixed on work table
(3) Lighter in construction (3) Heavier in construction
(4) Used in drilling, reaming, tapping, (4) ) Used in milling, grinding, turning,
boring, etc. planning, shaping, etc.
(5) Complex design and cost is more (5) Simple design and cost is less
Contd….
Elements of Jigs and Fixtures
• Base and frame • Clamping elements
• Locating elements • Tool guiding frame & bushes
• Supporting surfaces • Auxiliary fastening elements

Contd….
Materials used for Jigs & Fixtures
• Grey cast iron
• Hardened steel
• Alloy steel
• Carbides
• Stainless steel
• Bronze
Contd….
Types of Jigs and Fixtures
Jigs Fixtures
• Template • Plate
• Plate • Vise-jaw
• Channel • Indexing
• Ring • Multi-station
• Box
• Leaf
• Indexing
Contd….
Advantages of Jigs and Fixtures
• Eliminates the setting time required before machining
• Increases machining accuracy, quality of production & production

rate
• Reduces operator skill
• Reduces production cost
• Increases machine utilization

Contd….
Disadvantages
• High initial setup cost
• Bulky
• Wear out over time

Contd….
Applications
• Mass production of automobile parts
• Cutting ingots in steel plant
• Machine shops for mass drilling, tapping, turning, milling, etc.
• Refrigeration industry
• Pump assembling process
• Multi-spindle machining
Contd….
Factors considered for design of Jigs and Fixtures
• Locating of the workpiece easily, quickly and accurately with

respect to the cutting tool
• Strong, rigid and stable support to the workpiece
• Strong and rigid clamping of the workpiece without interrupting any

other operations
• Guidance for cutting tools
• Loading and unloading the workpiece easily and quickly
• Minimum number of parts for making the jig or fixture

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Manufacturing Technology

Dr. Ranjeet Kumar Sahu

Department of Mechanical Engineering

• Fundamentals of Metal Forming

• Mechanism of Plastic deformation

• Process in which desired size and shape are obtained through

• Plastic deformation takes place when the stress caused in the

• Note: Plastic deformation is the deformation which is permanent

• Process is economical  desired shape, size and finish can be

• Plastic deformation of a metal can be achieved in 2 ways:

• Crystalline material  Plastic deformation can be achieved in 2

• Amorphous material  Plastic deformation can be achieved by

 Each grain of a metal consists of a number of unit cells arranged in a

 Slip of metal takes place along a plane which is subjected to highest

 This indicates that deformation of a metal occurs by slip

 This indicates that deformation of a metal occurs by twinning

 Twinned portion of the crystal is mirror image of parent crystal

Dr. Ranjeet Kumar Sahu

Department of Mechanical Engineering

• Hot and Cold Working

• Classification of Metal Forming Processes

• Plastic deformation of a metal  metal flow in the solid state along

• Crystals or grains of the metal get elongated in the direction of

• As a result, new grains/crystals are formed at various locations in

• This process of formation of new grains /crystals is known as

• Recrystallisation temperature (RCT)  new grains are

• RCT = 1/3 to 1/2 of melting point of most of the metals

• Mechanical working of a metal takes place above the

• i.e. Deforming the material at a temperature more than the

Cold working (Working temperature  ≤ 0.3 Tm)

• Mechanical working of a metal takes place below the

• i.e. Deforming the material at a temperature less than the

(8) Dimensional accuracy is difficult to (8) Better dimensional accuracy can be

• When a metal is plastically deformed there is a movement of

• More dislocations within a material, more they will interact and

• This will result in a decrease in the mobility of the dislocations and

• This type of strengthening is known as strain hardening

• Annealing  heat treatment process  heating the metal or alloy

• Materials after cold working are subjected to annealing process to

 soften the metal

 refine grain size

Metal forming processes

Bulk metal Sheet metal

Wire /Tube Bending

Dr. Ranjeet Kumar Sahu

Department of Mechanical Engineering

• RECOMMENDED TEXT BOOKS

• Conventional machining processes Dr. Ramesh M R

• Non-traditional machining operations and analysis Dr. RKS

• Sheet metal forming processes

• Mechanics of metal removal processes Dr. Sudhakar C Jambagi

Online Continuous Evaluation

Mid Semester Online Exam 20

End Semester Online Exam 30

• Manufacturing Technology- Foundry, Forming and Welding by P.N

• Manufacturing Science and Engineering by A. Ghosh and A.K.

• Principles of Manufacturing Materials and Processes by James S.

• Non-Conventional Machining by P.K. Mishra,, 6th Edition Narosa

• Manufacturing  make or create something by some techniques

• Objects/products around you

• Broad sense  Production  converting I/Ps into O/Ps

Production Production without manufacturing

 Work presented to public, etc.