BIOMOLECULES

BY SIMPLY CONCISE
 CARBOHYDRATES
Definition - optically active polyhydroxy aldehydes or ketones or the
compounds which produce such units on hydrolysis
eg - cane sugar, glucose, starch, etc
General formula - Cₓ(H₂O)ᵧ // hydrates of carbon
C₆H₁₂O₆ ✓ CH₃COOH ✘

SIMPLY CONCISE
C₆(H₂O)₆ C₂(H₂O)₂
 TYPES OF CARBOHYDRATES
Classification of carbs:
1) Based on behaviour on hydrolysis -
a) monosaccharides - cannot be hydrolysed further to give simpler units
eg - glucose, fructose, ribose

b) oligosaccharides - yield 2 to 10 monosaccharide units on hydrolysis

eg - disaccharides : sucrose --→ glucose + fructose

SIMPLY CONCISE
c) polysaccharides - yield a large no. of monosaccharide units on hydrolysis
eg - starch, cellulose, glycogen, gums
// non sugars

2) Based on reducing nature -

a) reducing sugars - reduce Fehling’s solution and Tollens’ reagent
eg - all monosaccharides, maltose, lactose

b) non reducing sugars - doesn’t reduce Fehling’s solution and Tollens’ reagent
eg - sucrose
 MONOSACCHARIDES
Classification of monosaccharides:
C atoms term
3 triose aldehyde : aldo
4 tetrose ketone : keto
5 pentose
hexose eg- ketoheptose
6

SIMPLY CONCISE
7 heptose
 GLUCOSE
Methods of preparation:
1) from sucrose (cane sugar) -
C₁₂H₂₂O₁₁ + H₂O ⟶H⁺ C₆H₁₂O₆ + C₆H₁₂O₆ // inversion of cane sugar
sucrose glucose fructose
+ + -
+52.5° -92.4°

SIMPLY CONCISE
2) from starch -
H⁺
(C₆H₁₀O₅)ₙ + nH₂O 393K; 2-3 atm
nC₆H₁₂O₆
starch glucose

Structure of glucose:
Fischer projection -
CHO CHO
CHO
H OH HO H
H OH
HO H CH₂OH CH₂OH
H OH D - (+) - Glucose (+) - Glyceraldehyde (-) - Glyceraldehyde
H OH lowest chiral carbon
CH₂OH
 GLUCOSE
Chemical reactions:
1) Reaction with HI -
CHO
HI, Δ
(CHOH)₄ CH₃-CH₂-CH₂-CH₂-CH₂-CH₃ // all 6 C atoms are linked in a
n-hexane straight chain
CH₂OH

CHO
NH₂OH
SIMPLY CONCISE
2) Reaction with hydroxylamine -
CH=N-OH

(CHOH)₄ (CHOH)₄
oxime
CH₂OH CH₂OH
// presence of a carbonyl group
(>C = O) in glucose
3) Reaction with HCN -
CN
CHO CH
OH
HCN
(CHOH)₄ (CHOH)₄
cyanohydrin
CH₂OH CH₂OH
 GLUCOSE
Chemical reactions:
4) Reaction with Bromine water -
CHO COOH
Br₂ + H₂O
(CHOH)₄ (CHOH)₄ // the carbonyl group is present
gluconic acid as an aldehydic group
CH₂OH CH₂OH

acetic
SIMPLY CONCISE
5) Reaction with acetic anhydride -
CHO CHO
// 5 OH group attached to different
(CHOH)₄ anhydride
(CH-O-CO-CH₃)₄
Carbon atoms
CH₂OH CH₂-O-CO-CH₃

6) Reaction with nitric acid -

CHO COOH
HNO₃
// presence of a primary alcoholic
(CHOH)₄ (CHOH)₄ group in glucose
CH₂OH COOH saccharic acid
 GLUCOSE
Cyclic structure of glucose:
# Reasons - 1) glucose doesn’t give Schiff’s test and NaHSO₃ test
2) the pentaacetate of glucose does not react with NH₂OH
3) glucose exists in two different crystalline forms - α and β

O-

SIMPLY CONCISE
1 1 1
H C OH H C+ OH C H
2 2 2
H OH H OH H OH
3 O 3 3 O
HO H HO H HO H
4 4 4
H OH H OH H OH
5 5 - + 5
H H OH H
6 CH₂OH 6 CH₂OH 6 CH₂OH
α - D - (+) - Glucose β - D - (+) - Glucose

6 CH₂OH 6 CH₂OH
5 5
H O H H O OH
// α and β are
4 H H 1 4 H H 1
OH C-1 anomers OH
HO 3 2
OH HO 3 2
H
H OH H OH
α - D - (+) - Glucopyranose β - D - (+) - Glucopyranose
 FRUCTOSE
Structure of fructose:
# Fischer p rojection -

1 CH₂OH
2
1
+ - 2
1
OH C CH₂OH 2 C O OH C CH₂OH
3 O 3 3 O
HO H HO H HO H
4 4 4
H OH H OH H OH

SIMPLY CONCISE
5 5 - + 5
H H OH H
6 CH₂OH 6 CH₂OH 6 CH₂OH
α - D - (-) - Fructose β - D - (-) - Fructose

# Haworth structures -
6 1 6
HOH₂C O CH₂OH HOH₂C O OH
// α and β are
5
H HO 2
C-2 anomers
5
H HO 2

H 4 3
OH H 4 3
CH₂OH
1
HO H HO H
α - D - (-) - Fructofuranose β - D - (-) - Fructofuranose
 DISACCHARIDES
Sucrose:
C1-C2 glycosidic linkage
6 CH₂OH 6 CH₂OH // non reducing
1 1
H
5
O H HOH₂C O H H
5
O H HOH₂C O H
H H HO
-H₂O H H HO
4
OH 1 2
H 5 4
OH 1 2
H 5
O
HO 3 2
OH HO 3 4
CH₂OH HO 3 2 3 4
CH₂OH
6 6
H OH HO H H OH HO H
α - D - Glucose

SIMPLY CONCISE
β - D - Fructose

Maltose:
C1-C4 glycosidic linkage
// re ducing
6 CH₂OH 6 CH₂OH 6 CH₂OH 6 CH₂OH
5 5 5 5
H O H H O H H O H H O H
4 H H 1 4 H H 1 -H₂O 4 H H 1 4 H H 1
OH OH OH OH
O
HO 3 2
OH HO 3 2
OH HO 3 2 3 2
OH
H OH H OH H OH H OH
α - D - Glucose α - D - Glucose
 DISACCHARIDES
Lactose:
6 CH₂OH 6 CH₂OH 6 CH₂OH 6 CH₂OH
5 5 5 5
OH O OH H O OH OH O H O OH
4 H H 1 4 H H 1 -H₂O 4 H H 1 O 4 H H 1
OH OH OH OH
H 3 2
H HO 3 2
H H 3 2
H 3 2
H
H OH H OH H OH H OH
β - D - Galactose

SIMPLY CONCISE
β - D - Glucose
C1-C4 glycosidic linkage
// reducing
 POLYSACCHARIDES
Starch: polymer of α - D - Glucose
1) Amylose -
6 CH₂OH 6 CH₂OH 6 CH₂OH
5 5 5
H O H H O H H O H
H H H - water soluble component
4
OH H 1 4
OH H 1 4
OH H 1
O
2
O
2
O
2
O - constitutes about 15-20% of starch
3 3 3

SIMPLY CONCISE
H OH H OH H OH

2) Amylopectin -
6 CH₂OH 6 CH₂OH
5 5
H O H H O H
4 H H 1 4 H H 1
OH OH
O O
3 2 3 2 O - water insoluble component
H OH H HO - constitutes about 80-85% of starch
6 CH₂OH 6 CH₂ 6 CH₂OH
5 5 5
H O H H O H H O H
4 H H 1 4 H H 1 4 H H 1
OH OH OH
O O O O
3 2 3 2 3 2

H OH H OH H OH
 POLYSACCHARIDES
Cellulose: pol ymer of β - D - Glucose

6 CH₂OH 6 CH₂OH 6 CH₂OH

SIMPLY CONCISE
5 5 5
H O H O H O
O H O H O H O
4
OH H 1 4
OH H 1 4
OH H 1

3 2 H 3 2 H 3 2 H
H OH H OH H OH
SIMPLY CONCISE
PROTEINS
SIMPLY CONCISE
 AMINO ACIDS
Amino acids contain amino (–NH2) and carboxyl (–COOH) groups

Types of amino acids:

1) α - amino acids 2) β - amino acids 3) γ - amino acids
R R R
α β α γ β α
H₂N C COOH H₂N C CH₂ COOH H₂N C CH₂ CH₂ COOH
H
SIMPLY CONCISE
H H

monomer of proteins
 AMINO ACIDS
Classification of α - amino acids:
1) B ased on relative number of amino and carboxyl groups
a) acidic amino acids - more carboxyl groups than amino groups
eg - aspartic acid
b) basic amino acids - more amino groups than carboxyl groups

SIMPLY CONCISE
eg - lysine
c) neutral amino acids - equal number of amino and carboxyl groups
eg - leucine

2) B ased on synthesis
a) essential amino acids - cannot be synthesised in the body
eg - phenyl alanine
b) non essential amino acids - can be synthesised in the body
eg - alanine
 AMINO ACIDS

SIMPLY CONCISE
 AMINO ACIDS
amino acids behave like salts rather than amines or carboxylic acids
due to the presence of both acidic & basic groups in the same molecule
In aqueous solⁿ, the carboxyl group can lose a proton and amino group
can accept a proton, giving rise to a dipolar ion known as zwitter ion

SIMPLY CONCISE
R R
H₂N C COOH ⁺H₃N C COO⁻
H H
 PROTEINS
Definition: polymers of α - ami no acids
R R R R
-H₂O
H₂N C COOH H₂N C COOH H₂N C CO HN C COOH
H H H H

SIMPLY CONCISE
peptide linkage

 ipeptide - made up of 2 amino acids

D
T ripeptide - made up of 3 amino acids
T etrapeptide - made up of 4 amino acids
P olypeptide - made up of more than 10 amino acids
> 100 amino acids -> PROTEIN
 PROTEINS
Classification of Proteins: on the basis of their molecular shape
1) F
 ibrous proteins -
polypeptide chains run parallel to give a fibre like structure
held together by hydrogen and disulphide bonds
generally insoluble in water
eg - keratin, myosin

2) G
SIMPLY CONCISE
 lobular proteins -
polypeptide chains coil around to give a spherical shape
held together by hydrogen and disulphide bonds
generally soluble in water
eg - insulin, albumin
 PROTEINS
Structure of Proteins: can be studied at 4 levels
1) P rimary structure - sequence of amino acids in the constituent polypeptides
2) S econdary structure - shape of the long polypeptide chain
a) α-helix structure - b) β-pleated structure -

Stabilizing Forces:
hydrogen bonds
disulphide linkages
van der Waals forces
electrostatic forces

3) T ertiary structure - overall folding of the polypeptide chains

two major shapes - fibrous and globular
4) Q
 uaternary structure - The spatial arrangement of two or more polypeptide
units with respect to each other
 PROTEINS
Denaturation of Proteins: degradation of the protein structure
cause : physical change - change in temperature or pH
effect : H-bonds are disturbed, due to which globules unfold and helix
get uncoiled and protein loses its biological activity
eg : coagulation of egg white on boiling

SIMPLY CONCISE
curdling of milk due to the formation of lactic acid
note : secondary and tertiary structures are destroyed but primary
structure remains intact
 NUCLEIC ACID
nucleic acids are long chain polymers of nucleotides
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA)
Chemical composition -
A. pentose sugar B. nitrogenous base C. phosphoric acid
RNA - DNA -

SIMPLY CONCISE
5
O O
HOH₂C OH adenine (A) adenine (A)
4
H H 1 guanine (G) guanine (G) HO P OH
H H cytosine (C) cytosine (C)
3 2
uracil (U) thymine (T) OH
HO OH
β - D - ribose

5
HOH₂C O OH
4
H H 1

H 3 2
H
HO H
β - D - 2 - deoxyribose
 NUCLEIC ACID
Structure of nucleic acids -
O
5
O - 5
O
HOH₂C base O P O H₂C base
4
H H 1 - 4
H H 1
O dinucleotide
H H H H
O-
3 2 3 2

SIMPLY CONCISE
HO OH HO OH 5
O P O H₂C O base
nucleoside nucleotide
- 4
H H 1
O
H 3 2
H

Phosphodiester
O OH
linkage O
5
O P O H₂C O base
- 4
H H 1
O
H 3 2
H
HO OH
 NUCLEIC ACID
Double strand helix structure for DNA :

Base pair:
adenine - thymine (A - T)
guanine - cytosine (G - C)

SIMPLY CONCISE

DNA
 ENZYMES
compounds produced by living bodies which catalyses various
reactions in the body

invertase
sucrose glucose + fructose characteristics:
diastase
starch maltose highly efficient
maltase
maltose glucose highly specific

SIMPLY CONCISE
zymase
glucose alcohol active under optimum pH and temp

Key - Lock Mechanism:

product product
reactant
reactant product product

enzyme enzyme
enzyme enzyme
 VITAMINS
organic compounds that are required in small amounts in our diet but
deficiency of which causes specific diseases

Classification of Vitamins: on the basis of solubility in water or fat

1) F
 at soluble vitamins -
soluble in fat but insoluble in water

SIMPLY CONCISE
stored in liver and adipose tissue
eg - vitamin A, D, E and K
2) W
 ater soluble vitamins -
soluble in water but insoluble in fat
cannot be stored in body (except B₁₂)
must be supplied regularly through diet
eg - vitamin B and C
 VITAMINS

SIMPLY CONCISE
 HORMONES
chemicals produced by endocrine glands that act as intracellular
messengers and are poured directly in the blood stream

Classification of Hormones:
1) P eptide Hormones -
Insulin & Glucagon - Pancreas - maintains glucose level in blood

SIMPLY CONCISE
2) Amino Acid Hormones -
Epinephrine & Norepinephrine - adrenal gland - mediate responses to ext. stimuli
Thyroxine - thyroid gland - regulates metabolism of lipids, proteins & carbs
3) S teroid Hormones -
Mineralocorticoids - adrenal cortex - controls the excretion of water and salt
Glucocorticoids - adrenal cortex - modulates inflammatory & stress reactions
Testosterone - testes - development of secondary male characteristics
Estradiol - ovary - development of secondary female characteristics
Progesterone - ovary - prepares the uterus for implantation of fertilised egg