See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/335024835

Media and information literacy: a measurement instrument for adolescents

Article in Educational Review · August 2019

DOI: 10.1080/00131911.2019.1646708

CITATIONS READS

12 1,698

4 authors:

Sandra Liliana Cuervo Sánchez Ainize Foronda

Universidad del País Vasco / Euskal Herriko Unibertsitatea PUCESE
6 PUBLICATIONS 61 CITATIONS 8 PUBLICATIONS 22 CITATIONS

SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE

Ana Rodriguez Martinez Concepción Medrano Samaniego

Zaragoza's University Universidad del País Vasco / Euskal Herriko Unibertsitatea
16 PUBLICATIONS 124 CITATIONS 92 PUBLICATIONS 749 CITATIONS

SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE

Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects:

Inclusión educativa en PUCESE View project

Design of an intervention program for the improvement of MIL skills in ecuatorian university students View project

All content following this page was uploaded by Ana Rodriguez Martinez on 04 April 2020.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

 Educational Review

ISSN: 0013-1911 (Print) 1465-3397 (Online) Journal homepage: https://www.tandfonline.com/loi/cedr20

Media and information literacy: a measurement

instrument for adolescents

Sandra Liliana Cuervo Sánchez, Ainize Foronda Rojo, Ana Rodríguez

Martínez & Concepción Medrano Samaniego

To cite this article: Sandra Liliana Cuervo Sánchez, Ainize Foronda Rojo, Ana Rodríguez Martínez
& Concepción Medrano Samaniego (2019): Media and information literacy: a measurement
instrument for adolescents, Educational Review, DOI: 10.1080/00131911.2019.1646708

To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/00131911.2019.1646708

Published online: 07 Aug 2019.

Submit your article to this journal

Article views: 55

View related articles

View Crossmark data

Full Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at

https://www.tandfonline.com/action/journalInformation?journalCode=cedr20
EDUCATIONAL REVIEW
https://doi.org/10.1080/00131911.2019.1646708

Media and information literacy: a measurement instrument

for adolescents
Sandra Liliana Cuervo Sánchez a, Ainize Foronda Rojo b
, Ana Rodríguez Martínez c

and Concepción Medrano Samaniego a

a
Faculty of Education, Philosophy and Anthropology, University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), Leioa,
Spain; bSchool of Education, Pontifical Catholic University of Ecuador in Esmeraldas, Esmeraldas, Ecuador;
c
Department of Education, University of Zaragoza, Zaragoza, Spain

ABSTRACT ARTICLE HISTORY

Media and information literacy is the process of empowering people Received 28 March 2019
to seek, evaluate, use and create information effectively in order to Accepted 16 July 2019
achieve their personal, social, occupational and educational goals. KEYWORDS
This paper presents the dimensions and categories of an instrument Media and information
(the MIL questionnaire) developed within the University of the literacy; media education;
Basque Country’s UNESCO Chair in Communication and Educational adolescence; measurement
Values, which aims to analyse media and information literacy levels instruments
amongst adolescents. The instrument is based on four dimensions
that encompass basic aspects of the field of educommunication.
These dimensions are: (1) Media access and use; (2) Media language
and critical comprehension; (3) Production and programming pro-
cesses; and (4) Transforming one’s situation through communication.
The aim of this piece of research was to test the reliability and validity
of this instrument in a pilot study conducted with 167 adolescents
aged between 13 and 15, from schools in Colombia, Ecuador and
Spain. With the exception of the first dimension, the results indicate
that the questionnaire has an acceptable reliability level and is an
adequate instrument for evaluating media and information literacy
among adolescents.

1. Introduction
The acknowledgment of the fact that the media now play a predominant role in
modern-day human life has, in recent decades, resulted in the recognition of the need
to teach students media literacy, i.e. to render them capable of analysing and adopting
a critical attitude to the information they see, hear and read.
Media literacy is seen as an ongoing process of questioning and understanding the
true meaning of the messages conveyed by the different media. It is also seen as the
acquisition of the knowledge required to foster the relationship between rational and
critical information consumption (Buckingham & Rodríguez, 2013).
The European Parliament (2008) defines media literacy as the ability to access, analyse
and assess the images, sounds and messages present in everyday contemporary life.
Other authors add that it is also the ability to use the media and media languages

CONTACT Sandra Liliana Cuervo Sánchez sandracuervo.sanchez@gmail.com

© 2019 Educational Review
2 S. L. CUERVO SÁNCHEZ ET AL.

critically and creatively in different social and cultural contexts, using any device or
medium (Cuervo & Medrano, 2013; Ferrés & Piscitelli, 2012). In this context it is necessary
to point out how Pereira, Fillol, and Moura (2019) emphasise that media enters the
school through student use but in general this use of the media is not analysed or
worked on in the classroom.
Nevertheless, with the onset of the information era, media literacy has merged with
information literacy, broadening its scope to include a process of “empowering people
in all walks of life to seek, evaluate, use and create information effectively to achieve
their personal, social, occupational and educational goals. It is a basic human right in
a digital world and promotes the social inclusion of all nations.” (Wilson, Grizzle, Tuazon,
Akyempong, & Cheung, 2011, p. 16).
This process is materialised in a set of abilities, skills and knowledge which together make
up what is known as media and information literacy, or MIL (Hobbs, 2011). MIL is therefore a set
of individual abilities which are developed in relation to the media and which go beyond the
usual digital competences. It is therefore important to understand that the concept encom-
passes all the skills related to media literacy, digital literacy and information literacy. Table 1
presents a summary of the educational perspective of each of these three types of literacy.
A number of proposals have been forwarded regarding what exactly is understood by
media literacy and what elements and dimensions make up the construct, and many
authors have contributed to this debate (Buckingham, 2005; Livingstone, 2004; Marten,
2010; Pungente, Duncan, & Andersen, 2005). As such we must highlight the work of
Khlaisang and Koraneekij (2019), who have developed a standardised measurement instru-
ment with students possessing a higher level of education. In this study, the MIL measure-
ment instrument presented here (a questionnaire) was developed on the basis of the
research and conceptualisation work on media and new technology education carried out
by Ferrés et al. (2011).
The structure we propose consists of four large-scale dimensions which together aim
to identify adolescents’ ability level both in relation to the information they receive and
generate, and as regards mediations. Each dimension has a theoretical basis which
encompasses research findings in the field of media, information and digital literacy.
Each dimension comprises a set of categories which serve as indicators, establishing theme-
based ranges of basic knowledge. The instrument is not an attitude questionnaire, but rather
a test designed to measure recognition and mastery. The statistical reliability levels for each
dimension, as observed in the pilot study, are presented later on in the results section.
The aim of the questionnaire is to identify respondents’ level of media and informa-
tion literacy. It is therefore a quantitative and evaluative instrument in which every
response is scored, and the total scores for all four dimensions calculated. The point

Table 1. Summary of media, digital and information literacy.

Literacy Media Information Digital
Origins Media studies Librarian studies and the IT and computing
information sciences
Skills Analysis, understanding and evaluation Access to and analysis of Use of software and
of media messages information hardware
Areas of Social and political Organisation of information Technology
development
 EDUCATIONAL REVIEW 3

range established is 0–100, with the points being divided between the four dimensions.
See Table 2: Dimensions and categories of Media and Information Literacy.
Since the assessment scales used in prior research have all focused on digital
competences, education specialists or the self-reporting of skills through Likert-type
scales (Chang et al., 2011; Eristi & Erdem, 2017; Lee, Chen, Li, & Lin, 2015; Literat,
2014), this instrument is an innovative one in the field of media and information
literacy.

2. Theoretical basis and description of the dimensions of the questionnaire

2.1. Media access and use
This dimension refers to people’s interaction with both the traditional media and new
communication technologies. It focuses on the ways and means by which people access
and use media and information. In other words, it analyses their habits and abilities, the
spaces/moments in which they use the media and the metacognitive elements that
prompt them to decide to view a specific content or use a specific technology.
The ways in which people interact with the media are related to convenience,
availability and access. They are also influenced by their ability to use search tools and
platforms, their knowledge of programmes tailored specifically to their needs and their
use of the functions provided by different devices. In other words, the aim is to analyse
the cognitive development required to use technology and the traditional media as an
extension of our existing senses.
Media use is also related to the reasons which prompt individuals to turn to them in the first
place, as well as to their ability to access the information they seek. This entails identifying the
characteristics and aims of the communication established (leisure, pleasure, need, work),
determining the quality of the information provided and developing the cognitive skills
required to home in on what is sought from the broad scope of information available.
This dimension also includes the ethical judgments made by individuals when making
decisions about mediations. In other words, the decision to access content not recommended
for those with specific characteristics (Bennett & Maton, 2010), the degree to which one
chooses to believe the information provided or one’s reasons for accessing this information
in the first place (Pérez Tornero & Varis, 2010). The three categories that make up this
dimension are as follows:

Table 2. Dimensions and categories of media and information literacy.

Dimension
Media access and use
Language and critical comprehension
Production and programming processes
Transforming one’s situation through communication
Category
a. Production mechanisms
b. Telematics and technological tools
c. Media and information use
d. Interpreting images and justifying one’s decisions
e. Image-based creation
f. Aesthetic criteria and value judgments
g. Production phases
h. Cultural function of the media and information
i. Receptive and critical awareness
j. Communications skills
k. Technological appropriation
4 S. L. CUERVO SÁNCHEZ ET AL.

a. Production mechanisms: the aim here is to measure students’ level of knowledge

regarding the ways in which products can be obtained in different formats
(audiovisual, text, images).
b. Telematic and technological tools: this refers to students’ ability to use basic tools;
this includes communication tools such as mobile telephones and/or the ability to
cut, paste and insert elements using office software.
c. Media and information use: this is linked to students’ ability to identify the
formulas, terms and “access routes” required for different media in order to find,
publish and use information.

In order to measure adolescents’ level of knowledge regarding the elements included in

all three categories (Production mechanisms, Telematic and technological tools and Media
and information use), respondents are presented with an image and three types of exercises:
one focusing on the observation and identification of both the means of production and the
content of the message, one related to the use of search patterns and one linked to the use
of basic telematic cut and paste functions, as well as to the development of multitask
activities.
Within the second category: Telematic and technological tools, the instrument seeks to
elicit more in-depth information through a question which evaluates students’ knowl-
edge of how information is stored in different communication and multimedia devices.
This category was developed on the basis of the conclusions drawn by research into
students and the media (Falbe et al., 2014; Somyürek & Coşkun, 2013; Willoughby, 2008).
These studies coincide in indicating that this segment of the population tends to have
excellent access to computers, the Internet, mobile telephones and multiple digital
devices, and is proficient in their use. Therefore, the question about telematic and
technological tools aims to describe this reality, rather than assess students’ specific
knowledge about a particular device or programme.

2.2 Language and critical comprehension of media and information

The second dimension refers to respondents’ knowledge of the codes, symbols and
structures contained in messages and the media, as well as their ability to recognise the
purposes and intentions implicit in communication processes.
This dimension focuses on the semantics, semiotics and syntax of messages in different
formats (images, text and/or sound) and aims to measure students’ knowledge of the
internal structures of the different media languages. Consequently, the instrument asks
respondents to interpret images and audiovisual content, and contains exercises in which
participants are asked to tell stories and make assessments based on aesthetic judgments.
The element that complements this dimension is related to the extent to which students
are capable of engaging in critical thinking in relation to mediations and messages. In other
words, it measures their awareness of the power relations embedded in the media and the
assessment of information. The aim is to identify the ideological intentions, representations
and stereotypes contained within the messages conveyed. The dimension also evaluates
whether students are capable of engaging in a comparative interpretation of the veracity
of the information, and the extent to which they understand the medium as a message and
comprehend the scope of market strategies. Finally, it also measures their awareness of the
 EDUCATIONAL REVIEW 5

political role played by the media in the information and consumer society (Crook, 2005;
Martin-Beltrán, Tigert, Peercy, & Silverman, 2017).
The three categories that make up this dimension are as follows:

a. Interpreting images and justifying one’s decisions: this category aims to identify
two aspects, (i) respondents’ knowledge of the components of audiovisual lan-
guage such as types of shots, time references and compositions, and (ii) their
ability to defend their interpretation, based on technical knowledge and semiotics.
b. Image-based creation: this category aims to gauge students’ ability to organise
narrative sequences, bearing in mind the technical aspects of the images pre-
sented, such as angles, shots and the coherence of the narrative structure
c. Aesthetic criteria and value judgments: this category is related to the different
analyses that precede an individual’s aesthetic value judgment of a text or audio-
visual or multimedia content. In other words, it refers to the objective analysis
(qualities of things), the symbolic analysis (representation) and the subjective
analysis (experience-based) carried out in relation to a message.

Two exercises are included in the Interpreting images and justifying one’s decisions
category. The first consists of providing respondents with nine images and asking them
to select the one that best coincides with a given statement. In order to respond
correctly to this question, respondents must bear in mind the grammatical criteria of
visual language, such as shot, focus, framing and colour.
The second exercise is an argumentative one, and aims to assess adolescents’ ability
to recognise, from a list of given statements, the ones that best account for the reasons
prompting their choice.
For the Image-based creation category, the instrument asks respondents to construct
a story based on an initial image and nine optional pictures that portray different scenes.
Respondents must order them so that they tell a coherent story, bearing in mind various
elements of visual grammar such as angle and shot type. Respondents can only use five
of the nine optional images presented.
In the Aesthetic criteria and value judgments category, the questionnaire proposes two
argumentative exercises. The first asks about the aesthetic reasons which prompt respon-
dents to select one of two possible adverts. Eight answer options are given, from which
respondents must select those that best describe their reasons. The second exercise aims to
identify the arguments behind value judgments. Four opinion statements are given regard-
ing an advert and respondents are asked to choose the one they identify most with.

2.3. Production and programming processes

This dimension aims to measure students’ knowledge of the tools used to create
messages in the media, as well as their awareness of the way in which people dissemi-
nate and represent their own information.
The aim here is to identify the production mechanisms and techniques used by
respondents. The questionnaire therefore evaluates whether or not they know the
general details of production, preproduction and postproduction processes, the profes-
sions related to the field of communication and the dissemination means used. It also
6 S. L. CUERVO SÁNCHEZ ET AL.

assesses their understanding of the private and public nature of knowledge and the
social function of the media (Harshman, 2017).
The two categories that make up this dimension are as follows:

a. Production phases: this category is related to respondents’ knowledge of the

different phases of creating a communications product in different formats (audio-
visual, text and multimedia). The aim is to identify what students know about the
preparation, organisation, development and dissemination of both ideas and
technical and human resources.
b. Cultural function of the media and information: this category is linked to the
acknowledgement of the fact that the media have an obligation to serve as
cultural expression channels for all members of society. It also aims to gauge
respondents’ ability to distinguish between the public and private traits of the
media and to identify alternative initiatives and the use and production of
information.

The questionnaire contains exercises aimed at identifying respondents’ general

knowledge of production processes and types of interaction, as well as their under-
standing of the social function of the media. The format of the questions prompts
respondents to elaborate on the information provided, relate concepts and describe
ways of acting.
Three exercises are proposed for the Production phases category, with the aim of
assessing respondents’ level of knowledge in this field. The first exercise asks about the
tasks performed by seven professionals from the audiovisual industry, the second one
asks about how a newspaper is produced and the third one focuses on the character-
istics of each production phase for audiovisual content.
Two exercises are proposed for the Cultural function of the media and information
category, with the aim of identifying participants’ level of knowledge regarding copy-
right and distribution. The first exercise seeks to find out what students know about
authorship and copyright and the situations in which they should be respected, and
the second one aims to determine whether or not they are familiar with the concepts of
“free” and “limited” licences.
Questions related to various aspects of public and private media have also been
included in this category. A selection exercise is proposed, featuring four statements
about how television stations are financed and organised.

2.4. Transformation of one’s situation through communication

This dimension focuses on exploring students’ ability to use the media and information
in favour of the common good. Here, we are specifically interested in analysing how
citizen engagement is fostered through the media.
Citizen engagement is related to the use made of the media as a window for
understanding the world, discerning between the plethora of existing perspectives
and interpreting new discourses, texts, discussions and debates from both an individual
and collective perspective (Hoechsmann & Poyntz, 2012; Kellner & Share, 2007).
 EDUCATIONAL REVIEW 7

It is also linked to students’ ability to act in relation to the communications industry

and their capacity to identify the absence and presence of messages in the media. The
questionnaire aims to determine whether or not they are aware of their ability, as
citizens, to transform what they see, listen to and read, and to generate their own
alternative channels for communicating and disseminating information. In other words,
the instrument aims to determine the degree to which participants have appropriated
the media as instruments for managing and disseminating public opinion (Hobbs, 2011;
Literat, 2014).
Similarly, with the development of new technologies, another key aspect is the way in
which people represent and portray both themselves and the environment in which
they live. We are therefore interested in identifying how students use technology to
represent their world and the relationships they establish with others.
The three categories that make up this dimension are as follows:

a. Receptive and critical awareness: this category refers to students’ ability to analyse,
understand and/or assess messages and media, bearing in mind ideological biases,
vested interests and the implications for social and cultural representation in
society itself. It also aims to identify the role played by persuasion techniques in
their identity as users/citizens.
b. Communications skills: this category refers to students’ autonomous capacity to
create, produce and disseminate messages, bearing in mind the specific character-
istics of each medium and format.
c. Technological appropriation: this category analyses the engagement, interaction
and dissemination mechanisms developed in the media. It also focuses on the
students’ ability to manage collective projects and to use applications to resolve
problems and represent their world. Finally, it also refers to how participants
transform their most immediate communicative environment.

For this dimension, which places greater emphasis on metacognitive aspects and active
citizenship, seven exercises are proposed which aim to assess participants’ knowledge of
mechanisms for media engagement and use in their immediate communicative context.
For the Receptive and critical awareness category a number of different exercises are
proposed, with varying levels of complexity. The first set of questions aims to determine
how emotions and veracity affect the way in which adolescents receive audiovisual mes-
sages from different genres (advertising-news). The second set of questions focuses on
issues related to the way in which students’ perceive the messages conveyed by the media.
The aim of these questions is to determine how participants view the media in relation to
their representation of reality, the use of stereotypes in advertising and the difference
between the real and virtual worlds as a scenario for experience. Finally, the third set of
questions includes two exercises in which adolescents are asked about possible causes for
complaint in relation to the media. Five general aspects are established in relation to one
example: television, although they could easily be applied also to other media.
For the Communications skills category, students are presented with a situation in
which they need to use an electronic, virtual or digital medium to establish a peer
debate. In order to respond to this question, students need to understand the purpose
of each platform or medium, and how it works.
8 S. L. CUERVO SÁNCHEZ ET AL.

Two exercises are proposed for the Technological appropriation category. The first
consists of a question aimed at identifying the way in which respondents interact with
the media. Students are given a series of statements which describe actions linked to the
dissemination and networking concepts developed by Jenkins (2009). The second exer-
cise asks participants to interpret images representing different telematic
programmes that circulate information published by users on the web. The aim is to
determine students’ level of knowledge regarding the type of information transmitted in
each medium, and the purpose of the messages conveyed.

3. Media and information literacy as a media education strategy

As stated at the beginning of this paper, work has already begun at an international
level on stipulating the guidelines for the aims and priorities of media education. Diverse
studies have also demonstrated that alongside family, school and peers, the media act
as agents for socialisation in relation to both values and ideologies, and have high-
lighted the need to develop instruments which will enable teachers to help students
adopt a critical attitude and approach to both information and the media (Livingstone &
Helsper, 2010).
Based on the integrated approach to media and information literacy advocated by
UNESCO, this paper presents the MIL instrument as a basic strategy in the drive to train
future citizens that are capable of perceiving the values conveyed by the media and
adopting a critical attitude to information. In this sense, these instruments help values
education to transcend its cross-cutting aims, in order to impact specific situations within
educational programmes. The basic aim is to provide students with the abilities they need
to use the media properly and to respond critically to the stimuli and demands of the
media environment – an environment which is becoming increasingly complex and which
contains a huge variety of available sources and resources (Hobbs, 2011).
We believe that the instrument presented here may be of great use to the scientific
community, since it enables an assessment of media and information literacy,
a construct that, at present, lacks rigorous diagnosis and evaluation measures.
Furthermore, the results obtained using the MIL instrument may lead to the explicit
inclusion of media-related contents in educational syllabuses, either in a cross-cutting
manner or in specific disciplines. The medium and long-term transfer of these results
may help overcome the current trend towards Manichaeism that exists in the field,
encouraging practitioners to view media education as an important means of improving
teaching-learning processes in both compulsory and higher education.

4. Methodology
The methodology used in this research project is located within the empirical-analytical
approach, based on the administration of an online questionnaire as the initial phase of
a pilot study designed to test the reliability and validity of the proposed instrument,
namely the Media and Information Literacy (MIL) questionnaire. In this sense, the
research design was quantitative in nature and consisted of an exploratory study.
 EDUCATIONAL REVIEW 9

5. Participants
The study was conducted with 167 adolescents in year 3 of compulsory secondary
education (13–15 years of age) from Spain, Colombia and Ecuador. Of the total sample,
the majority (68.5%) were 14 years of age, a large proportion (18.5%) were 13 but were
due to turn 14 at some point during the school year and a small minority (10.3%) were
15 years old. As regards gender, 43.1% were boys and 54.9% were girls. Participants
were all students at public and private schools within the formal education system. All
schools in all contexts had similar socioeconomic characteristics. The sample was
selected using an intentional non-probabilistic method. This sample was intentional
because the researchers who co-sign this study had easy access to the school
centres and to a certain extent participants showed an interest in participating, which
is reflected in the data collection

6. Procedure
The pilot study was authorised by the University of the Basque Country’s Ethics
Committee for the gathering of data with human beings, as part of the research
initiative entitled “Values, socialisation and the media”. Participants’ legal guardians
were asked for their informed consent, and for confidentiality reasons and to safeguard
participants’ identity and psychological integrity, questionnaires were completed
anonymously.
Questionnaires were completed over an online platform and were adapted to the
Colombian, Ecuadorian and Spanish contexts. All questionnaires were administered in
Spanish. Prior to its application, the instrument was revised by six experts from the fields
of communication and education. The data gathering process in the schools was
supervised with the aim of facilitating the completion of the instrument and resolving
any possible doubts or problems. All the tests used in the study were administered on
school premises, in a natural classroom environment.
Version 20 of the SPSS package was used for data analysis. Basic descriptive analyses
were conducted by extracting the main central tendency, dispersion and distribution
coefficients. Also, in some cases, cross tabulation and other coefficients and procedures
were used. During the reliability analysis of the scales, the principal measure used was
Cronbach’s alpha coefficient. Regarding the content validity, it is necessary to indicate
that the validity of the instrument was verified by six experts (three in education and
three in communication) and some small modifications were made accordingly.

7. Results
The results of the pilot study confirm the reliability and validity of the instrument
described at the beginning of this paper. The following are the results obtained in
each of the four dimensions which make up the instrument (MIL).
10 S. L. CUERVO SÁNCHEZ ET AL.

7.1. Media access and use

A Cronbach’s alpha of .658 was obtained in the internal consistency analyses of the first
dimension. Table 3 presents the basic descriptive statistics for each of the questions that
together make up the dimension. All scores were fairly close to the maximum, thus
generating normality problems in the distribution due to the presence of high asym-
metry and kurtosis coefficients.

7.2 Language and critical comprehension of media and information

In the questions pertaining to the second dimension, the results revealed distribution
models compatible with normal distribution, with an asymmetry level within the −1 and
+1 range. The analyses revealed an adequate level of discrimination in the questions, as
reflected in the standard deviation (SD) and the fact that the means were centred
between the minimum and maximum level of each variable, as shown in Table 4.
Nevertheless, the coefficients obtained (Cronbach’s Alpha: .130) reveal that the ques-
tions measured independent competences and should therefore be considered sepa-
rately in subsequent analyses.

7.3 Production and programming processes

In this dimension, the values obtained for questions 2, 13 and 15 are correct. Their
distribution is shown in Table 5.
Questions 14, 16 and 17 are scales made up of various items. The aim is therefore to
obtain a global score for each one. Consequently, the first step was to analyse the internal
consistency of each scale. Table 6 shows the internal consistency of questions 14 and 16.
As shown in Table 7, the absence of internal consistency between the items of
question 17 indicates that this question should be eliminated, since internal consistency
analyses reveal unacceptable levels that cannot be resolved.

Table 3. Dimension 1 – Access and use: descriptive statistics.

N
Valid Missing Mean SD Asymmetry Kurtosis Minimum Maximum
Q1 1 2.6946 .86402 −2.646 5.368 .00 3.00
Q1 2 167 0 4.4611 1.55520 −2.553 4.570 .00 5.00
Q1 3 167 0 1.5928 .80776 −1.486 .209 .00 2.00
Q1 5 167 0 2.0599 .65877 −1.334 1.230 .00 3.00

Table 4. Dimension 2 – Media language and critical comprehension: descriptive statistics.

N
Valid Missing Mean SD Asymmetry Kurtosis Minimum Maximum
Q6 167 0 1.3533 1.75 .683 −1.365 .00 4.00
Q7 167 0 1.7665 1.94 .566 −1.131 .00 5.00
Q8 167 0 1.4132 1.80 .610 −1.508 .00 5.00
Q10 167 0 1.9662 .95 .043 −.996 .00 4.00
Q12 167 0 1.9401 1.74 .058 −1.696 .00 4.00
 EDUCATIONAL REVIEW 11

Cronbach’s alpha is not shown in this dimension, because as shown in Tables 5–7, the
asymmetry and kurtosis indicate that it is not possible to calculate this statistic because
they deviate from normality.

7.4. Transformation of one’s situation through communication

Table 8 shows the basic descriptive statistics for questions 3, 4 and 11. The distribution
models of these questions have an acceptable level of normality and their asymmetry
and kurtosis reflect a notable deviation from normality.
The internal consistency of question 18 was found to be below the acceptable level.
However, in the basic descriptive statistics for each item the distribution models are
correct and the potential for discrimination is high. These results are presented in
Table 9.
The internal consistency of question 19 was also found to be below the accepted
minimum. However, two subscales were established, one called “content”, encompass-
ing items 2, 4 and 5, and another called “programming and publicity”, encompassing
items 1 and 3. As shown in Table 10, in this structure the coefficients of internal
consistency reach the required minimum level.

Table 5. Dimension 3: descriptive statistics.

N
Valid Missing Mean SD Asymmetry Kurtosis Minimum Maximum
Q2 167 0 1.6871 .84589 .024 −.336 .00 3.50
Q13 167 0 .3743 .59546 1.972 2.936 .00 2.00
Q15 167 0 1.53 .849 −1.271 −.389 0 2

Table 6. Internal consistency of question 14 – Teachers and functions.

Cronbach’s alpha Number of items Number of cases
Q14 .381 6 167
Q16 .776 7 167

Table 7. Question – Function of televisions: descriptive statistics.

N
Valid Missing Mean SD Asymmetry Kurtosis Minimum Maximum
Q17_01 162 5 .17 .374 1.806 1.276 0 1
Q17_02 160 7 .47 .501 .126 −2.009 0 1
Q17_03 151 16 .25 .435 1.156 −.673 0 1
Q17_04 157 10 .43 .496 .299 −1.935 0 1

Table 8. Questions 3, 4 and 11: descriptive statistics.

N
Valid Missing Mean SD Asymmetry Kurtosis Minimum Maximum
Q3 167 0 2.859 1.5039 .234 −.954 .0 5.0
Q4 167 0 1.599 1.7069 .212 −1.956 .0 3.5
Q11 167 0 2.704 1.2237 −.953 .000 .0 4.0
12 S. L. CUERVO SÁNCHEZ ET AL.

Question 20 was posed in a multiple choice format, which means that score calcula-
tions are contaminated by other elements not related to the measurement aim, such as
participants’ degree of commitment to completing the questionnaire to the best of their
ability.
Question 21 comprises a single multiple-choice item, similar to items 3, 4 and 11 of
this same dimension. The basic descriptive statistics pertaining to this question are
presented in Table 11. The question was found to have a good distribution model and
discriminatory power, although apparently, its degree of sensitivity is limited.
In question 22, the items were grouped into two dimensions, the first entitled
“credulity” and the second “lucidity”. Table 12 shows the internal consistency for each
dimension. The results reveal that a positive global score for the items was only found in
relation to the “lucidity” dimension.
Table 13 shows the basic statistical coefficients of the “lucidity” subscale, which are
adequate as regards both distribution and discrimination.
Due to insufficient reliability levels in the global index, the items of question 23 were
considered separately. Table 14 shows the basic statistical coefficients for each item.
In this dimension Cronbach’s alpha is not shown, because as shown in Tables 8, 9 and
14, the asymmetry and kurtosis indicate that it is not possible to calculate this statistic
because they deviate from normality

Table 9. Question 18: descriptive statistics.

N Mean SD Asymmetry Kurtosis Min. Max.
Q18.2: I like sharing links 166 2.45 1.16 .130 −1.11 1 5
Q18.3: When I’m online 163 2.78 1.28 .101 −1.03 1 5
Q18.4: I use tools such as Google 165 2.86 1.30 .010 −1.10 1 5
Q18.5: I organise-inform people about events 167 2.99 1.29 −.091 −1.03 1 2

Table 10. Internal consistency of question 19: reasons for complaining about some TV channels.
Subscale 1: Content (2, 4 and Subscale 2: Programming and Publicity (1 General dimension (1,2,3,4 and
5) and 3) 5)
Q19 .515 (n = 157) .452 (n = 160) .492 (n = 156)

Table 11. Question 21: descriptive statistics.

N Mean SD Asymmetry Kurtosis
Q21: 167 1.650 .7771 .960 1.421

Table 12. Internal consistency of question 22.

Credulity dimension (items Lucidity dimension General recoding (12 No general recoding(12
1,6,10,11) (2,3,4,5,7,8,9,12) items) items)
Q22 .298 (n = 156) .655 (n = 142) .434 (n = 139) .605 (n = 139)

Table 13. Question 22: descriptive statistics.

N Mean SD Asymmetry Kurtosis Minimum Maximum
Q22_D2_Digital lucidity 16 3.7745 .73143 −.524 .830 1.00 5.38
 EDUCATIONAL REVIEW 13

Table 14. Question 23: descriptive statistics.

N Minimum Maximum Mean SD Asymmetry Kurtosis
Q23.a: Group work 148 .00 1.00 .4595 .50005 .164 −2.000
Q23.b: Data exchange 149 .00 1.00 .4966 .50168 .014 −2.027
Q23.b: Data exchange 153 .00 1.00 .4967 .50163 .013 −2.026
Q23.d: Debate 151 .00 1.00 .5364 .50033 −.148 −2.005
Q23.e: Comment and/or gossip 153 .00 1.00 .7778 .41711 −1.350 −.181

8. Discussion
Firstly, it is important to point out that some of the skills encompassed by digital,
information and media literacy appear in all three areas. We are mainly referring to
access, analysis, evaluation and generation skills. Therefore, when designing scales to
evaluate media and information literary, it is important to reflect the advances made in
each specific type of literacy (Lee et al., 2015). In this sense, the instrument presented
here summarises and groups together, through the question-based model, all the skills,
knowledge and abilities adolescents should have in relation to the media, information
and their own capacity as users and cultural agents.
As an educational instrument, the questionnaire aims to provide teachers with
a means of identifying the degree of knowledge and skills possessed by their adolescent
students, in order to enable them to adapt their teaching practise accordingly. For this
reason, the section entitled Theoretical basis and description of the dimensions of the
questionnaire clearly outlines each one of the knowledge areas and skills assessed by the
different items, as well as specifying their relationship with current theory.
Nevertheless, the statistical results reveal that this is an area of the questionnaire that
requires further study, and that the reliability of the items needs to be improved. This
study highlights the statistical difficulties generated during the design of instruments
with different measurement scales, while at the same time underscoring the fact that, in
the pedagogical field, and despite the aforementioned statistical problems, it is impor-
tant to orient scientific efforts towards scales which, like the one used here, assess both
skills and knowledge.

9. Conclusions
In accordance with the aim of this present study, the following aspects should be high-
lighted in relation to the reliability and validity of the proposed instrument. Firstly, the
dimension labelled Media access and use was eliminated, mainly because the mean and
maximum scores were very similar, thus generating normality problems. This may be related
to previous research showing that adolescents are proficient in the use and operation of
current communication technology (Falbe et al., 2014). This makes it difficult to assess basic
levels of these skills, particularly in the ever-changing context of modern technology.
In relation to the second dimension, Media language and critical comprehension, the
Cronbach’s alpha results obtained suggest that the different questions should be
explored separately in subsequent analyses, even though each was found to have an
adequate level of discrimination. In other words, it is possible to work with all the
questions that make up this dimension.
14 S. L. CUERVO SÁNCHEZ ET AL.

In the third dimension, Production and programming processes, only those items from
the category referring to production phases can be used, whereas those belonging to
the category which assesses knowledge of the cultural function of the media should be
eliminated. In other words, only the most technical aspects of this dimension can be
assessed using the instrument proposed here.
In relation to the fourth dimension, Transforming one’s situation through communica-
tion, all the categories can be assessed, although three of the questions that make up
the dimension were eliminated due to unacceptable validity and reliability results. The
category that can be assessed with the highest number of questions is the receptive and
critical awareness category, as well as, to a lesser extent, the communications skills and
technological appropriation categories.
Thus, we can cautiously conclude that the instrument presented here has an accep-
table level of reliability and validity, and can be partially used for assessing the media
and information literacy of adolescents in different cultural contexts. Nevertheless,
questions referring to abilities, skills and knowledge in the Media access and use dimen-
sion require further work, as do those in the cultural function of the media category and
certain aspects of communications skills and technological appropriation.
In conclusion, as noted by Nagamini and Aguaded (2018), it is necessary to continue
research in this field in the context of new discursive dynamics from an “educommuni-
cative” perspective.

Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.

Funding
This research forms part of the work carried out by the “Media Education Network” of the State
Program for the Promotion of Excellence in Scientific-Technical Research, the State Subprogram
for Knowledge Generation (EDU2016-81772-REDT), financed by FEDER (European Regional
Development Fund) and Spain’s Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness. Likewise, this research
has been funded by the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), GIU 16/44.

ORCID
Sandra Liliana Cuervo Sánchez http://orcid.org/0000-0003-3540-8615
Ainize Foronda Rojo http://orcid.org/0000-0003-2931-791X
Ana Rodríguez Martínez http://orcid.org/0000-0002-9140-2974
Concepción Medrano Samaniego http://orcid.org/0000-0001-7980-843X

References
Bennett, S., & Maton, K. (2010). Beyond the ‘digital natives’ debate: Towards a more nuanced
understanding of students’ technology experiences. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 26
(5), 321–331.
Buckingham, D. (2005). Educación en medios: Alfabetización, aprendizaje y cultura contemporánea.
Barcelona: Paidós.
 EDUCATIONAL REVIEW 15

Buckingham, D., & Rodríguez, C. (2013). Learning about power and citizenship, in an online virtual
world. Comunicar, 20(40), 49–57.
Chang, C. S., Liu, E. Z. F., Chun-Yi, L. E. E., Nian-Shing, C. H. E. N., Da-Chian, H. U., & Chun-Hung,
L. I. N. (2011). Developing and validating a media literacy self-evaluation scale (MLSS) for
elementary school students. TOJET: the Turkish Online Journal of Educational Technology, 10(2).
Retrieved from https://search.proquest.com/openview/63f943f769c465998909baf843c56a58/1?
pq-origsite=gscholar&cbl=1576361
Crook, C. (2005). Addressing research at the intersection of academic literacies and new
technology. International Journal of Educational Research, 43(7–8), 509–518.
Cuervo, S., & Medrano, C. (2013). Alfabetizar en los medios de comunicación: Más allá del
desarrollo de competencias. Teoría de la Educación; Revista Interuniversitaria, 25(2), 111–131.
Biblid [(1130–3743) 25, 2–2013, 111–131].
Eristi, B., & Erdem, C. (2017). Development of a media literacy skills scale. Contemporary Educational
Technology, 8(3). Retrieved from http://www.cedtech.net/articles/83/834.pdf
European Parliament. (2008). The EP recommends introducing the subject ‘Media Education’ in
European schools. Press releases. Retrieved from www.europarl.europa.eu/-sides/getDoc.do?
type=IM-PRESS.
Falbe, J., Willett, W. C., Rosner, B., Gortmaker, S. L., Sonneville, K. R., & Field, A. E. (2014).
Longitudinal relations of television, electronic games, and digital versatile discs with changes
in diet in adolescents. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 100(4), 1173–1181.
Ferrés, J., García, A., Aguaded, J., Fernández, J., Figueras, M., & Blanes, M. (2011). Competencia
mediática Investigación Sobre el Grado de Competencia de la Ciudadanía en España. Gobierno
de España: Instituto de Tecnologías Educativas, Audiovisual Consell de l ‘de Catalunya
y Comunicar.
Ferrés, J., & Piscitelli, A. (2012). La competencia mediática: Propuesta articulada de dimensiones
e indicadores. Comunicar, 38, 75–82.
Harshman, J. (2017). Developing a globally minded, critical media literacy. Journal of Social Studies
Education Research, 8(1), 69–92. Retrieved from http://jsser.org/article/view/5000171205
Hobbs, R. (2011). The state of media literacy: A response to Potter. Journal of Broadcasting &
Electronic Media, 55(3), 419–430.
Hoechsmann, M., & Poyntz, S. R. (2012). Media literacies: A critical introduction. John Wiley & Sons.
doi:10.1002/9781444344158.ch3
Jenkins, H. (2009). Fans, blogueros y videojuegos: La cultura de la colaboración. Barcelona: Paidós.
Kellner, D., & Share, J. (2007). Critical media literacy is not an option. Learning Inquiry, 1(1), 59–69.
Khlaisang, J., & Koraneekij, P. (2019). Open online assessment management system platform and
instrument to enhance the information, media, and ICT literacy skills of 21st century learners.
International Journal of Emerging Technologies in Learning, 14(7), 111–127.
Lee, L., Chen, D. T., Li, J. Y., & Lin, T. B. (2015). Understanding new media literacy: The development
of a measuring instrument. Computers & Education, 85, 84–93.
Literat, I. (2014). Measuring new media literacies: Towards the development of a comprehensive
assessment tool. Journal of Media Literacy Education, 6(1), 15–27. Retrieved from https://files.eric.
ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1043486.pdf
Livingstone, S. (2004). Media literacy and the challenge of new information and communication
technologies. The Communication Review, 7(1), 3–14.
Livingstone, S., & Helsper, E. (2010). Balancing opportunities and risks in teenagers’ use of the
internet: The role of online skills and internet self-efficacy. New Media & Society, 12(2), 309–329.
Marten, H. (2010). Evaluating media literacy education: Concepts, theories and future direction.
Journal of Media Literacy Education, 2(1), 1–22. Retrieved from http://digitalcommons.uri.edu/
jmle/vol2/iss1/1
Martin-Beltrán, M., Tigert, J. M., Peercy, M. M., & Silverman, R. D. (2017). Using digital texts vs. paper
texts to read together: Insights into engagement and mediation of literacy practices among
linguistically diverse students. International Journal of Educational Research, 82, 135–146.
Nagamini, E., & Aguaded, I. (2018). La Educomunicación en el contexto de las nuevas dinámicas
discursivas mediáticas. Revista Mediterránea de Comunicación, 9(2), 119–121.
 16 S. L. CUERVO SÁNCHEZ ET AL.

Pereira, S., Fillol, J., & Moura, P. (2019). El aprendizaje de los jóvenes con medios digitales fuera de
la escuela: De lo informal a lo formal. Comunicar: Revista Científica Iberoamericana de
Comunicación y Educación, (58), 41–50.
Pérez Tornero, J., & Varis, T. (2010). La alfabetización mediática y nuevo humanismo. Barcelona:
UOC.
Pungente, J. J., Duncan, B., & Andersen, N. (2005). The Canadian experience: Leading the way.
Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education, 104(1), 140–160.
Somyürek, S., & Coşkun, B. (2013). Digital competence: Is it an innate talent of the new generation
or an ability that must be developed? British Journal of Educational Technology, 44, E163–E166.
Willoughby, T. (2008). A short-term longitudinal study of Internet and computer game use by
adolescent boys and girls: Prevalence, frequency of use, and psychosocial predictors.
Developmental Psychology, 44(1), 195–204.
Wilson, C., Grizzle, A., Tuazon, R., Akyempong, K., & Cheung, C. (2011). Alfabetización mediática
informacional. Curriculum para profesores. París: UNESCO.

View publication stats