FACULTY OF ENGINEERING

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

COURSE UNIT: INDIVIDUAL PROJECT 1

TOPIC: THE EFFECTS OF SORPTIVITY AND WATER ABSORPTION IN CONCRETE AND

MASONRY STRUCTURES.

BY

1. KARUHANGA NICHOLAS R. 18/2/328/W/1112

2. ANDINDA JULIUS 16/2/328/W/1073

SUPERVISOR: MR. TIBOTI PAUL

1
Contents
CHAPTER ONE...........................................................................................................................................................1
1.0 INTRODUCTION...............................................................................................................................................1
1.1 Background.........................................................................................................................................................1
1.2 GEOGRAPHICAL AREA..................................................................................................................................2
1.2.1 General information.....................................................................................................................................2
1.2.2 Topography and soils...................................................................................................................................2
1.2.3 Housing........................................................................................................................................................2
1.3 PROBLEM STATEMENT...............................................................................................................................3
1.4 Objectives of the study.....................................................................................................................................4
1.4.1 Main Objective.............................................................................................................................................4
1.4.2 Specific Objectives.......................................................................................................................................4
1.5 Justification of the Study.....................................................................................................................................4
1.6 Significance.........................................................................................................................................................4
CHAPTER TWO..........................................................................................................................................................5
2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW........................................................................................................................................5
2.1 Introduction:............................................................................................................................................................5
2.2 Causes and Effects of Rising Damp........................................................................................................................5
2.2.1 Bridging of DPC..................................................................................................................................................6
2.2.2 Failure of DPC.....................................................................................................................................................6
2.2.3 Poor Drainage System..........................................................................................................................................6
2.2.5 Salt Contamination...............................................................................................................................................9
2.3 Diagnosis of Rising Damp....................................................................................................................................10
2.4 Testing of Rising Damp........................................................................................................................................12
2.4.1 Damp Meter Profiling........................................................................................................................................13
2.4.2 Quantitative Measurement:................................................................................................................................13
2.4.2.1 On site measurement – Carbide meter:............................................................................................................13
2.4.2.2 Laboratory measurement – Gravimetric method.............................................................................................14
2.5 Treatment of Rising Damp....................................................................................................................................14
2.5.1 Insertion of a new DPC:.....................................................................................................................................15
2.5.2 Chemical DPC installation:................................................................................................................................15
2.5.2.1 Preparation:.....................................................................................................................................................16

1
2.5.2.2 Damp proofing re-plastering...........................................................................................................................16
2.5.3 Chemical Impregnation......................................................................................................................................17
2.5.4 Damp Proof Mortars...........................................................................................................................................17
2.5.5 Surface Treatments.............................................................................................................................................18
CHAPTER THREE.....................................................................................................................................................18
3.0 METHODOLOGY................................................................................................................................................18
3.1 Introduction Research methodology, sampling and instruments for data collection..............................................18
3.2 Survey instruments method...................................................................................................................................20
3.2.1 Interviews...........................................................................................................................................................20
3.2.2 Field observations..............................................................................................................................................20
3.2.3 Questionnaires....................................................................................................................................................20
3.2.4 Published information........................................................................................................................................21
References................................................................................................................................................................... 21

ii
CHAPTER ONE
1.0 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background.
Cement-based materials are widely used in building and civil engineering works and play an
important role in the national infrastructure construction. In people's traditional views, cement-based
materials have excellent durability. However, many structures begin to deteriorate when they are in
service, owing to factors such as Sorptivity and Water Absorption in concrete and Masonry
structures. During the process of deterioration, water directly participates in much physical
deterioration and indirectly takes part in chemical deterioration as a medium of aggressive ions
transport.
Therefore, the study of water transport in cement-based materials is the basis for their durability
research, and it is of great significance to evaluate the properties, predict the service life and improve
the design level of durability. Water absorption is a reliable way of measuring the ability of a
material to absorb and transmit water by capillarity.

Lin Yang, Danying Gao,Yunsheng Zhang, Jiyu Tang and Ying Li

Published: 26 June 2019https://doi.org/10.1098/rsos.190112

Sorptivity is materials’ ability to absorb and transmit water through it by capillary suction.
After evaporation of excess water in the mortar/Concrete, voids inside the mortar/concrete creates
capillaries which are directly related to porosity and permeability of the mortar/concrete.
Proper selection of ingredients, adequate mix proportioning & followed by good construction
practices lead to almost impervious mortar/concrete.

Due to incomplete compaction and poor methods of curing; mortar/concrete may consist gel pores &
capillary pores, which leads to low strength of mortar/concrete. Uptake of water by unsaturated,
hardened concrete may be characterised by the Sorptivity and water absorption. This is a simple
parameter to determine and is increasingly being used as a measure of concrete resistance to
exposure in aggressive environments.
Concrete and mortar basically are porous. This porous nature of concrete allows the penetration of
gases and water through it. The durability of concrete depends largely on the movement of water and
gases that enters and moves through it. The permeability of concrete transports water more surely
directly related to the porosity. The permeability is an indicator of concrete‟s ability to
with both mechanism that is controlling the uptake and transport of water and gaseous
substances into cementitious materials. Permeability is a Measure of flow of water under pressure
in a saturated porous medium.

Jayeshkumar Pitroda.

Assistant Professor, Civil Eng Department, B.V.M. Engineering College,

Vallabh Vidhyanagar – Gujarat – India.

1
jayesh.pitroda@bvmengineering.ac.in

1.2 GEOGRAPHICAL AREA

1.2.1 General information
Critical observations made on most of the constructed buildings in Uganda, and in particular Kakoba
Division in Mbarara Municipality have revealed that many of the buildings constructed have
exposed defects due to Sorptivity and water absorption.

Location of Kakoba Division in Mbarara Municipality.

1.2.2 Topography and soils.

The topography of the area is characterized by hills, Valleys, Water streams, while soils range from
red sandy loams to dark brown sandy loams with some traces of clay.

1.2.3 Housing
The majority of the buildings are constructed out of permanent building materials while traces of
semi-permanent buildings are minimal.

2
1.3 PROBLEM STATEMENT

Rising of Dampness in Concrete and Masonry structures. And this has got the following effects

 Plaster flakes away, feels soft and spongy, bubbles and white powder or crystals appear.
 Mould growth and surface efflorescence identified on the walls of buildings.
 Skirting boards and floor boards rot.
 Mortar frets and falls out between bricks and stonework.
 Blistering of paint on walls.
 Wallpaper lifts and stains appear on the walls.

Not only is this appealingly unacceptable and damaging to finishes, but it can be a significant health
hazard to occupants, and calls for urgent unplanned maintenance on the buildings before the
recommended time is due.

Internal walls of the completed ground floor of the building already affected by rising damp due to sorptivity
and water absorption.

3
1.4 Objectives of the study
1.4.1 Main Objective
To determine possible factors that lead Sorptivity and water absorption remain persistently occurring
in concrete and Masonry structures when even good materials and DPC have been used.

1.4.2 Specific Objectives.

 . To investigate the permeability of materials such as aggregates, Bricks when exposed to moisture.
 To investigate the grade of workmanship exercised during the course of construction.

1.5 Justification of the Study.

The soundly built Structures, in which all necessary precautions have been taken against Sorptivity and water
absorption in concrete and Masonry will have long life without giving any trouble. It will also provide healthy
and comfortable dwelling for many years. Where no steps have been taken against Sorptivity and Water
absorption will always give trouble and be a continual drain on the pocket of the owner. In addition to the
heavy recurring expenditure of owner, it will also give serious inconvenience to the occupants.

1.6 Significance.

Capillary rise of water in buildings has been an issue of concern among the past and present
researchers. Despite the research efforts devoted to the proper eliminations of the problem in
buildings, it still remains a challenge that needs to be addressed. This study explores treatment
mechanisms that can be used to prevent Sorptivity and water absorption in new building
infrastructure.

4
 CHAPTER TWO

2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction:

This chapter aims at presenting the rising damp as one of the causes of early development of defects in walls
of buildings as sought by other accredited scholars and researchers. It also seeks to discover how rising damp
has been dealt with in other parts of the world generally with the aim of discovering why rising damp has
persistently remained occurring even after the incorporation of DPC was made compulsory.

This chapter will thus review the following aspects under rising damp;
Causes and effects
Diagnosis
Testing
Treatment

2.2 Causes and Effects of Sorptivity and water absorption,

Sorptivity and water absorption in buildings may be defined as the vertical flow of water up through
a permeable wall structure, the water being derived from ground water. The water rises through the
pores (Capillaries) in the concrete and mortar by a process loosely termed “capillarity”. In other
words, the concrete and mortar acts like a wick. The common causes are deterioration due to age and
bridging of a damp proof course with internal concrete floors, renders or external paths and earth
levels (a damp proof course is specifically designed to avoid the possibility of rising damp, it is
provided in all new buildings)

When excess water in concrete vaporises, it leaves cavities inside the concrete element creating
passageways which are directly related to the concrete permeability and porousness. By proper
selection of ingredients, mix proportioning and following the good construction practices almost
impervious concrete can be obtained. The flow of water through concrete is similar to flow through
any porous body. The pores in cement paste consist of gel pores and capillary pores. The pores in
concrete as a result of incomplete compaction are voids of larger size which give a honeycomb
structure leading to concrete of low strength.

Jayeshkumar Pitroda

Assistant Professor, Civil Engg Department, B.V.M. Engineering College,

Vallabh Vidhyanagar – Gujarat – India.

5
jayesh.pitroda@bvmengineering.ac.in

Persistent rising dampness will cause damage to the structure and is usually first noted by significant
deterioration of internal decorations. Damp walls will create unhealthy living conditions. Plaster on
the walls will deteriorate due to salts being carried up into the walls from the ground by the rising
damp. These salts are hygroscopic (i.e. attract moisture), and as the moisture evaporates, the salts are
deposited on the wall surface. Considerable concentrations can form, which can attract moisture
from the air, thereby increasing the signs of dampness, particularly under humid conditions. The
deterioration of decorations is a common occurrence on walls affected by rising damp. Timbers in
close contact with damp walls at low level, such as skirting boards and floor timbers will often
become attacked by one of the Wood Rotting Fungi. If structural deterioration due to rising damp or
other causes of damp penetration is allowed to continue without proper treatment, it will lead to
expensive damage to plaster, decorations, timber work and electrical wiring and will create an
unhealthy living environment.

Bre Buzz.
Researcher , January 2019

2.2.1 Bridging of DPC

Sorptivity and water absorption problems can be caused by the bridging of the DPC, which allows
water to rise up the wall above the level of the membrane (Brett, 2002).

Some common sources of this bridging action are;

 The heaping of soil or debris against the wall.

 The location of a concrete path or floor slab directly against the wall.
 The building up of mortar droppings or other debris inside the cavity.
 Failure to extend the DPC a sufficient distance a cross the wall so that moisture can travel
up the wall through the render or mortar pointing.
 Perforation of the DPC by building operations and subsequent bridging.

2.2.2 Failure of DPC

The problem is also common in old buildings where DPC’s were installed but have broken down
(slate or bituminous DPC’s often gave trouble and they are no longer used. It should be noted that

6
some sheet membranes used as DPC’s are not completely damp proof and permit the passage of
small amount of water vapor.

2.2.3 Poor Drainage System.

The most common source of moisture in the base of the walls of buildings is from defective ground
and surface drainage. This is present to some degree in almost every building in the country, due to a
combination of such factors as rising ground levels, the failure of ground drainage systems, and the
increased use of concrete or tar macadam finishes around buildings without proper consideration of
drainage slopes. The accumulation of 'moisture reservoirs in the foundations may also arise as the
result of chronic plumbing leaks or floods from catastrophic plumbing or drainage defects. Rising
damp and salt damp (known in some countries as moisture migration with efflorescence) are
common causes of deterioration in old stone and brick buildings (Lieff, Trechsel, 1982).

Water can come into contact with the base of a masonry wall either as ground water or pounded
water (such as puddles on a pavement). Because of the porous and absorbent nature of masonry, the
normal limit for rising damp ranges from 0.5 meters to 1.5 meters above ground level by capillary
action unless there is an effective barrier to stop this movement (Burkinsh Parret, 2003).

Below ground level, moisture is a major source of unwanted moisture for historic and older
buildings. Proper handling of surface rain run-off is one of the most important measures of
controlling unwanted ground moisture. Rain water is often referred to as "bulk moisture" in areas
that receive significant annual rainfalls or infrequent, but heavy, precipitation. For example, a heavy
rain of 2" per hour can produce 200 gallons of water from downspout discharge alone for a house
during a one-hour period.

When soil is saturated at the base of the building, the moisture will wet footings and crawl spaces or
find its way through cracks in foundation walls and enter into basements. Moisture in saturated
basement or foundation walls also exacerbated by high water tables will generally rise up within a
wall and eventually cause deterioration of the masonry and adjacent wooden structural elements.

Builders traditionally left a working area, known as a builder's trench, around the exterior of a
foundation wall. These trenches have been known to increase moisture problems if the infill soil is
7
less than fully compacted or includes rubble backfill, which, in some cases, may act as a reservoir
holding damp materials against masonry walls. Broken subsurface pipes or downspout drainage can
leak into the builder's trench and dampen walls some distance from the source. Any subsurface
penetration of the foundation wall for sewer, water, or other piping also can act as a direct conduit of
ground moisture unless these holes are well sealed. A frequently unsuspected, but serious, modern
source of ground moisture is a landscape irrigation system set too close to the building. Incorrect
placement of sprinkler heads can add a tremendous amount of moisture at the foundation level and
on wall surfaces.

The ground, and subsequently the building, will stay much drier by:

1. Re-directing rain water away from the foundation through sloping grades,
2. Capturing and disposing downspout water well away from the building,
3. Developing a controlled ground gutter or effective drainage for buildings historically without
gutters and downspouts, and
4. Reducing splash-back of moisture onto foundation walls.

The excavation of foundations and the use of damp proof coatings and footing drains should only be
used after the measures of reducing ground moisture listed above have been implemented (Oxley,
Gobert, Alan, 1994).

2.2.4 Effects of rising damp.

This may lead to a number of problems that include the following:

The moisture content of the structure may rise to a level at which decay organisms may grow, or the
materials themselves may be adversely affected. For example, timber skirting boards or built-in
bonding timbers along the base of walls may become infected and decayed by dry rot, wet rot,
weevils or woodworm.

 In very damp conditions, the inorganic materials themselves may lose their structural strength.
This occurs most specifically with walls made of cob (earth) soaked with water.
 Damp conditions on the surface of walls, particularly in conjunction with condensation, allow
the growth of moulds both on the surface and within porous or fibrous materials, such as
wallpapers or carpets fitted against the base of the wall. Not only is this aesthetically
unacceptable and damaging to finishes, but it can be a significant health hazard to occupants.

8
 Where evaporation takes place, the deposition of soluble salts on the surface or within the pores
of materials can cause aesthetic and structural damage.

 Paint does not adhere to the wall.

 Wallpaper lifts and stains appear on the walls.
 Plaster flakes away, feels soft and spongy, bubbles and white powder of crystals appears.
 Mortar frets and falls out between bricks and stonework.
These problems are mainly aesthetic problems only, however it is conceivable that structural damage
could result from extensive rising damp, and of course a damp mouldy environment could pose a
health risk to people.

It becomes a problem if the moisture penetrates vulnerable materials or finishes, particularly in the
occupied parts of a building. This moisture will dissolve soluble salts from the building materials
such as calcium sulphate, and may also carry soluble salts from its source. If the moisture evaporates
through a permeable surface, these salts will be left behind and form deposits on or within the
evaporative surface. Where there is a large evaporative surface, salt crystals are deposited as a
harmless flour-like dusting on the surface.

If evaporation is restricted to localized areas such as defects in an impermeable paint finish, then salt
deposition is concentrated, forming thick crystalline deposits with the appearance of small flowers;
hence the term 'efflorescence’. When evaporation occurs within the material, salts can be deposited
within the pores. The expanding salt crystals in these locations may result in fractures forming in the
material and spilling of the surface. This type of decay may be seen in porous brickwork or masonry
(Oxley, Gobert, Alan, 1994).

2.2.5 Salt Contamination

Rising damp can introduce water soluble salts into masonry and Concrete structures from the ground
through building materials due to lack of effective damp proofing. As the water evaporates these
salts are deposited within the wall structure. These salts can be efflorescent or hygroscopic.

Some salts are efflorescent, such as sodium sulphate or magnesium sulphate. They are white
amorphous powders or white crystalline deposits which form on the surface of the wall, under paint
or wallpaper. If the wall dries out they can be removed from the surface.

9
Other types of salts are hygroscopic and are rarely seen on the surface as they absorb water from the
air, these include; sodium, magnesium and calcium chlorides and nitrates. Once introduced, these
salts will remain resulting in damp patches on a wall even if rising damp is stopped. This type of salt
requires the removal of contaminated plasterwork to prevent ongoing spoiling of decoration. Rising
damp is not the only source of hygroscopic salts in masonry and concrete. Buildings that were used
to house animals or that stored salts can have significant salt contamination. Typical signs of damage
caused by salt damp attack are disruption of render or plaster, fretting of exposed masonry, and
exfoliation of stone. Salt damp attack can be caused partly by expansion forces associated with salt
crystallization, by chemical changes and expansion that occur in certain clay minerals as a result of
their reaction with the contaminating salts, or by a combination of both actions. Salt movements are
associated with all rising damp problems, but depending on the nature and level of salt
concentrations present in the masonry may or may not cause damage to the building ( Watt, 1999).

2.3 Diagnosis of Rising Damp

When there has been a long-term problem with damp penetration, evaporation at the edge of the
damp area leads to a distinctive 'tide mark' as a result of salt deposition. Where this occurs at the
base of a wall, the tide mark is often taken as a typical diagnostic feature of 'rising damp' (Williams,
1993).

A typical sign of rising damp on internal walls is a roughly horizontal tide mark, above which there
is little or no damage, but below which the paint or plaster has been damaged or the wall paper is
stained or has lifted. On external walls it may be indicated by fretting or by peeling paint close to
ground level. The moisture that moves up the wall invariably contains dissolved salts, often
chlorides or Sulphates, and they are deposited near or at the wall surfaces where evaporation takes
place.

Efflorescence may appear and surface coating and the majority may deteriorate as a result of salt
crystallization. Although the presence of a seemingly stable tide mark may suggest that rising damp
is a static process, this is not the case. The amount of dampness in a wall will be influenced by the
interaction between the rate of evaporation and rate of ingress of moisture into the wall. Frequent
changes in these two factors will alter the dynamic equilibrium associated with moisture movements
in the wall. Mold growths may appear on persistently damp surfaces. On external surfaces,
efflorescence and mold growth also may be accompanied by fretting of the stone or brick and
10
crumbling of the mortar. There may be a musty smell in the affected rooms and prolonged dampness
may lead to the rotting of the skirting boards.

The damage usually is restricted to a zone which does not extend more than 0.5 meters to 1.5 meters
above the floor, although in very damp situations the damage may occur at higher levels, particularly
where there is poor ventilation.

The height of the capillary rise will be influenced by the size capillary spaces in the masonry. The
smaller the capillaries the higher the rise, it will also be influenced by the rate of evaporation from
the wall, an increase or decrease in the rate of evaporation will be accompanied by a fall or rise in
the height of the zone of dampness. The height of the capillary rise of moisture in a wall also will be
influenced by the height of the water table. Hence the size of the damp zone in a wall may fluctuate
with seasonal changes in climate. During a dry time the soil around the base of the wall may draw
moisture out of the masonry. A wet season accompanied by a rise in the water table can result in an
increase of capillary rise of moisture.

Ineffective treatment of dampness problems can result from a faulty diagnosis. Damage caused by
rising damp is sometimes confused with that caused by falling damp where the moisture comes from
leaking roofs or down pipes, or through defective flashings, or from by the lateral penetration of rain
water through solid masonry walls where the penetration may take place through porous bricks and
through porous defective mortar joints. Sometimes it is primarily a condensation problem, and there
are occasions when the dampness is the result of a combination of causes.

A treatment suitable for one type of dampness problem may be inappropriate for another and a
thorough examination of the building should be carried out by an experienced person before any
remedial measures are undertaken ( Ransom, 1981).

Looking for Signs

Identifying the type of moisture damage and discovering its source or sources usually involves the
human senses of sight, smell, hearing, touch, and taste combined with intuition. Some of the more
common signs of visible as well as hidden moisture damage include:

 Presence of standing water, mould, fungus, or mildew.

 Wet stains, eroding surfaces, or efflorescence (salt deposits) on interior and exterior surfaces.
 Flaking paint and plaster, peeling wallpaper, or moisture blisters on finished surfaces.

11
  Dark, musty smells in areas of high humidity or poorly ventilated spaces
 Rust and corrosion stains on metal elements.
 Cupped, warped, cracked, or rotted wood.
 Spelled, cracked masonry or eroded mortar joints.

2.4 Testing of Rising Damp

The moisture content of building materials is a combination of the air dry moisture content
(hygroscopic moisture content) and the capillary moisture content (free moisture). The air dry
moisture content does not cause an electrical moisture meter to read and varies with the humidity of
the air. The capillary moisture content indicates water ingress and depends on the material porosity
and permeability.

Rising damp is the movement of ground water through masonry by capillary action. The capillary
movement is caused by surface tension and the height of rise is dependent on pore size. Rising damp
will result in increasing capillary moisture content of masonry; it will also carry dissolved salts from
the soil and deposit them in the wall as the water evaporates (Leeke, John, 1996)

Figure 1; Damp meter

Photograph above shows damp meter in use for testing rising damp

There are several ways of testing rising damp.

Damp meter profiling

12
 Quantitative measurement, on site and laboratory testing

2.4.1 Damp Meter Profiling

There are several types of electrical moisture meters (EMM) they work on radio frequency,
capacitance or resistance/conductance. EMMs are non-destructive, clean and give immediate
readings. The most common is the resistance EMM which measures the electrical resistance between
two metal probes. The presence of free moisture causes a change in resistance this is displayed as a
change in % full scale deflection on the meter or % wood moisture equivalent (WME). Deep wall
probes are available for EMM measurements within the wall.EMM give a qualitative measurement,
and it can be affected by the presence of salts or other materials (foil backed wallpaper and some
carbon containing compounds). EMMs do not record % moisture content in masonry.

However when used by an experienced surveyor they can be used to profile changes in readings
across a wall which when combined with site observations can be used to determine the presence of
rising damp, or other forms of moisture ingress (Tolpin, Jim, 1994).

2.4.2 Quantitative Measurement:

2.4.2.1 On site measurement – Carbide meter:

Samples are drilled from the wall at regular intervals up the wall. A measured amount of sample is
placed in a pressure chamber and mixed with calcium carbide, which reacts with the water that is
present, producing a gas (acetylene). The amount of gas produced can be used to determine the total
moisture content of the sample. Each sample takes 5-10 minutes to test but does not differentiate
between hygroscopic and free moisture content.

2.4.2.2 Laboratory measurement – Gravimetric method

Samples are taken from regular intervals up the wall and placed in air tight containers. The samples
are weighed and placed in a controlled environment to allow the sample reach its equilibrium
weight. It is weighed again before it is oven dried and weighed again. The differences in weight can
be used to determine the hygroscopic moisture content and the capillary moisture content. This
method is accurate and is used in disputes over failed systems.

13
2.5 Treatment of Rising Damp
Subsurface seepage and the presence of high water table under a building where there are no
effective moisture barriers in the walls also can cause a dampness problem which may sometimes be
overcome by the installation of subsurface drainage. Excessive watering of garden beds and lawns
close to the building or the presence of leaking services can be contributing factors. Down pipes that
discharge storm water into the ground close to masonry walls can cause a rising damp problem. In
some cases, it may be appropriate to replace these garden areas with impervious aprons or paths of
brick or no-fines concrete that slope away from the building to remove the need to water and also
help to divert surface runoff away from the walls.

Measures that lead to an increase in the rate of drying out of walls may be helpful in overcoming
dampness problems. These include increased ventilation below and above ground floor level, the
removal of impervious surface coatings such as hard plaster and oil-based paints, and their
replacement by surface treatments that allow the wall to breathe.

The rate of evaporation will be influenced by the relative humidity of the surrounding air and by the
amount of air movement past the damp wall. Hence drying often can be increased appreciably by
artificial heating and improved ventilation.

At the same time it should be borne in mind that elimination of the dampness by these methods may
not necessary solve the problem. An increase in the rate of drying also may result in an increase in
the amount of salts deposited at the wall surface, and deterioration may increase rather than
diminish, at least for a while, after the drying-out process has been accelerated. Where hygroscopic
salts have accumulated in old render or plaster, these coatings should be removed after a treatment to
prevent rising damp has been carried out.

It will be beneficial not to replace the coating until some months later in order to assist the drying
out of the wall. It may be possible to remove by brushing the salts which are brought to the surface
by the increased drying , however, where walls are heavily contaminated it may not be possible to
remove a sufficient amount of salt by this method, and flushing techniques may be required to
reduce the salt content to a satisfactory level. Very thick stone walls may take years to dry out
completely (Lieff, Trechsel 1982).

14
 2.5.1 Insertion of a new DPC:
In many countries, current building codes and practices require the insertion of damp proof courses
(DPCs) in new construction. In Australia rising damp problems often occur in building where there
are no DPCs because the buildings were constructed before effective building regulations were
introduced.

The insertion of a new DPC in already endangered buildings often provides an effective method of
overcoming a rising damp problem provided the installation is carried out satisfactorily, but high
costs or practical difficulties may rule out its use. It can be accomplished by removing bricks at a
time from a course of brick work near the base of the wall, inserting a section of the DPC along the
horizontal bed joint, replacing the bricks and mortar and repeating the process until a continuous
membrane has been placed in the brickwork affected by the dampness. A less tedious method is to
cut a narrow slot for a short distance along a bed joint with a power driven, reciprocating saw or with
an abrasive disc. Special chain saws have been used for this purpose. Walls more than 600mm thick
have been slotted successfully with a high pressure water jet. Packings are wedged in the gap above
the DPC to prevent settlement of the masonry.

Copper, lead, bitumen coated aluminium, and polyethylene sheets have been used as DPCs. Where
aggressive salts are present in the masonry, corrosion may result unless metallic membranes are
covered with inert materials. Lead is attacked by the lime present in mortars while they are
undergoing carbonation, and should be protected with an inert coating. Corrosion problems do not
occur with polyethylene, but can be torn or punctured during installation, therefore great care should
be exercised while inserting it.

2.5.2 Chemical DPC installation:

A chemical damp proof course is a system which comprises of two main elements:

1. The introduction of a water repellent or pore blocking material into a wall at a suitable level
to form a continuous barrier against the capillary movement of water.
2. Re-plastering using a dense sand-cement base coat containing a water and salt resistant
additive, followed by an additional sand-cement coat.

2.5.2.1 Preparation:
Preparatory works include the removal of skirting boards and radiators, damp, deteriorated or salt
contaminated plaster, raking out mortar joints for re-plastering and exposing external face mortar
15
joints if required. It is advisable to leave the internal walls exposed for as long as possible to
promote drying. Once the walls have been re-plastered the skirting boards are treated with a wood
preservative and refitted (Davies 1988).

2.5.2.2 Damp proofing re-plastering

The re-instatement of plasterwork following DPC installation is critical and Bio craft recommend
that all remedial re-plastering, following the installation of a DPC, is carried out carefully. This will
ensure the following;

 Walls are prepared to provide a solid key for the basecoat.

 Correct type and grade of sand is used in the sand-cement coats.
 Accurate measurement of materials in the mix (1:3 and 1:4)
 Correct addition of salt and water resistant additive to the gauging water
 Plaster or render does not bridge the damp proof course.

2.5.3 Chemical Impregnation

The aim of a chemical impregnation treatment is to form a barrier to moisture movement either by
blocking the continuous voids in the masonry or by forming a water repellent film on the walls of
pores and capillaries which alters the surface tension forces at the solid liquid interfaces and thereby
impedes the upward movement of moisture. Mixtures of rubber latex and silicones have been used as
pore fillers.

Silicones and aluminium stearates that are both solvent-based and water-based silicones have been
used to form repellent films. As the water repellents line but do not block pores and capillaries, they
allow the passage of water vapour through the masonry and they are unsuitable for damp proofing
basements or walls subjected to hydrostatic pressure.

In these treatments the chemical solutions are injected under pressure or percolate by gravity into the
masonry through holes drilled at intervals near the base of the wall. The success of a treatment will
depend largely on the effectiveness of the penetration. The formation of a continuous barrier will be
influenced partly by the choice of a suitable spacing of holes. Ideally, the saturated zone of masonry
formed around each hole by the injected solution should overlap those formed around the adjacent
holes. In practice, it is not always possible to meet this objective and this is one reason why chemical

16
impregnation treatments are not always successful. Sometimes effective penetration by pressure
injection can not be achieved because an excessive amount of fluid is lost in cavities and fissures in
the masonry. The presence of weak mortar unable to withstand the presence of the injected solution
also may lead to excessive losses and incomplete penetration (Davies, 1988).

2.5.4 Damp Proof Mortars

Damp proof mortars in which admixtures such as bituminous compounds are added to reduce the
permeability of the mix have been used for many years in parts of Australia, particularly in Victoria
and South Austria. They are usually cheaper than sheet damp proof membranes and in many
instances they have prevented rising damp problems. But there also have been reports of failures and
it is generally recognized that damp proof mortars are not as reliable as sheet membranes. Where
failures occurred they were often attributed to faulty workmanship or unsuitable mortar mixes. Mix
proportions were specified incorrectly or the mortar was not batched according to the specification.
Sometimes unsuitable sands with high clay contents were used, and excessive shrinkage and
cracking of the mortar resulted. Damping foundation movements may also result in cracking of the
joints and dampness problems. The use of admixtures will not prevent dampness in these situations
(Lieff, Trechsel, 1982).

2.5.5 Surface Treatments

The application of impervious surface coatings on walls where there is rising damp may not provide
a permanent and effective solution to the problem. Often it will result in an increase in the height of
the capillary rise of the moisture or may result in the dampness and deterioration occurring at higher
parts of the walls which previously were unaffected.

There is also possibility of a failure either because of a loss of adhesion or a breakdown of the
coating caused by disruptive forces associated with salt crystallization close to the interface between
the coating and the masonry. Failures of this kind have occurred where cement renders or water
based epoxy-resin coatings have been used to form moisture barriers on damp walls. The application
of the cement based render on the wall shifted the rising damp and salt deposition to a higher level
above the top of the render and led to fretting of the bricks. In another treatment designed to conceal
rather than stop rising damp, a suitable lining materials such as hard board or asbestos cement sheet
is nailed to timber battens fastened to the wall. It is necessary to impregnate the battens and in a
preservative to protect them against decay and to use rust resistant fastenings. It also may be helpful
to place strips of bituminous felt between the battens and the wall. A treatment of this type would
17
have to be carried out on both sides of an internal wall; otherwise, it may only aggravate the problem
on the untreated face. Also eventually result in dampness appearing above the area of concealment.

(Gopal Mishra https://the constructor.org

18
 CHAPTER THREE

3.0 METHODOLOGY

3.1 Introduction Research methodology, sampling and instruments for data collection.
This chapter discusses the research methodology that was used by the researcher in carrying out the
study.

Study Methodology

The following methods were used as major sources of information for the purpose of this project.

 Questionnaires will be used to obtain information from the approving authority, developers
and technical people in the field.
 Interactive interviews with the developers, contractors and workers will also be carried out.
 Field observations on sites will be done and information recorded.
 Reading reference books and journals with related literature will be done.
 Web sites and internet will be visited for related literature.

Major Activities

1. Data Collection

The data will be collected using a self-administered questionnaire and observations made by the
researcher regarding the project area. The information will include the following.

 The effect of professionals in the building and construction field.

 The level of education of the people doing the actual construction work.
 The number of houses affected by sorptivity and water absorption
 The types of materials being used by constructors.

2. Data Processing and Analysis

The data that will be collected and analysed using SPSS program to obtain good results in order to
make recommendations and conclusions.
19
The methods include

 Site visits on the ongoing construction projects to be made and observations to be recorded
using the questionnaire.
 Physical observations will be made on the already affected buildings. This is where the
researcher will go to the field and get his own personal visual observations of the situation
prevailing on the ground regarding the sorptivity and water absorption in buildings.
 Photographs for the affected areas will be taken as evidence.
 The building owners will be interviewed so as to obtain information about the time of
construction and occurrence of defects related to moisture attack versus the age of the
buildings.
 Some questionnaires will be issued to the technical crew so as to obtain the necessary data.
 Text books, the internet, and other possible sources of literature will be visited for knowledge
about Sorptivity and water absorption in buildings.

3.2 Survey instruments method

The following are the major methods that will be used to obtain the information in the study

 Interviews
 Field observations
 Questionnaires
 Published information.

3.2.1 Interviews
In these methods the participants especially professionals will be asked questions to find out what
they feel or think about rising damp and its effects. The methods used provided face to face answers
and also were able to provide follow up questions.

These methods also helped take into account the non-verbal communications such as the attitude and
behaviour of the interviewee.

3.2.2 Field observations

This is where the researcher went to the field to make his own visual observations of the prevailing
situation regarding the effect of sorptivity and water absorption and its effects were put on record.

3.2.3 Questionnaires
Collis and Hussey (2003) define a questionnaire as:

20
“A list of carefully structured questions, chosen after considerable testing, with a view of eliciting
reliable responses from a chosen sample.”

The questionnaire was designed to respond to issues raised in the problem statement, corresponding
research questions and objectives of the study. The questionnaire included several sections like,

 The general Information.

 Section for Involvement of technical personnel
 Construction materials.
 Soil conditions.
 Construction record.

3.2.4 Published information.

The published information about the Kakoba Division in Mbarara Municipality was obtained at the
Mbarara Municipal council office mainly through the municipal council rolling plans for the past
years.

TIME SCHEDULE

2019 2020
S/N Item Aug Sept Oct Nov. Feb March Apri May
l
Topic Identification
Meeting a supervisor
Visiting the place
Proposal Writting
Proposal Presentation
Collection of samples
Lab Tests
Report Writting
Printing and Final
Presentation

BUDGET ESTIMATES

Item Description Unit QTY Rate Amount

No.
1. Transport costs LS 1 500,000 500,000
2. Hiring of Damp meter LS 1 200,000 200,000
3. Stationery LS 1 200,000 200,000
21
 4. Printing LS 1 100,000 100,000
5. Meals LS 1 200,000 200,000
6. Lab Costs LS 1 500,000 500,000

TOTAL 1,700,000
References

Franco Massazza, in Lea's Chemistry of Cement and Concrete (Fourth Edition), 1998, Microstructure
Permeability And Sorptivity

W.K. Part, ... C.B. Cheah, in Handbook of Low Carbon Concrete, 2017

The Effect of Water Content and Forming Pressure on the Properties of Geopolymers

3. Lin Yang, Denying Gao, Yun sheng Zhang

Published:26 June 2019https://doi.org/10.1098/rsos.190112

4. http://www.port.ac.uk/composites

1
5. Jayeshkumar Pitroda

Assistant Professor, Civil Eng Department, B.V.M. Engineering College, Vallabh Vidhyanagar

Gujarat – India. jayesh.pitroda@bvmengineering.ac.in

6. R.V.R. San Nicolas, ... J.S.J. van Deventer, in Coal Combustion Products (CCP's), 2017

Pore size and porosity.

7. Bre Buzz January 2019, https://t.co/qEFliVimmv

22