C

SS
SOLAR SYSTEM

R
A
RM
PA
 C
SS
-
Nearest galaxy: Andromeda Galaxy Universe
I

R
Study of Universe: Cosmology ↓
Milky Way Galaxy
↓
A
Solar System
↓
8 planets
RM

ORIGIN OF UNIVERSE
-

Theories given:
-

BIG BANG THEORY

PA

↑
-

Infinitely hot and dense single

-
point -> Exploded
 George Lemaitre: 1931

↓
-> Increase in distance of celestial bodies
Edwin Hubble

Origin of Big Bang Theory. Also, - Explosion -13.6 billion years ago
known as Big Bang Explosion

C
-> 4.5 billion years ago
FORMATION OF OUR SOLAR SYSTEM
-

SS
↑ Nebular Theory, 1755: by Immanuel Kant
1796: modified by Laplace
Nebula: A giant cloud of dust and gas

x R Cloud
Molecular gas
+
Dust
A
RM
PA

H + He Nuclear Fusion

=
H+H He = Formation of Sun (mostly made of H2 and He

H
I70%
Indian Institute of Astrophysics HQ: Bangalore
 CELESTIAL BODIES
-

Two types:
-

~ Luminous: Self-glowing, eg: stars

↑
Non-Luminous: Not self-glowing, but can reflect light from other sources. Eg: Moon

1. Asteroids: they are small, rocky objects that orbit the Sun
-

2. Meteoroids/Meteors: enters Earth’s atmosphere and burn up in Mesosphere (shooting stars)

C
-

3. Comet: Small icy dirt balls that orbit the Sun, burn upon reaching Sun
-

4. Stars

SS
I
Stars: luminous bodies
-

1
Colour: Depends on temperature
↑ Group of stars: Constellation
↓
↑

/
- R
Largest: Hydra
Urja Major: Sapta Rishi
A
-

·
Brightest star in Orion Constellation: Rigel
·
Brightest star in night sky (overall): Sirius (Dog Star)
8
-
Closest star to Earth: Sun -> Distance from Earth: 150 million km (1.5 x 10 km)
RM

↓
After Sun, it is Proxima Centuri
·
Light Year/Parsec: celestial distances
12
&
1 LY: 9.46 x 10 km
Sun
↑ 1 Parsec: 3.26 LY -
PA

·
India’s first Solar Mission
-
The only star in our solar system and powerhouse of solar system
Composed of Hydrogen (73%), Helium (25%) and other metals

↓
-

- Carries 99% mass of our solar system

↑ ADITYA L1 mission ISRO, W Approx 109 times of Earth
India
-
Takes 8 minutes 30 seconds for light at speed of 3 lakh km/sec to
reach Earth
Temperature at surface = 5800 K/5600 C
W
Temperature at centre = 15.7 million K
-
Outer layer: CORONA
 Moon
-

I Earth’s natural satellite ↑

Rotation: object’s spinning motion
-

W
Non-Luminous about its axis
6
I
Radii: 1.74 x 10 km -
Revolution: object’s orbital motion
- -

- Time of Moon’s light, takes to reach Earth: 1.26 around another object
secs W
All planets rotates from West to East

C
- Distance b/w Earth and Moon: 3,84,000 km (anti-clockwise) except Venus and
W
Gravity = Earth’s gravity
- -
Uranus (clockwise)
6

SS
↑ Rotation = Revolution (same)
↓
27.3 days ->Only one side of the Moon is visible (far side)

R
A
RM
PA
 **
Kuiper Belt

C
Jovian Planets/Exterior
Terrestrial planets/Interior Planets

SS
planets

I
Asteroid Belt: b/w Mars and Jupiter

R
Pandit Jasraj becomes the first Indian musician to have a minor planet
named after him: Panditjasraj (300128) - Derived from his date of
birth, 28 Jan 1930
A
I Characteristics of Terrestrial Planets
RM

Satellite
PA

- Revolves around
planets
 C
SS
↓ A
R I
Saturn

I
RM

I ↓ ↓
Jupiter Saturn Uranus Neptune

1st Planet: Mercury

PA

-
Closest planet to Sun
Smallest planet in solar system
Diameter: 4900 km
Fastest planet, takes 88 days to complete revolution around Sun
Planet with no satellite
Planet with no water and gases like Nitrogen, Hydrogen, Oxygen, and Carbon Dioxide
 2nd Planet: Venus

-an Hottest planet in solar system: traps the gas easily, has thick clouds of H SO and COa
Brightest planet in Solar System, also known as “Evening Star” and “Morning Star”
No satellite/Moon

-
I
Also known as “Earth’s Twin” due to similar mass and size
-
Rotates clockwise

C
3rd Planet: Earth

SS
the only planet to give support to life
Also known as “Blue Planet”: 70% water
It has one satellite: Moon
- Densest in the entire solar system

4th Planet: Mars

-
R
A
-
Known as “Red Planet”: rich in Iron oxide (red soil)
-
Second smallest planet in solar system
/
Two natural moons: Phobos and Deimos
RM

Largest Volcano and tallest mountain of Mars: Olympus Mons

-
5th Planet: Jupiter

↑
Largest planet with shortest rotation- 10 hours
PA

-
Atmosphere filled with: Hydrogen, Helium, other gases
·
Third brightest after Moon and Venus
- At present total moons: 95 92 moons
(most no. of satellite)
at present
& Largest satellites: Io, Europa, Ganymede (largest among all), Callisto (all discovered by
Galileo)
Has unclear ring around it
 6th Planet: Saturn
-

Second largest planet

- Has bright and concentric rings made of tiny rocks, gas, dust, ice
↑
It is the least dense planet
↑
Has 146
at least 82 at
moons moons
present (the maximum)

C
-
Largest satellite: Titan
↑
1655: Huygenes (discover Saturn’s rings)
↑
1675: Cassini (discovered gap b/w rings)

SS
↓
Cassini divisions

7th Planet: Uranus

/
-

R
It is greenish in colour: “Green Planet” due to presence of Methane (CH4 )
Discovered by William Herschel in 1781
A
-

-
Known as “Ice Giant”
I
Atmosphere has: Hydrogen, Helium, Water, Ammonia, Methane
Rotates clockwise like Venus
RM

-
Coldest planet
Its is tilted to 98 at its axis- Rolling/Lopsided Planet
↑
I

8th Planet: Neptune

-
PA

I
Farthest planet
I
It is also “Ice Giant”
L
Atmosphere composed of: Hydrogen, Helium
/
Bluish in colour due to Methane
↑
Fourth largest planet and third most massive planet
&
Discovered by: Johann Galle and Urbain Le Verrier in 1846 (only planet found by
Mathematical Predictions)
I
Has 14 satellites, famous moon: Triton
 Pluto
- -

No more a planet in 2006 by International Astronomical Union (IAU)

: It is known as dwarf planet and is a member of Kuiper Belt
Kuiper Belt is a spherical boundary outside the orbit of Neptune containing a number of
asteroids, rocks and comets

C
SS
Increasing to Decreasing Order
7

J S U N E V M M
↓ ↓ + ddt ↓
Jupiter Saturn Uranus Neptune Earth Venus Mars Mercury
R
A
RM
PA
 C
SS
LONGITUDE AND LATITUDE
ROTATION AND REVOLUTION

R
A
RM
PA
 C
SS
R
Phase 4: Eclipse
A
Age of Earth
RM

- -

Technique used: Radioactive dating -> invented by Ernst Rutherford (1905)

Types of Dating
-

1. Uranium-lead dating method (oldest rocks)

2. Potassium-argon method
3. Rubidium-strontium method
PA

4. Radiocarbon dating method

5. Chlorine-36 dating method
6. Carbon-dating (C ) (latest rocks)
14
 Shape of Earth
-

C
B T

SS
-

R
Shape of Earth is Geoid or Oblate Spheroid (a little flat from top and bottom)
A
-
Reason: more Centrifugal Force at Equator bulges earth at Centre and Gravitation force
at poles pushes surface towards centre due gravitational force towards the centre, it flat in

-
top and bottom
RM

Actual shape

!
PA

When a body revolves, two types of forces is applicable

/
Centripetal Force: towards the axis of rotation or centre of curvature (inside)
/ Centrifugal Force: directed away from the centre of the circle
Radius of Earth

C
* P

SS
E

Equatorial Radius: 6378 km

R

:
A
Polar Radius: 6357 km
Mean Radius: 6371
RM

Why polar radius Equatorial radius?

Ans: Earth is bulged at the equator and flattened at the poles

Circumference of the Earth

PA

Polar: 40,007 km

i
Equatorial: 40,075 km
Mean: 40,040 km

Why poles circumference Equatorial?

Earth is bulged at equator and flattened at
the poles
 Rotation of Earth

tilted at it’s axis

↓

C
SS
Rotation: spinning on its own axis
-
I
Direction: West to East R
One rotation of Earth: 23 hour 56 mins 4 sec

Rotational Speed is maximum at Equator and minimum at Poles

A
W

↓ 22.5
Fastest rotation speed is of
#=>

- E

Jupiter
RM

>

>
66.5
T
-
-

Orbital plane
PA

-
Revolution of Earth
-

C
SS
Revolving around the Sun in Elliptical orbit
-

-
-
R
One revolution: 365 days 6 hours 9 minutes and 9 sec
Orbital speed: 29.8 km/sec t
A
·
Max orbital speed: Mercury 6 x 4 = 24 hrs ->Leap year concept (366 days)
-
Min orbital speed: Neptune
RM

Distance from the Sun

-
PA

~
When nearest to Sun: Perihelion (January 3rd - 14,75,00,000 km)
I
When farthest from Sun: Aphelion (July 4 - 15,25,00,000 km)
 Perigee: the point of moon’s orbit when it is closest to Earth
- Apogee: When moon is farthest from Earth

C
SS
R
Inclination of the Earth’s axis
-
A
1 0

I Axial Inclination: Inclination of Earth on its axis = 23 2

-
RM

Orbital Inclination:
- Inclination of Earth on its orbital
1
plane = 66
O

2
PA
Hemisphere
-

C
SS
Equal division of Earth in two parts
. Equator: divides the globe horizontally into 2 equal parts - Northern and Southern
-

Hemisphere R
Prime Meridian and International Date Line: divides the globe vertically - Eastern and
A
-
e

Western Hemisphere
RM

Latitude and Longitude

↓
Imaginary lines
PA

Horizontal lines E IIII Vertical lines

 Latitude
-

-
Imaginary horizontal lines on the globe that run from
East to West
a
-
Angular Distance of a place from the equator
1 degree of latitude = 111 km (approx)

C
↑

↑Total latitudes: 181

↑
Distance b/w each latitude is same

SS
Important Latitudes:
-

0 : Equator

-
R ...
231 N: Tropic of Cancer
2
-

66 1 N: Arctic Circle
A
I
2
231 S: Tropic of Capricorn
· --

2
RM

66 1 S: Antarctic Circle
I
-
--

2
Direct ray of sunlight do not fall ↑ Largest latitude: Equator
Sunlight does not falls beyond
beyond these tropics I
Smallest latitude: Poles (North
these tropics
and South)
PA

Uses
-

1. In Climatology:
I
Temperature zones, wind
-
Responsible for Pressure System
-
Planetary Winds System

2. Location of place
 NH
Longitudes
-

-
- Imaginary vertical lines over the globe that run
North to South
⑪
-
Angular Distance of a plane from Prime Meridian
I
Distance from each longitude varies from poles

C
towards equator
v
Least distance at poles and maximum distance at
equator: 111.32 km

SS
SH
I
Total longitudes: 360

A
.
↑
All longitudes divide Earth into 2 equal parts
-

R
All longitudes are Great Circle (circle in case of longitudes)
A
Important Meridians
-

Prime Meridian: 0 degree longitude (passes from

RM

Greenwich, London)
↑
International Date Line: 180 degree Meridian

↓
Zig-Zag lines
PA
International Date Line

I 8

C
SS
R
A
Prime Meridian
-
RM

It passes through Greenwich in London

: Countries: 8
-

UK
France
Spain
Algeria
PA

Mali
Burkina Faso
Togo
Ghana

I
TRICK: BSF GAMe in TOGO Kingdom
 360 = 24 hrs
-

360 = 1 hr
I

24
15 = 1 hr
-

15 = 60 mins
-

1 = 60 = 4 mins
I

C
-

15
↑ Prime Meridian will increase the time by 1 hr
Moving East away from prime meridian, will
Moving each 15 towards West of Prime
v

SS
increase the time by an hour for every 15°,
↑ Meridian will ifdecrease
consecutively we move the timefrom
to West by 1the
hr prime
meridian, the time will decrease by an hour

Solstice and Equinox

R
A
-

23rd Sep
I
RM

22nd Dec -

Overhead
e 21st June
Rays in
-

Tropic of ↓
I
Overhead Rays fall
Capricorn
Longest day and
PA

-
21st March Shortest night

W
Day and Night: due to Rotation
-
Seasons:
-

1. Revolution
2. Tilt
 Solstice

Summer - June 21 Winter - Dec 22

C
-
-

1. Vertical rays on Tropic of Cancer 1. Vertical rays on Tropic of

2. Northern Hemisphere gets more heat Capricorn

SS
3. Continuous sun rays on North Pole for
6 months, continuous days
4. known as Kark Sankranthi
I 2. Southern Hemisphere gets more
heat
Insolation: incoming solar 3. Continuous Sun rays on South
radiations Pole for 6 months, continuous
daylight

R 4. known as Makar Sankranthi

A
Equinox
- -
RM

-
Direct rays of the Sun fall on the Equator
& At this position neither of the poles is titled towards the Sun
-
So, the entire Earth experiences Equal days and nights

Vernal Equinox
- -

I
March 21: It is spring in the NH and
PA

autumn in the SH

Autumnal Equinox
-

- Sep 23: it is autumn in NH and

spring in SH
 -

C
SS
Sun (at its constant position) is obscured by the moon
t
New Moon
- Amavasya

R
I
A
RM

Moon is blocking Sun’s light

PA

Total Solar Eclipse Annular Solar Eclipse Partial Solar Eclipse

 Lunar Eclipse
-

C
↓
SS
-
Full Moon condition- Purnima Earth blocks Sun’s light
(light refraction)
-> scatters more
R causing blue colour
light to vanish and red - scatters less
light to reach moon
A
RM
PA

Red Moon Blue moon

↓
2 full moon in a month
 C
SS
~ Lunar Eclipse + Perigee -> Moon appears bigger than its normal size
↓
Super Moon condition

R Penumbra
A
-
-> Umbra
RM

Iight shadow (Penumbra)

of
IIIII- Dark Shadow (Umbra)

↳x
⑳@=
-
PA
 C
Earth’s Interior

SS
&
Plate Tectonic
R
A
RM
PA
 C
SS
Earth’s Interior R
A
RM
PA

Four method’s to know Earth’s interior:

1. Temperature - indirect source
2. Volcanoes and rock - direct source
3. Meteorites - indirect source
4. Earthquakes - indirect source
PA
RM
A
R
SS
C
 C
SS
Asthenosphere
-

R
A
Crust: made of Silica and Aluminium layer (SiAl)
-

-
Thickness: 5-70 km
RM

Two divisions:
-

1. Continental Crust:
-

W
land part of crust
W 30 km (thick/lighter)
I
made of Granitic rock
PA

2. Oceanic Crust:
-

- water part of crust

~
55 km (thick/denser)
km (thin/denser)
W
made of Basaltic rock

Composition of Earth’s crust:

-

·
O -46.4%
↑
Si - 28%
↑
Al-> 8% (most abundant metal in crust)
-
Fe->5% (2nd most abundant)
 Mantle: made of Silica and Magnesium (SiMa)
-

I Thickness: 2900 km
↓ Top layer: Solid form
Two divisions:
-

1. Upper Mantle
2. Lower Mantle

C
W Asthenosphere: semi-molten form (plastic form)

SS
Core: made of Nickel and Iron (NiFe)
-

Two divisions:
-

1. Inner Core: Solid form - 2200 km

-

2. Outer Core: liquid form (shows magnetic properties) - 1300 km

-

R
A
Crust Mantle Core
-
- - -
RM

By Volume 1% 84% 15%

-

By Mass 1% 68% 31%

- -
PA

I Lithosphere: Crust + Upper solid part of

-

Mantle - thickness: 10-200 km

I Asthenosphere is not part of Lithosphere
 Earth’s Discontinuity
-

dis

C
SS
Red

Hyd

dat
R
A
RM

n
S. No Discontinuity Layers Depth

1. Conrad Outer and Inner Crust 45 km

2. Moho Crust and Mantle 100 km
Inner Crust and Outer Mantle
PA

Inner Crust and Asthenosphere

3. Repiti Outer Mantle and Inner Mantle 700 km
4. Gutenberg- Mantle and Core 2900 km
Weichart Inner Mantle and Outer Core
5. Lehmann Outer Core and Inner Core 5200 km
 Earthquake
-

↑
An Earthquake is intense shaking of Earth’s surface, which causes shifting of
Earth’s plate

Distance nearest to Epicenter

C
= more destructruction

-
SS
Epicenter

Hypocenter/focus
R
A
(Place from Energy released due to movement of
where energy is plates on the form of waves
I
RM

released first)
Earthquake/Seismic waves

/
Seismograph: an instrument that
records earthquake waves Waves Rayleigh waves
↓ Rocks ↓
PA

I
First to reach on Body Waves -> Surface Waves/Love waves /L-waves
surface ↓
7-8 km/sec
↓ ↓ 4-6 km/sec
causes more destruction
S waves x
/

P waves
A Travels fastest Transverse
- -

- Longitudinal - Can travel only in Solid medium

Speed ratio:
e

-
Solid > Liquid > Gas (through all mediums)
I
They resemble Sound Waves
 C
SS
R
A
RM

-
S waves P waves
-

↑
creates Compression and Rarefaction

e
PA

-
causes stretching and squeezing

-
creates Crest and Trough
 Scales to measure Earthquake
-

Richter Scale

I
Instrument to measure magnitude of
Earthquake
I
Magnitude: 0-10
It is a limitless scale

C
-

Mercalli Scale

SS
e n

·
Instrument to measure intensity of
Earthquake
Magnitude:
: intensity 1-11
1-12

Shadow zone of waves

R
A
Liquid outer core
RM

speed slow
->
-
Large shadow zone
PA

40% of Earth’s
surface (not
Liquid medium Liquid medium recorded)
Slow speed Liquid outer core
Tectonic plates

-
Lithosphere makes plates comprising Crust and upper solid part of Mantle
7 Major + few minor plates

C
·
-

SS
0
00 8

Y
0 oo -

R
A
Large boundary: major plate
Minor boundary: minor plate
RM

Major plates marked in red

- Minor plates marked in blue
PA

S
Crust destruction
 Convergent Divergent Conservative

#E
.. ↓ I ↓

C
Denser one subducts Lateral Sliding
distance created, causing lava to Conservative boundary
Subduction zone created
explode

SS
Asthenosphere melts
New crust formation -
the crust causing crust
Constructive boundary
destruction

-
R
A
RM

↑
Plate boundary created,
PA

these places are called-

Ring of Fire in Pacific
Ocean

Force behind plate movement:

-

↑
Heat generated
Convection occurswithin
in the the Earth due to Radioactive decay and Residual heat
asthenosphere
The heat from the earth’s interior causes currents of
hot rising magma and cooler sinking magma to flow,
moving the plates of the crust along with them
PA
RM
A
R
SS
C
 C
ROCKS, CONTINENT

SS
AND OCEANS

R
A
RM
PA
 Petrology: Study of rocks
- -

How are rocks formed?

-

Igneous Rocks: formed when magma

-

cools and solidifies

I

C
Types:
-

SS
1. Intrusive: solidifies inside itself
2. Extrusive: solidifies outside
-

R -
⑭ -
A
Rock
go
Intrusive igneous
Extrusive
rock

I↓
RM

Exogenous agents act upon

eg: wind, water

Domed shaped Extrusive

Intrusive igneous
-s
landform rock/plutonic rocks
Vertical landform
PA

ite
Granite: Continental
I
-

crust
Basalt: Oceanic crust
-

Phacolith

= Horizontal

I
C
- Landform
Magma inside
 ,and
Sedimentary Rock: Sediments are broken &
-
transported, and deposited
=
deposited

- They exists in layers/strata

I
In sedimentary compaction takes place - Lithifaction
I
Fossils are found in it

C
Types:
-

1.Formed
1.te Made mechanically, eg: Sandstone, limestone
and shale

SS
k2.2.Formed
Made organically, eg: chalk, limestone, coal
3. 3.
Fl Formed
Made chemically, eg: Limestone, halite

-
R
Metamorphic Rock: These rocks are formed by
recrystallisation and reorganisation of materials within
the original rocks
A
Igneous + Sedimentray -> Metamorphic
↓
RM

Pressure
Volume
Temperature
3 change in forms - Metamorphosis

Types:
-

1. Thermal Metamorphism: metamorphic rocks formed due to a sudden temperature

PA

change
2. Dynamic Metamorphism: metamorphic rocks formed without any chemical change
-
 -
-
- ne
-
- -
-

C
e

↓ ↓

SS
Lines formed called Lineation
Alternate dark and light bands
called banding

-
- Granite Gneiss Metamorphic

-
It
PVT changes
RMarble

·
·
Shale - Slate
Schist
A
Amphibolite
- Sandstone -Quartzite
Limestone
RM

Rock Cycle

E
es
ng
PA

Sedimentary
ha

PV

I
sc

T
u
eno

PVT
og
Ex

Igneous -> Metamorphic

↑

-
 Volcano
- -

Types:
--

1. Cinder
2. Composite: most viscous lava
3. Shield: low viscosity lava
4. Caldera: most explosive lava, collapses on itself

C
SS
Continents and Oceans
- -

- Alfred Wegener: Gave Continental Drift Theory, 1912

↓
All of the modern-day continents had previously

called Pangaea and the water body is

called Panthalassa
R
been clumped together in a supercontinent
supercontinent

Panthalassa
⑧
A
Evidences:
Jig Saw fit
&
- Fossils deposits: Palaeontology (study of fossils)
Tethys Sea
RM

- Placer deposits
Study of rock: Petrology of N
A a

Types of rocks
Petrology A d ①

↓ ↓ ↓
Soft Hard Fossils deposits
PA

eg: Talc eg: Diamond

↑
Continental drift due to (as assumed by Alfred
Wegener)

↓
Convection cells
Due to 1. Tidal force
↓ ↓ 2. Polar fleeing force
Residual heat Radioactive decay
- But it occurs due to development of convection
Two main sources of cells
heat within the
Earth
 S
⑧

C
SS
-
-
R
Decreasing order of Continents and Oceans
Mariana Trench deepest point: Challenger
deep

*
deepest ocean
A
Area wise
-
Population basis
-
Oceans Order
-

Asia Asia P: Pacific Ocean

Africa Africa A: Atlantic Ocean (S-shape )
RM

A
North America Europe I: Indian Ocean
South America North America S: Southern (Atlantic)
Antarctica South America A: Arctic
Europe Australia Busiest ocean
Australia Antarctica
Sargasso Sea (brown algae
PA

Sargassum is seen here) -

borderless sea
 C
SS
R The age of oceanic rocks increases as
you move away from the mid-ocean
ridge
A
&

I
RM

!
PA

Oceans has more relief features

& Harry H. Hess gave seafloor spreading than continents (more diversity)
theory, 1962
 created due to divergent

E
plate boundary

C
Mid-Atlantic Ridge
- ↓
Longest and largest

SS
landform on Earth

R
A
RM

Petroleum extracted
Start of Ocean basin, narrow
↓↓
> Deep Sea Plains
PA

Flat topped Sea Mount

ma ↓
 C
SS
Minor relief feature: Atoll, sea mount, guyot

+ Corals: they are sea organisms, known as Rainforest of Sea

-

R
Exists in symbiotic relationship with Zooxanthellae algae
A
Secretes CaCO. that
Makes food for corals provides protection to
RM

↑ Corals exists in colony Zooxanthellae algae

↑ Favourable conditions:
-

1. Saline water (cannot survive in fresh water)

2. Sunlight
3. Clear water
4. Temperature: Moderate temperature 30-35 C
↑
PA

↑
Barrier Reef: Great Barrier Reef in Australia (largest)

- Coral bleaching: when water is too warm, corals will expel the algae (Zooxanthellae)
living in their tissues causing the corals to turn completely white

↓
due to climate change
Relief Feature of Oceans

Major Minor

Shelf Slope Rise Abyssal plain Seamount

Guyot: flat-topped sea mount

C
SS
R
A
RM
PA
 C
GEOMORPHOLOGY

SS
AND LANDFORMS

R
A
RM
PA
 Geomorphology
- - -

~ Geomorphic process: Changes in the configuration of Earth

I I
Land build/elevate Erosion

C
↓ ↓
Endogenic forces Exogenic forces

SS
- Example:
-

Himalayas: continuously increasing - Endogenic > Exogenic

Aravalis: continuously decreasing - Exogenic > Endogenic

I
R
Endogenic forces: the pressure within the earth, also known as internal forces
A
Energy from:
-

Radioactive decay
Primordial heat
RM

Changes categorised into:

-

1. Diastrophism: it is kind of process that move/elevate/build up the process of Earth

- -

Endogenic Processes:
a. Orogenic: process through which mountains are built
b. Epeirogenic: other changes except mountain build up
c. Earthquake: shaking of Earth
PA

d. Plate tectonics

2. Volcano: openings/vents where lava or magma erupts

E Exogenic Processes: due to Exogenic forces, causes wearing and tearing

Gradation: wearing down of relief features of Earth

 Collectively Exogenic forces are called Denudation

-
↑
Exogenic Agents: running water, wind, waves, ground water

Ultimately sources of energy for all exogenic forces: Sun

= SS
C
In situ
Ex situ
-

R Agents: wind,
water
A
RM

Weathering: Action of elements of weather and climate over Earth Materials

-

It is a in situ process
- Types of weathering:
-

1. Chemical weathering: the erosion or disintegration of rocks, building materials, etc.

-

caused by chemical reactions

PA

2. Physical/Mechanical weathering: disintegration without chemical change

-

3. Biological weathering: caused by movement of plants and animals

-

&
Effect of Weathering:
-

- Exfoliation: process when large, curved plates or slabs of rocks are stripped away from the
-

outer surface of a rock mass

 Mass Movement

↓1 - weathering is not a pre-requisite for Mass Movement, it

Fast Slow aids the Mass Movement
-
Main force involved: Gravity
-

Types: Creep: slow downslope movement of particles

-

C
-

Landslide
-

Solifluction: slow progressive movement of mass down a slope

I

-
-
Avalanche
& Earthquake

SS
- Mud flow

↑
Landforms
-

Types:
-

1. Erosional
2. Depositional R
A
-
Landforms Created by River
-
RM

n
*
PA

Youthful stage: river

- -

flows in speed
↓ Mature stage

I t
Erosional feature
dominates
Old stage
Depositional feature dominates
 Youth stage: V-shaped valley, Gorges, Canyon, Waterfalls, Rapids, entrenched meander

:
-

Mature stage: Meanders

-

Old: Meanders,
-
ox-bow lake,on
x bowlevees,
delta, lakes,flood
levees, flood plain, delta
plain

C
Separates and form ox bow lakes

wa

SS
-
Erosional features:

(
V-shaped valley, Gorges, Canyon, Waterfalls, Pothole, Plunge pools, River terraces

R
Incised Meanders: a meandering river valley that has cut down its bed into the bedrock
-

"
because of uplift or lowered base level
A
RM

- Depositional features: flood plains, Delta, ox bow lakes, meanders, Alluvial fans

un
-

e
-f
PA
 Landforms Created by Glacier
e

C
Serrated e
ridges

SS
Valley Main valley created

Erosional
-

Cirque: are created in

R Depositional
- -

Moraine
A
. heads of glacial valleys
Ridges/Arête . Eskers
Drumlins
Horn Outwash plains
RM

- Hanging Valley ↑

↑
Glacial Valley

I
Landforms Created by Groundwater: usually seen in places where rock is soft
I
-

Dolomite/Limestone
PA

Dolines ↓
1 Chemical weathering
u

↓
Uvulas Karst Topography (in
groundwater)
↓
Found in Karst region in
Mediterranean Sea
where rocks are made
In India, mainly in - of Limestone and
South India
Dolomite
 I Erosional: pools, sink holes, dolines, lapies, uvalas , limestones
- -

·
Depositional: Pillars,
- SStalactite,
talactite, Stalagmite,
Pillars,
Stalactite, Pillars
Stalagmite

!
C
SS
Landforms Created by Sea Waves
-
R
A
RM
PA

Erosional: cliff, caves, stack , arch

= Depositional: beaches, dunes, bars, barrier, spits
I Landforms Created by Wind
-

C
SS
Erosional: Pediplain, Playas, Mushroom rock, Pedestal rocks
-

-
-

Depositional: Sand Dunes

-

↓
R
A
Barchan Seif
RM
PA

Mushroom Rock
 1. Horn: Glacier
2. Lapie: sinkhole, pool, lapies, Dolines Erosional landform by Groundwater

wa
3. Ox-bow lakes: River: old stage

4. Stack: sea waves

C
5. Stalactite: groundwater

SS
/
Drumlins: glaciers
-
Alluvial fan: river (youthful to mature stage)
Barriers/Bar/Spit: sea waves
-
Seif/Burchen:
Barchan wind

Only river that meanders in youthful stage: Jhelum

-

R
A
RM
PA
 ATMOSPHERE

C
AND WATER IN

SS
THE ATMOSPHERE

R
A
RM
PA
↑ Our atmosphere divided into certain layers

TRICK to remember layers

-
Thank you: Troposphere
I
So: Stratosphere
Much: Mesosphere

C
v

-
The: Thermosphere
↑ Ex: Exosphere

SS
R
A
RM

-
Our atmosphere is a mixer of gases that surrounds Earth. It is kept in place by the pull of
Earth’s gravity
PA

Evolution of Atmosphere
-

Stages:
-

1. Loss of primordial atmosphere- early atmosphere had more amount of H2 , He and due to
excessive solar flares it vanished
2. Hot interior of Earth through volcanism
3. Modification by the living world (plants)
 Troposphere
-

/
Weather phenomenon
&
Lowest layer of the atmosphere
↑
Height is variable:
-

Poles: 8 km
Equator: 18 km 7
Average: 13 km

C
Tropopause: a line that separates Troposphere from Stratosphere
-

Composition of gases:

SS
-
Troposphere generally decreases with altitude
N2 : 78%

!
↓
-

↑
O2 : 21%
this is called Lapse Rate
↑
Ar: 0.9% (second most abundant gas)gas)
abundant inert
165 m 1 C
-
CO2 : 0.036%
1 km 6.5 C
I
He

~
R Why?
I
A
0 Insolation * Short wavelength (transparent)
~E -

W
heats the surface of Earth
00
RM

O .
⑧
..

%
ooo 0
"
%
0
- terrestrial radiation->Heats the atmosphere

Long wavelength (opaque)

O
->

I
·
.. 0
0 ⑧

Greenhouse effect
...
0

-
O
8 .

1 Tropospheric Ozone is bad for our

Green House Gases:
PA

-
environment
Water vapour
-

CO2
↑
-
Atmosphere heats up due to:
CH4
↑
1. Conduction: layer that’s near to
-

SO2
-
Earth will heat through conduction
I
NO is not greenhouse O3 -> Ozone
· (also vertical)
2
2. Convection: Vertically transfer of
gas -

heat after conduction

3. Advection: Horizontal transfer of
-

heat eg: loo is a result of advection

-
Insolation
-

-
Aphelion: the point when Earth is very far away from Sun (4th July)- Insolation less
&
Perihelion: when Earth is closest to the Sun (3rd Jan)
-> Insolation is more

C
-
Equator: Insolation is less here, due to presence of clouds
↑
Tropics: Insolation is high here as no good amount of clouds
↓

SS
max. at desert

Factors aeffecting Insolation:

-

1. Transparency of atmosphere
2. Length of the day
3. Tilt of the Earth
4. Rotation R
A
RM
PA
 Heat Budget: When Earth’s surface maintains its normal temperature, neither cools nor

=
heat up

Albedo: percentage of light reflected by an object

Highest albedo: Ice caps/glaciers

C
Temperature inversion: a layer in the atmosphere in which air temperature increases with
height

SS
Conditions favourable:
1. Long winter night
2. Still air
3. Clear cloudless sky
reaction is highly exothermic

Stratosphere R -

=
-
Ozone layer is seen here: protects from harmful UV rays
Ozone layer seen b/w 30-35 km
A
I

Temperature increases with altitude/moving upwards

Jet planes fly in this layer
RM

Ozone day: 16th Sept 16 Sept 1987

Montreal, Canada -> Montreal Protocol

Phase out CFCs (makes ozone

layer thin) Ozone hole
↓
PA

->
Kigali Amendment
made to phase Ozone layer thickness
out HFCs measured by: Dobson unit

Stratopause: divides stratosphere and mesosphere

 Mesosphere
-

-
Coldest layer atmosphere
W
Meteorites end here
~
Temperature decrease with altitude

Thermosphere
-

L
Hottest layer

C
W
Temperature increases with altitude
↑ Ions are seen here hence known as Ionosphere layer
↓

SS
Reflects radiowaves

-
Karman line: boundary b/w the Earth’s atmosphere and Exosphere
-

↓
100 km
R
A
-
Isotherm: lines connecting the points having same temperature
-
RM

I
Water in the Atmosphere
-

97.2% ->Saline water

All out of 2.8%
2.8% -> Fresh water
↓
As a whole (Freshwater)
Ice gaps/glaciers
c 2% -

I
·
PA

Ice caps/glaciers: 68.7%

-Ground water -> 0.68%
Groundwater: 30.1%
↑Lakes ->0.4% order of freshwater
/Atmosphere
/
Rivers

Water Cycle
-

Processes:
-

I Evaporation: water (liquid) -> water vapour (gas)

I
Condensation: water vapour ->water
- Precipitation: rain, snow, hail ->any kind of weather condition where something falling from sky
 Humidity:
- water vapour present in atmosphere

Types:
-
1. Absolute Humidity: actual amount of water vapour present in atmosphere
2. Relative Humidity: % of moisture present in atmosphere compared to its full capacity

C
08
Absolute Cold air
Humidity is ↓

SS
less Water holding capacity is less

Absolute
Humidity is
more R
A
Warm air

I ↓
RM

Water holding capacity is more

Rise/heat up

I Dew Point: temperature at which saturation occurs

-

Condensation: water vapour -> water

PA

-
-

Different forms:
-

I
Dew: moisture that forms as a result of condensation
Fog no solid surface needed, water vapour in winter air cools down due
diss
- I
-

-
Mist condenses around hygroscopic particles to which dew point reduces:
↓
water vapour-> water
- -

-81
Frost: deposition of white crystals
↑
Clouds
Fog: Big particles
Mist: Small particles
 Different Types of Clouds
rain bearing

I
Low level clouds
-
Nimbus black/dark grey coloured
opaque to sunlight
Stratus -> layered clouds
Flat base, does not
Wool rain cotton wool
↑

C
shaped ↑ - flat base
->
Cumulus
- -4000-7000 m
High level clouds

SS
-Cirrus -> High altitude
↓ Feathery appearance
does not
cause rain

R
A
RM
PA

Types of Rainfall
-

I
Rainfall is a precipitation

Hail I
Sleet
Size: big Frozen and refrozen drops
Size: small
3 types of rainfall:
-

1. Convectional: occurs when surface of the Earth is heated up by the Sun

2. Orographic: rainfall caused due to mountain
3. Cyclonic: due to cyclone

C
SS
R
A
RM
PA
 C
SS
R
-- Poisonous gas
A
RM
PA
PA
RM
A
R
SS
C
PA
RM
A
R
SS
C
PA
RM
A
R
SS
C
 C
SS
↓ ↓
Hygroscopic
particle released
from vehicles as
R
Visibility is low
A
pollution
particles
RM
PA
PA
RM
A
R
SS
C
 C
SS
WINDS, CLIMATE, OCEAN CURRENTS

R
A
RM
PA
 Pressure difference causes wind because
-
Warm air Rises > -> Low pressure
->

Cold air -> Sink -> High pressure

-
Wind: High pressure -> Low pressure

C
SS
High pressure

⑰14
Polar cell Low pressure
LP

cr
Ferrel cell

HP
Warm air rises
are
R NP
-
Polar Easterlies
A
Cold air sinks down
↓1
↓ ↓ ↓ Forces: Coriolis Force

!
Westerlies

- Tropic of ↓a
x14
Due to rotation
RM

44HP North East

E↓
5
Cancer HP HP
↓ ↓ ->Easterlies

!
LP LP LP NH Right
0 -

↑HP ↑ HP ↑ HP SH Left

I
->
South East
Tropic of
↳4 ↳
Easterlies
Capricorn
Wind name: Due to
Westerlies
PA

* ry4
--
-
↑ direction of origin
Tropical Easterlies SP
Hadley cell Meeting point of these two zones
is known as ITCZ Zone (Inter
(NE + SE)
Doldrum I Tropical Convergence Zone)
Here: v Zone is seen ↓
here Shifts upward to Tropic of Cancer in
- Coriolis force is zero
Winds relatively calm summer and shifts to Tropic of
Capricorn during winter
 Subpolar high
Subpolar low
Subtropical high Trade winds: Permanent winds
Equatorial low ↓ ↓
Easterlies Westerlies
(East direction) (West direction)

C
↓ ↓
Tropical Polar

SS
Horse latitude: seen in 30 N/30 S
-
-

when at higher latitude, wind rotates a

Coriolis force -> Max at poles
↓ -> lot and blows parallel to isobar
Zero at equator
R
Ferrel cell
Tropopause in Arctic zone

o
A
Tropopause in
temperate zone
RM

Horse latitude
PA
 ↑
Geostrophic winds: winds that blow parallel to isobars
-

-
Isobars: line connecting the points having same pressure
- -

Blowing only in local area

-

C
Cold winds Europe winds:

I
1. Bora

-
cold winds

~
2. Mistral

SS
Foehn winds: warm

-
winds
wind
~ Blows in
0-
Alps T

> - In India: Loo

18
-

o
-

↑ -Crosses Mediterranean Sea

North America winds:

I
1. Chinook
R ⑳O ⑫
Warm wind in
Australia

! I
Warm winds
2. Santa ana
A
-

①
RM

Also known as Snow eater

- It is a katabatic wind In Africa all the winds are warm/hot:

I
-

Cold wind that blows in 1. Sirocco: Starts from Sahara

South America Desert, causes blood rain
Snow melts it
-

Local winds 2. Khamsin: it blows in Egypt

3. Harmattan: also known as Doctor

............
I
Warm winds Cold winds wind because of Guinea Coast.
PA

Wind This wind provides health

benefits to local people
Anabatic wind Katabatic wind
 Sea Breeze Wind blows from sea
- to land

C
Or
Land 0
Sea

n
-333)

SS
Low pressure = Heats up slowly

Heats up quickly
- Water ↓
High pressure

R
Land Breeze
A
ble -
-Low pressure
High pressure = -
RM

Land: heats up and cools down quickly

. Water: heats up and cool down slowly
Centre where wind meet is called
Cyclones HP Eye of Cyclone

I
PA

- -

-
In NH, the wind will rotate
↑
At Equator, the Coriolis force anticlockwise
is zero -> No cyclone
↳
N

=
HP HP
LP

-> no clouds, calm

area, no rainfall

HP
 Conditions favourable:
-

1. Large Sea Surface temperature

2. Coriolis force
3. Small variation in vertical wind speed
4. Pre-existing weak LP area

C
-
During cyclone, Cumulonimbus clouds are formed->Causes heavy rain and
thunderstorms

SS
Cyclone at High Latitudes are caused due to Frontogenesis
↓
Fronts
↓
Two different air masses are
formed/meet
R ↓
Causes Extratropical/Temperate Cyclone
A
/
Difference in Tropical and Temperate cyclone
RM

Tropical
-
Temperate

-
-
Only in Sea In land/sea

&
More destructible -
Less destructible
PA

I Not frequent -
More frequent

/ Flows East to West Flows from West to East

 Anticyclone: forms around high pressure
-

LP

Cyclone Anticlockwise
LP
i HP LP

C
LP
- -

Clockwise direction
NH -> Anticlockwise Clockwise

SS
SH -> Clockwise Anticlockwise

Different names of cyclones:

-

1. Atlantic Ocean: Hurricane

2. Australia: Willy-Willy
R
3. Western Pacific/South China Sea: Typhoon
A
4. Indian Ocean: Cyclone
RM

Koeppen Climatic Classification

S Weather: short term

Mediterranean Sea: Cs
- Climate: long term -> Roughly 30 years data is taken

Koeppen in 1918 -> Empirical Climatic Classification

PA

↓
-
Used capital and small letters used
/
Climatic groups represented with
different codes On temperature basis

A B C D E H
-
↑I 5 major climatic groups
On precipitation basis
Steppe Koeppen’s Classification
w: winter dry
-

↑ A: Tropical
S
I
B: Dry Climate s: summer dry
↓
W C: Warm Temperate m: monsoon
↓

C
Desert D: Cold Snow Forest f: full baarish

E: Polar type (cold)

SS
Tundra type of climate due to extreme conditions

But
cold polar/tundra
-R cold snow

My
A
forest
RM

⑧ f

-
Tropics
K
Monsoon
PA

A
Winter dry
 Ocean Currents
- -

Moves due to:

-

↑
Tides
↑
Waves
-
Tsunami new found land

60

C
⑧

SS
Humboldt =O
current

TRICK
R
A
B P company G O L F W C California
↓ ↓
Benguela
↓

Peru
xd↓↓4 1
RM

Greenland Oyashio Labrador Falkland West Canary California

Australian
a
I Drift ↑
Cold Ocean Current

Reasons of origination: Cold air: water holding capacity less

PA

-
-

1. Heating by Sun -
Warm air: water holding capacity high
2. Wind
3. Density different
4. Coriolis force Types of Ocean Currents

5. Coastline of continents
Surface: 10% Deep Sea: 90%
 Effects:
-

1. Warm ocean current + cold ocean current -> Best fishing zones
↓
Creates foggy conditions: worset for Harbouring
2. Cold ocean current: creates desert
↓

C
Max. desert seen on Western side of the continent

SS
North America

o ⑧
R
O OhNamib o
⑪
Great Australian Desert
A
World’s driest desert Desert Gibson Desert
RM

-
Grasslands: areas where there is not much precipitation (Rainfall)
nor rainfall
PA
PA
RM
A
R
SS
C
PA
RM
A
R
SS
C
PA
RM
A
R
SS
C
PA
RM
A
R
SS
C
PA
RM
A
R
SS
C
PA
RM
A
R
SS
C
PA
RM
A
R
SS
C
PA
RM
A
R
SS
C
PA
RM
A
R
SS
C
PA
RM
A
R
SS
C
 W

W
PA
RM
A
R
SS
C
 C
INDIA AND IT’S BOUNDARY

SS
R
A
RM
PA
 India was =
apart
partofofGondwanaland
Gondwanaland

:
India in terms of area is in the 7th position
1st: Russia
2nd: Canada
3rd: China Time Zones
- -

4th: USA
·
Russia: 11

C
5th: Brazil
-
USA: 4
6th: Australia
-
Max. in France: 12 (because of
many territories)

SS
8th: Argentina

Smallest: Vatican City

India occupies 2.4% of total world’s land area

R
Population is 17% world’s total population India’s common time zone

- #
multiple of 7.5
A
82 1 E
2
India has total state: 28
RM

-
↑ Total UTs: 8

0
North-South extent: 3214 km
-
West-East: 2933 km
BW
Latitudinal extent: 8 4’-37 6’->Difference: ~30
1

I
↑
I

-
Longitudinal extent: 68 7’-97 25’->Difference: ~30 -
- I

->Bs
-

/
Warm Temperate
PA

I
Difference b/w every latitude is same: 111 km (Sub tropical)
/
Difference b/w every longitude * decreases
is varying
Tropical
↓
Max. at the equator
Zero at the poles

Time difference between Gujarat

f Tamil
Nadu
- As

and Arunachal: 30
-

1 = 4 mins
I

= 30 x 4
15 = 1 hr
-

= 120 mins = 2 hrs

 Extremes State Point

Northernmost: Himachal Pradesh Indira Col

Southernmost: Tamil Nadu Kanyakumari/Cape Camorin/

Indira Point
Easternmost: Arunachal Pradesh Kibithu

C
Westernmost: Gujarat Guhar Moti/Sir Creek

SS
15 = 31 hr
:
-
7.5 = 30 mins

R -
Total time: 24 hrs
Indian Standard Time (IST): 82.5 E
↑

...
IST passes through: 5 states
A
↓
23 1 N M: Madhya Pradesh
RM

2 O: Odisha
U: Uttar Pradesh (Naini,
Mirzapur)

!
C: Chattisgarh
A: Andhra Pradesh
ene
PA

Indira Point

India’s important latitude: Tropic of Cancer - 23 1 N

/

↓ 2
Pass through 8 states
TRICK
↓
Gujarati Raja Made Chief Justice Win The Meeting
↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓
Gujarat Rajasthan Madhya Pradesh Chattisgarh Jharkhand West Bengal Tripura Mizoram
-
How many capital cities of these 8 States are above (in North) Tropic of Cancer?
->3 states
-

Rajasthan Mizoram Tripura

Jaipur Aizawl Agartala

↑ Tropic of Cancer meets IST at: Korea, Chattisgarh (Baikunthpur)

C
↑ Countries that share boundary with

SS
e

India:
-

B: Bangladesh - 4,096.7 km (longest)

C: China -> 3,488 km
P: Pakistan ->3,323 km
N: Nepal ->1,751 km
M: Myanmar ->1,643 km
B: Bhutan 699 km
->

A: Afghanistan ->106 km (least)

R
A
-

total: 15,106.7 km
RM

Bangladesh: India and Bangladesh -> Radcliffe Line Train b/w Bangladesh to India
-
-

I Bandhavgarh
n> Express
Express
M A M Take Water -
Mitali Express
↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓
Meghalaya Assam Mizoram Tripura West Bengal
↓
PA

It is surrounded by Bangladesh from three sides

Nepal
- -

Bhutan

S U B B U
Nepal ↓
↓
Sikkim
↓ ↓
Uttar Pradesh Bihar
↓
West Bengal
↓
Uttarakhand
I
Siliguri Corridor/Chicken-
neck corridor
 Bhutan
-

B A S A
↓ ↓
↓ ↓
West Bengal Assam Sikkim Arunachal Pradesh Agreed
-
Pakistan: Pakistan and India -> Line of Control (LOC) Train b/w India and Pakistan:

C
+ Radcliffe Line
-
-

↑
Samjhauta Express
G R P J&K Ladakh ↑
Thar Express
↓

SS
↓ ↓ Train to Pakistan (book):
-

Gujarat Rajasthan Punjab Khushwant Singh

China

-
Ladakh, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh

1. Western sector
2. Middle sector
R
India-China Border divided into 3 sectors:
A
3. Eastern sector
-> Western sector
Eastern sector
RM

↑
India-China
--
Middle sector

- Border divided into

3 sectors
PA

I
Vibrant Village Programme
for development: India-
China border

Line b/w India and China: Line of Actual Control Johnson

JohnsonLine
Line
Control (LAC) ↓
Not agreed McMohan Line
 Border Road Organisation (BRO) ->1960

. Border Area Development Programme: 7th Five Year Plan

↓
1985-90

C
Nepal and Bhutan: SSB (under Ministry of Home Affairs)
- Pakistan and Bangladesh: BSF
India and China: ITBP (under Ministry of Home Affairs)

SS
/

-
Naxalite affected areas: Red Corridor
Airforce/Navy/Army: Ministry of
↑

Defence
Myanmar Assam Riffles: Under Home Affairs
-

but operation control under Ministry

- -

Aru
↓
Na
↓
Ma
↓
R
Arunachal Nagaland Manipur Mizoram
Mi
↓
of Defence
CRPF: Largest force of India
A
Afghanistan
-

Ladakh
RM

Sri Lanka and India separated by Palk Strait

-

↓
a narrow passage of water connecting two
seas or two other large areas of water
PA

Largest Gulf in the world: Gulf of Mexico

⑱
Largest Bay in the world: Bay of Bengal
Arabian Sea Bay of Bengal

Palk Strait
 State sharing boundary with maximum no. of state: Uttar Pradesh

..
8 states + 1 UT (Delhi)

State sharing boundary with least no. of states: Sikkim, Meghalaya

C
West Bengal Assam

SS
-
States sharing boundary with 3 countries:
1. Sikkim (Nepal, Bhutan, China)
2. Arunachal (Bhutan, China, Myanmar)
3. West Bengal (Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh

-
R
1 UT that shares boundary with 3 countries: Ladakh (Pakistan, China, Afghanistan)
A
Coastal Boundary of India
-
RM

↑
Total: 7516.6 km -
longest coastal boundary of the world: Canada
-
Mainland: 6100 km - India is in 13th position
-
States: 9
↓

Gujarat, Maharashtra, Goa, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Odisha, West Bengal
~ UTs: 4
PA

↓
Andaman and Nicobar Island, Lakshadweep, Daman and Diu, Puducherry

Longest coastline in India: Andaman and Nicobar (1912 km)

e

I
State: Gujarat (1214 km)
UT: Andaman and Nicobar (1912 km)

Shortest coastline: Goa

 Territorial Limit of India
-

· I
12 nm = 22 km
Contiguous zone = 24 nm
To measure coastline

1 nautical mile = 1.852 km

I

W Exclusive Economic Zone: 200 nm -

↓
Nautical miles

C
SS
·
India is lying entirely in: Northern Hemisphere

India can be divided into 6 physiographic regions:

-
1. Himalaya
2.
3.
4.
Peninsular Plateau
Northern Plain
Desert
R
A
5. Island
6. Coastal Plains
RM

I
India is 7th largest in the world

/ India is bounded by the young fold mountains in the northwest: Himalayas

- Andaman and Nicobar is located on the Eastern Coast of India

PA

I
Gulf of Mannar (b/w India and Sri Lanka): Indian Ocean

-
Languages of countries
-

·
Sri Lanka: Sinhala /Tamil
-
Maldives: Dhivehi
-
China: Mandarin
I
Bhutan: Dzongkha

-
The place situated on three seas: Kanyakumari
- Sites located on the hills near the Brahmaputra valley on the way to China and Myanmar: Daojali
Hading Jadeite stone is found here
-> Line that separates Pakistan and Afghanistan/India and Afghanistan: Durand Line

-
Afghanistan capital: Kabul
Official languages: Pashto and Dari

C
-
W
Two neighbouring islands of India: Sri Lanka and Maldives

SS
Water Treaty signed b/w India and Pakistan in year 1960: Indus Water Treaty

:
Hill pass located between India and China: Karakoram Pass

Havelock Island: Andaman and Nicobar Islands

-
R
State capital located 530 meters above the sea level b/w 93 East longitude and 27 North
A
latitude: Itanagar

-
City situated along the Coromandel Coast: Tuticorin
RM

~ Bordered by Bhutan and Arunachal in the North, Nagaland and Manipur to the East, Meghalaya,
Tripura, Mizoram and Bangladesh to the South, West Bengal to the west: Assam

- Total area of the state Goa: 3702 km

PA
 C
HIMALAYAS

SS
R
A
RM
PA
 India: 6 Physiographic Divisions
-

1. Northern Mountains
The Himalayas
2. Northern Plains
3. Peninsular Plateau
4. The Great Indian Desert
5. Coastal Plains
6. Group of Islands

C
SS
Tethys -

S R
A
RM

Northern Mountains
-

Plate convergence
Himalayas -
-

W
Young fold mountains (formation: million of years ago)
--

- Eg:
Andes Mt. Range (South America)
PA

-
Alps Mt. Range (Europe)
↳
Rockies Mt. Range (North America)

I
Old fold mountains: formed billion years ago
-

I
Ural Mt. Range (separates Europe and Asia)
I
Appalachians (North America)
W
Aravalli (India)
 Block Mountains

.
Horst

Graben

C
Eg:
Vosges Mountain (France)
(Germany)
Caucasus Mountains (Germany)

SS
Volcanic Mountains
-

Eg:
Mount Kilimanjaro (Africa)
:
Mount Stromboli (light house of Mediterranean)
↑

I
Mount Fujiyama(Japan)
R
Mount Ojas del Salado (Chile-Argentina border)
Highest volcanic mountain

Mount Cotopaxi (Ecuador) -> Highest volcanic mountain

A
I Himalayas: core is made up of granitic rocks
RM

- -

↓ ↓
Trans Himalayas Himalayan Range
↓
↓ in
b I
series of mountains Great Middle Shiwalik
Himalayas Himalayas
↓
PA

↓ Churiya Hills
Known as known as
Himadri Himachal
 Mt. Kailash is a part
-

-
Trans Himalayas: 3 mountain ranges
1. Karakoram Range: highest peak of this range is K2/Godwin Austin (8611 m, world’s second
highest peak) Shyok river flows b/w Karakoram and Ladakh
2. Ladakh: high slope ↓
3. Zanskar Tributary of Indus
Tibet Plateau: known
Indus flow b/w Ladakh and Zanskar as Roof of the World
A- -Mt. Kailash is a part
Glaciers of Karakoram Range:
-

1. Siachen -> Operation Meghdoot (1984) ⑧

2. Baltoro
Hisper
Diafo
RM ↑
-
1. Great Himalayas/Himadri/Inner
Himalayas
-

Western most point: Nanga Parvat

· Eastern most point: Namcha Barwa
-
A
Avg. height: 6000 m
-
Highest Peaks:
1. Mt. Everest (8848 m, highest in the world)
↓ local names ↓
R Sagarmatha (Nepal) Chemalugma (Tibet)
Chomolungma(China)
2. Mt. Kanchenjunga (Sikkim): Highest in India (8598 m)
3. Nanda Devi: highest peak in Uttarakhand
↓ -

(7816 m) Mt. Kamet: Uttarakhand

-
Nepal:
1. Annapurna (8091 m)
2. Dhaulagiri (8167 m)
SS
3. Mount Makalu

-
C
2. Lesser Himalayas/Middle Himalayas/Himachal Himalayas
Avg. Height: 4000 m
 Names:
-

↑ J & K: Pir Panjal Range

M
Himachal Pradesh: Dhauladhar
I
Uttarakhand: Nagtibba
↑
Nepal: Mahabharat Range

C
Valley: E

L
--
-

SS
·
Kashmir Valley: b/w Great Himalayas and Lesser Himalayas

3. Shiwalik
-

E In the Eastern Himalayas gets replaced by Duars

Avg. height: 1000 m

↑
R ↓
Good for tea cultivation
B/w Lesser Himalayas and Shiwaliks: longitudinal valleys known a Dunes
s
A
- Largest dune:
: Dehradun
RM
PA
 Regional divisions of Himalayas
-

-
Punjab Himalayas: b/w Indus river and Sutlej river
-
Kumaon Himalayas: b/w Sutlej and Kali river
-
Nepal Himalayas: b/w Kali and Teesta river
-
Assam Himalayas: Dihang and Teesta river

C
Kashmir Himalayas: Karewas formation (glacial deposits)
↓
-

SS
Zaffron (A local variety of saffron)

Lakes:
-

Dal Lake
·
-

1- fresh water lakes

Wular Lake
Pangong Tso
↑

Tso Moriri
·
It
salt water lakes
R
Jhelum River: Meanders in its youth stage
A
↑

↓
Srinagar
RM

Himachal/Uttarakhand Himalayas
-

-
Tribe: Bhotia
Summer grasslands: Bugyal
I

Darjeeling and Sikkim Himachal

-

Mt. Kanchenjunga
Kilimanjaro
PA

↑ Tribe: Lepcha/Bhutia tribe

Absence of Shiwalik -> Duars
jhumming cultivation practiced
-

->
Arunachal Himalayas
- -

↑
Important peaks: Kangtu and Namcha Barwa
↑
Important rivers: Kameng, Subansiri, Dibang
Dihang
- Tribes:
West East
-
Monpa Abor Mishimi Nyishi Naga
 Eastern/Purvanchal Hills
-

I
Patkai bum
-
Naga Hills
↑
Manipur Hills
↑
Mizo/Lushai Hills

C
SS
R
A
RM
PA

I
Barak River
↓
Mizoram: Molasses Basin (soft unconsolidated deposits)
Manipur: Loktak Lake -> Keibul Lamjao National Park
↓
-

↑ Floating National Park

S
State Animal: Shanghai Deer

Passes

C
-

Jammu and Kashmir highest pass

-
-

SS
20
-

R highest motorable road

↑
A
-> Project
RM

I
Jammu to Kashmir/Srinagar: Banihal and Pir Panjal
Pir Panjal
Kashmir to Gilgit: Burzil
-

-
Kashmir to Leh: Zoji La
PA
Himachal Pradesh
- -

C
SS
Rohtang pass connects: Kullu to Lahaul and Spiti Valley

=
Baralacha La: Pass:
Lahaul and and
Lahaul SpitiSpiti
to Leh
to Leh
Atal Tunnel in Rohtang Pass
R
A
Uttarakhand
RM
PA

Lipu Lekh located at Trijunction

 Sikkim
-

C
SS
Arunachal Pradesh
-

R
A
RM

Myanmar
PA

General Oriebtation
Orientation of Himalayas
NW Himalayas: NW to SE

-
Arunachal: West
East to East
West
Purvanchal Hills: North to South
NW
Avg. width decreases from West to East

SE Nepal
 Appalachians: North America (old mountains

. Aravalli (old)
Ural (old)

S
Harz Mountains (Germany) ->Block mountains

Terai: Belt
↓

C
Low land region in Northern India and Southern Nepal

SS
I
Mount Krakatoa: Indonesia

S Kotli
KotlaDun
andand Patli
Patli DunDunlocated
locatedb/w:
b/w: lesser
lesser Himalayas
Himalayasand
andShiwaliks
Shiwaliks

↑ Highest peak in Peninsular India: Anaimudi

R
White Mountain: Dhaulagiri (Nepal), covered with white snow

-
A
/ Deomali, highest peak of: Odisha

Mount Tiyi: Nagaland

RM

- Mountain near Dhauliganga: Nanda Devi

Gorichen peak: Arunachal Pradesh

.Mountain b/w India and Nepal: Kanchenjunga

PA
 PENINSULAR

C
PLATEAUS

SS
R
A
RM
PA
 triangular shaped

- Peninsular Plateaus: Largest physiographic division

What is Peninsular?
A land mass which is covered by water from three sides
S
Peninsular Plateau general elevation:
600-900 m

What is a Plateau?

C
-
A plateau is a flat, elevated landform that rises sharply
above surrounding area on at least one side

SS
-

The Peninsular Plateau

R
A
-
A table land composed of the old crystalline, igneous,
and metamorphic rocks
Satpura -

Block mountains
RM

Formation:
3 hills:
-

Due to breaking and drifting of Gondwana land

-
-

Rajpeepla
MPeninsular Plateau is made up of black soil (volcanic
↑

Mahadeo
origin)
Maikal
It has broad and shallow valleys and rounded hills
Highest Peak: Dhupgarh (Madhya
~

Pradesh) located on Mahadeo Hills

⑭
/
PA

Divisions
A
Hill station: Panchmarhi
Panchmadi Hills
Hills- Queen
F
↑

Central Highlands of Satpura

Deccan Plateau
-

Amarkantak Plateau
↑

↳ Makes radial

I Rivers that flow:

-

Narmada and Son

-
drainage pattern

abundant deposits of Bauxite

 Vindhya
- Panna (Madhya Pradesh) ->Famous for diamond
Highest peak: Sadbhavna Shikhar (Peak of Goodwill)

C
SS
!
Maharashtra
Bhima faultA
R
RM
PA
 I

C
Rift valley

SS
Central Highlands
- - -

Part lying to the North of Narmada River

-
Covered by Vindhya ,·
at North,bySatpura
bounded SatpuraatatSouth, andAravalis
South and Aravalisononthethe Northwest
Northwest

Main plateaus
R - -

Malwa Plateau (largest) Western side

: Chota Nagpur Plateau Eastern side
-
-
A
Central Highlands are wider in West
-

but narrower in the East

-e
-

I
RM

Narmada river (Bundelkhand and Baghelkhand)

-

I
Rewa Panna Plateau

Vindhya

↑
Topmost producer of Cotton:
Maharashtra/Gujarat
PA

Satpura

Malwa Plateau

T
-

&
In Gujarat, Rajasthan, and Madhya Pradesh
↑
Made of lava (Basaltic rock)
I
Black soil originates
-
Rivers that flow: Chambal, Betwa, Sindh, Ken
↓ ↳>Tributaries of Yamuna
From Southwest to Northeast
Southeast
*
 Aravalis: North West extension of Central Highlands
-

1 Spread across 860 km

↑
Old fold mountains
↑
They are residual mountains
·
Spread across: Gujarat, Rajasthan, Delhi, Haryana
I
Raisina Hills

C
↑
Highest peak: Guru Shikhar (1722 m)
↓

SS
situated in Mt. Abu Hills
↓
Temple located: Dilawara Jain Temple

Chota Nagpur Plateau

-

↑
-

R
Spread across Jharkhand, Chattisgarh, Odisha, West Bengal
Also known as Ruhr State (famous for minerals)
A
-
3 important ⑳
- -
hills:
plateaus:
/
Ranchi Plateau
↑

Hazaribagh Plateau
RM

Koderma Plateau
I
Highest peak: Parsavnath (also, name of 23rd Tirthankar)
-
River that flows in rift valley: Damodar River (eastern side)
&
Jadugada Mines: famous for Uranium

Deccan Plateau
PA

-
It is a triangular landmass lying South of river Narmada
Borders
-
Satpura: Northern borders
-
Mahadev, Kaimur hills, and Maikal range: Eastern borders
-
Tilted towards East
-

The Deccan Plateau is higher in the west and slopes gently eastwards
↑
An extension of these plateaus is found in North East
-

Meghalaya plateau (Garo, Khasi and e Jantia Hills), Karbi Anglong plateau and
Jaintia
North Cachar hills
->Assam
-
 of
Rajmahal Hills: makes North
Eastern boundary of Deccan

C
Plateau

West Bengal

SS
Malda fault/Malda gap: Separates entire part of
Deccan Plateau from Karbi Anglong Plateau/
Meghalaya Plateau/North Cachar Plateau

R #
Garo Khashi Jayantia Mikir Hills Rengma Hills
(Hills)
Cherrapunji, Mawsynram (highest rainfall in
India), Shillong
A
RM
PA

Western Ghats and Eastern Ghats

-

I
Both Western Ghats and Eastern Ghats lies west and east of the Deccan Plateau
respectively
-
Both the ghats have some distinctive features and differentiating points
↑
These are block mountains
 C
SS
Western Ghats Eastern Ghats
-

Discontinuous, irregular, and Dissected

- -

Continous and can be crossed through

↑
↑

-
passes only by rivers
·

↑
R
Higher than eastern: 900-1600 m
Stretch from Tapi to South of Nilgiri
Stretched from Mahanadi Valley to the
-

Nilgiri -> Connects Western Ghats to

A
Hills Eastern Ghats
&
Spread across: Gujarat, Maharashtra, Highest peak: Mahendragiri (1501 m)/
~

Jindhagada (1690 m)
Jindagarah
it
Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Goa
RM

-
Cause Orographic rainfall Shevaroy Hills and Javadi Hills are
-

·
Height increase from North to South located to the southeast to it
-
Highest peak: Anaimudi (Anaimalai
Hills)- 2695 m ↓
Kerala
I
2nd highest peak: Doddabetta (2637
PA

m) I
Ooty is here Tamil Nadu
↓

(Hill station)
-
Southernmost Hills: Cardamom Hills
 Passes
-

Bhorghat: Mumbai to Pune

: Thalghat: Mumbai to Nasik
Pal Ghat: Annamalai to Nilgiri

v Mountain Peak at the mountainous border of Indian state of Nagaland and the Sagaing region of

C
Myanmar: Mount Saramati

Mountains in the northwest, north, and northeast bind India: Young fold mountains

SS
-

-
Mount Jopuno: Sikkim

-
Kumaon Himalayas is between Sutlej and Kali

I
↑

Lipu Lekh pass: Uttarakhand

R
Oldest mountain/hills range in India: Aravali Hills
A
↓
Located at tri-junction
India, Nepal, and China
RM

-
Mountain that looks like a giant pyramid and has a flat summit area and two peaks: Kamet

Core of Great Himalayas is composed of: Granite (igneous rock)

-
↓
continental crust
PA

↑
Oceanic Crust: made of Basaltic rock, is denser and is thin

Rohtang pass cuts through Pir Panjal range and links Manali and Leh by road

& Ladakh range extends from northern side of Leh to the Tibetan Border and comprises Digar La
Pass and Khardung La Pass
 a
K12
K2 mountain is situated near Siachen region of Ladakh in India

=
Jawahar Tunnel: Banihal Pass (J&K and Srinagar)

Land route to Kailash and Mansarovar passes through: Mana Pass

C
Javadi: Eastern Ghats peak

Nilachal Hills: Guwahati

SS
Kamakhya Temple is situated here

Fotu La (4108 m) is highest point of Ladakh under Zanskar mountain range

Highest hill station: Leh

R
Hills in Andhra Pradesh: Nagari Hills
A
~
om
Bora Caves in Andhra Pradesh is situated on the East Coast of India in: Ananthagiri Hills
Borra
RM

↑ Patkai bum: Eastern part of India

Shatrunjaya Hills located in Gujarat

· Maikal is a range not a plateau
PA

-
Deccan Plateau spread across: Telangana, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Kerala, Andhra
Pradesh , Madhya Pradesh, Chattisgarh, Tamil Nadu
 NORTHERN PLAINS AND

C
ISLANDS

SS
R
A
RM
PA
Northern Indian Plains
-

C
SS
**11 68808
R
A
n
en -

↓
meta
nee
RM

River in youthful
↓ ↓
-
stage Terai Alluvial flood plain
performs erosion Bhabar

! streams of river Khadar↓ ↓

streams of river >Bhagar
Bhangar
will reappear
-
- -

disappear New deposition Old deposition

. .
Better fertility More calcareous
without properly
big stone pebbles -

⑭
PA

demarcated channel than bhagarngar concentration

seen here
marshy area -
renews every yearI
- lush green vegetarian Kankad

seen here
Coasts of India

·
9 coastal states + 4 UTs

Western Coastal Plains Eastern Coastal Plains

Narrow in middle and wider in the Wider

C
ends Emerging
Submerging Form Delta
Rivers do not form delta

SS
Formation of Kayals
(Backwaters) Punnamada Kayal: Nehru Trophy (Boat race)
Port development is easy

R
A
wide continental shelf, due to
RM

Ports seen here which ports are not developed

in more no. properly
PA

World’s largest continental shelf: Siberian Shelf

In Arctic Ocean
 known as Baiga Plain in
e
->
-7
Bengal

C
-

SS
Kannad
Coast

Western Ghats is known as Sahyadri in

Maharashtra

R
A
Ports of India

↓ ↓
RM

Major Minor
↓ ↓
13 ports 200
↓
↓ ↓ Owned by State Govt.
12 1
↓ ↓
Govt. Owned Pvt.
PA

↓ ↳
Ownership and management Ennore (Kamrajkar Port)
by Central Govt.
 oldest port
developed by

C
British in 1870s

j
Haldia Port (West
Tidal port

SS
E --- Bengal)
Also known as Riverine port
Deendayal Port - Also known as Shyama
Trust Prasad Mookerjee Port

-
Also, Nhava
↑

Port
>
Sheva Port
I R ->India’s deepest landlocked
port

-
Largest container port
↑
A
In Zuary river’s
RM

estuary
Queen of Arabian Sea
Only state to
have max. major Rajasthan
ports
Great Indian Dessert ↑
-
PA

↑
Seen in North Western of Aravali
Low rainfall: ↳ 150 mm/year
Also known as Marusthali
↑ Most rivers are ephemeral
-

Features:
Burchans,
· a Seif
Mushroom rocks
-

Pedestrial rocks
I

I
Oasis is seen here
↳
green part in desert
made of Islands: Part of land surrounded by water from all four sides
coral

.
deposits
Af Arabian Sea
·
IBay of Bengal
Lakshadweep Andaman and Nicobar group of
Total: 36 islands islands extension of Arakan Yoma ( in
Largest: Andrott Total: 572 islands ↳ Myanmar)

C
-
↑

Largest: Great Nicobar

-

SS
738 m

↳
&

Mt. Diavolo -
8
3rd highest
.
4th
③
R F-

CN
A
I LN
GN
RM

10 channel
-

- -

↑
separates Andaman group of Islands and Nicobar group of Islands
/
separates Little Andaman and Car Nicobar
PA

Duncan Passage: Separates #

e n
Andaman and little
South Andaman Andaman
and Little Andaman

Tribes
- -
North Andamanese
I Andaman: Negrito group -> Jarawa
t Once·
ge
↳ Senthelese
-> Shompen
-
Nicobar
↳ Nicobarese
National Parks in Andaman and Nicobar
-

C
SS
R
A
Islands renamed:
-

W Ross Islands -> Netaji S. C. Bose Island

RM

-
Neil Island -> Shaheed Dweep
↑
Havelock Island -> Swaraj Dweep

-
Unnamed islands were renamed on 21
Paramveer Chakra Awardees name
PA

1
Pygmalion point
 11 channel: separates Aminidivi and Cannanore
e
-
-
8 channel
Minicoy from Maldives
. Lakshadweep from Maldives

C
SS
--Entire group of Lakshadweep from Minicoy

--
R Minicoy
A
RM

y
④
Sir Creek
Disputed

·
territory Aliabet
bet ween
in India
India
Betisland
Island

and Pak
-
and Pak New Moore Island
b/w India and Bangladesh
PA

Chandipur, APJ Abdul Kalam Island

Odisha
Integrated Test Range
(missile testing)
E7Pamban Island
-D
· Kachachatheevu Islands
Kachchatheevu Islands
↓
b/w India and Sri Lanka
 C
SS
DRAINAGE SYSTEM

R
A
RM
PA
 C
Dendrite Trellis Radial

SS
Centripetal Rectangular

1.
2.
R
Dendritic: resemble the branch of a tree
Trellis: tributaries join the river at right angle
A
3. Radial: rivers originating from a central dome/peak
4. Centripetal: rivers draining their water into a central lake/depression
RM

/ L
Catchment area
->

n S
River System
PA

#
River + Tributaries

Basin/Catchment area

Indian River System Origin: source

-
1. Himalayan River System Mouth: Drains water
2. Peninsular River System
 The Himalayan Rivers
-
The Peninsular River
-

1. They are perennial 1. They are ephemeral

2. Water throughout the year (Origin/ 2. During dry season, large rivers have

C
Source: Glaciers) reduced flow of water in their channels
3. They have long courses from their 3. They have shorter and shallower
source to the sea course

SS
4. P
two
3 major rivers: the Indus , and the 4. Most of the rivers here originate in the

-
Brahmaputra,
Brahmaputra
and Ganga originating from the North ofof
originating from north Western Ghats and flow towards Bay
the
themountain
mountain ranges
ranges of Bengal
5. Ex: the Indus, the Brahmaputra, the 5. Ex: Narmada, Tapi, Godavari
Ganga

R
6. Some Himalayan rivers are antecedent
(following their original course), eg:
Satluj, Kosi, Indus
A
Tributaries of Indus
RM

↓
Jhelum+Chenab+
Gilgit Nubra Beas+Ravi+Sutlej
= Panchnad

E.
Shyok
Punjab
PA

Zanskar
Panj + Doab Area
between two rivers
Classification of Tributaries
-

1. Left Bank Tributary

2. Right Bank Tributary

#
↳

C
Left bank tributary Right bank tributary

SS
Indus
↑
Indus+Jhelum: Sindh Sagar Length: 2880 km/1114 km in India
Doab Flows in: China India Pakistan
Jhelum+Chenab: Jech National river of Pakistan
Doab Indus Water Treaty, 1960
Chenab+Ravi: Rechna
Doab
R
AttSsigned in Karachi
B/w J L Nehru and Ayub Khan
A
Ravi+Beas: Bari Doab Mediator: World Bank
Beas+Sutlej: Bist Doab -
> Most
One ofsuccessful treaty around
the most successful the world
treaty around the world
Indus
80% water used by Pakistan
RM

Jhelum
20% water used by India
Chenab

Ravi
Beas 80% water used by India
Sutlej 20% water used by Pakistan
PA

I
Indus origin: Bokhar Chu Glacier near Lake Mansarovar
Drains: into Arabian Sea
-
-
Demchok: enters into India
Leh: located on the banks of Indus River
I
Indus in Tibet is known as Singi Khamban (Lion’s mouth)
 Tributaries of Indus
-

1. Jhelum: meanders in its youthful stage

-

&
Ancient name: Vitasta
&
Origin: Verinag (J & K)
↑
Flows in the border of India and Pakistan
-
Srinagar is located on banks of Jhelum
Wular Lake gets its water from Jhelum
-

C
Chandra
2. Chenab
- -
-- 7 Bhaga

I Ancient name: Askini

SS
Origin: Baralacha La pass
I

↑
Largest tributary of Indus

3. Ravi
-

-
Ancient name: Purushni
-
Origin: Rohtang pass

4. Beas
R
A
--

↑ Ancient name: Bipasha

-
Origin: Rohtang pass
-
Only tributary of Indus that does not pass or enter Pakistan
RM

5. Sutlej
-

·
Ancient name: Shutudri
I
Origin: Rakas lake (Lake Mansarovar)
I
It enters India through Shipkila pass
PA

I
Panchnad meet Indus at Mithankot, Pakistan

-
Right Bank Tributaries: Shyok, Gilgit, Hunza
 ↓
Largest river system in India Vishnu Prayag

.
Lix
Goumukh Glacier Nanda Prayag
X Satopanth
Gangotri Glacier

-
Dhauli Ganga

C
-
Bhagirathi
Mandakini

SS
Pindar Nandakini

Karna Prayag
Alaknanda Rudra Prayag

Ganga Devprayag
R
A
-
Prayag: Confluence of two rivers
RM

Bhagirathi Dev Prayag

-
Alaknanda
->
Dhauliganga
Nandakini
E Vishnu Prayag
Nanda Prayag

E Pindar
-
Mandakini
Karna Prayag
Rudra Prayag
PA
 Ganga River Tributaries

!
Tila, Seti, Beri
Fulhal
·
Fulhar
UK Mapchachungo
Lake
glacier Milam Glacier
Ramganga
Gomti Gosain Dham
Ghaghra Sarda
(Saryu) (Goriganga) Darjeeling hills

C
Bijnaur Gandak
Yamuna Tons
Gajpur
↓ Kosi

SS
~

Mahananda

IEM
Patna

-
Banas
M
Yamuna Chhapra
Punpun
- Farakka
Ken Son Sonpur
>

↳
Chambal Sindh Betwa Bhagalpur
#
Mhow Plateau
I
.
Chambal
&R
A
(Origin) Rihand Hugli/Bhagirathi-Hugli
Sindh Parvati
RM

Son
Yamuna: 1370 km

-
Origin: Amarkantak Plateau (Radial

-I
It is the longest tributary of Ganga
d Drainage Pattern)
Tributaries: Chambal, Sindh, Betwa, Ken, Tons
Tributaries: Koel, Rihand
Punpun: joins Ganga e to Fatuha
at Jharkhand
near Patna
PA

·
Origin: Mhow Plateau Badland Topography

Tributaries: due to Ravines

Parbati (gully erosion)

· Kalisindh
Shipra
 Ganga then flows in Bangladesh where it F is flowsasas
known Padma
Padma

i
↑
Water from Ganga stored in bottle remains fresh due to presence Bacteriophage viruses
Total length: 2525 km
National River of India, declared in 2008
Longest River of India
Passes through 5 states: Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh (longest), Bihar, J&K (shortest),

C
IWest Bengal
Cities located on banks of Ganga:
Kosi: Sorrow of Bihar (causes flood in Bihar) Prayagraj

SS
Kanpur (largest)
Varanasi
BRAHMAPUTRA RIVER SYSTEM Patna
West to East order

R
A
RM
PA

Takes U-turn in Namcha Barwa

I

Brahmaputra: 2900 km
South turn in Dhubri (Assam)
Length in India: 916 km
-

World largest Riverine Island: Majuli Island

I

&
Different names:
-

Origin: Chemayungdung Glacier/Angsi Glacier

-

...
Tibet: Yarlung Tsangpo (origin)
Padma + Jamuna = Meghna
Siang and Dihang: Arunachal Pradesh
↓
-

Assam: Brahmaputra
↑
Mansarovar Lake Manipur hills -Barak
N
Jumuna:
Ja
/ Bangladesh
World’s largest Delta: Sundarbans Delta (Sundari tree)
-
Tributaries of Brahmaputra

.
Left Bank Tributaries: Lohit, Dhansiri
Right Bank Tributary: Dibang, Kameng, Manas, Testa, Subansiri

Drainage pattern that forms central spire or dome-like structure: Radial Pattern

C
Drainage pattern forms when rivers discharge their waters from all directions in lake or
depression: Centripetal

SS
Peninsular drainage system: Mahanadi and Godavari

When river originates from a hill and flows in all directions, the drainage pattern formed: Radial

River that marks easternmost boundary of Himalayas: Brahmaputra

R
Snow-fed river: Yamuna (origin: Bandarpuch)
A
River that is also called Vyath: Jhelum

The river Indus was also called Hindos by the the Iranians and the Greeks
RM

The river Ganga divides the state Bihar into two parts

The region of Ganga lies in: 10 N to 30 N latitude

Yamuna rises in Indian Himalayas

PA

Source of river Ghaggar: Himachal Pradesh

The headwater of Ganga: Bhagirathi

Kolkata is in banks of Hooghly river

Farakka Agreement: Between India and Bangladesh signed on 1977

..
NW1: Longest Waterway
NW2: On Brahmaputra
On Bhagirathi Hoogly River Water System

C
SS
R
A
RM
PA
 C
SS
PENINSULAR RIVERS

R
A
RM
PA
Peninsular Rivers
-

Categories:
2. West flowing rivers

It
1. East flowing rivers
↓
Bay of Bengal (Delta) Arabian Sea/Estuary

C
flows in East due to the tilt of Deccan Plateau

SS
↓
tilt is towards East
. East to West

W
Forms delta
- -
L

**
-
↓

↓
R
Forms Estuaries ->
-
Bay of Bengal
A
Arabian Sea

Why?

-
RM

Narrow lanes
Hard rocks, rivers with
fresh water directly
meets sea water Rivers flow in rift valley parts of land

I
separates

creates rift
PA

-
 En
-Vamsdhara

C
Rishikulya river
Olive Ridley Turtles

SS
R
A
East Flowing Rivers
-
RM

1. Damodar
-

-
Chota Nagpur Plateau
I
Flows in rift valley Distributary of Ganga
-
Tributary of Hugli-
~
Sorrow of Bengal
- Tributaries: Bokaro, Barakar, Konar
PA

2. Subarnrekha: gold particles are seen in river

-

-
Chota Nagpur Plateau (Randri Plateau)

3. Baitarani

4. Brahmani
--Sankha + South Koel (tributaries)

5. Vamsdhara: nesting ground for Olive Ridley Turtles

-
 6. Mahanadi
-

-
Length: 850 km
-
Sorrow of Odisha
-
Sihawa Hills (Rampur, Chhattisgarh)
L
Flows mainly in Chhattisgarh + Odisha (River basin spread across Jharkhand,

e
Al Maharashtra , Madhya Pradesh)
-

C
-
Dam built on this river: Hirakud Dam
-
Tributaries: Tel, Jonk, Ong, Hasdeo, and Mand

SS
R
A
RM

from Sahyadri, Western Ghats

-
7. Godavari
-

Length: 1450 km ↑
PA

I
Origin: Trimbakeshwar Plateau (Nasik, Maharashtra)
W
Maharashtra -> Telangana ->Andhra Pradesh -> Forms delta
-
Rivers basin spread across: Chhattisgarh, Odisha, Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka
-
Largest river of South India, Called as Dakshin Ganga
· Tributaries: Penganga, Wainganga, Wardha, Purna, Manjra, Indravati, Purna, ·
Pranhati, Sabri
Pranhita
 C
·

SS
Mahabaleshwar

R
A
8. Krishna
Source: Sahyadri range
-
-

↑ Length: 1400
E1500Km
km
W
Origin: Mahabaleshwar
RM

- Maharashtra -> Karnataka -> Telangana -> Andhra Pradesh -> Delta
- Second longest river of South India
-
Tributaries: Bhima, Tungabhadra, Ghataprabha, Malaprabha, Musi, Konya, Dhoodhganga

↳↳gITHI-
I - --
- ~
TRICK
y 358 al H1 &
-
-

-Id
PA

9. Pennar
--
Independent flowing rivers of Andhra Pradesh

10. Kaveri
- -

-
Length: 800 km
- Origin: Brahamgiri Hills (Karnataka, Kodagu district)
- Karnataka -> Tamil Nadu ->Delta (Kerala)
-
Only river of south India which flows throughout the year -> Perennial river
 Flow is like Ganga and tributaries resembles Ganga
-
-
It is called Ganga of South India
Tributaries: Hemvati, Kabini, Bhavani, Shimsha
-

-
Delta: known as Garden of South India

C
SS
R
A
-- Chola Dynasty
RM

10. Vaigai: Southern-most river of India

-
PA
 C
SS
R
A
- West Flowing River
RM

Flows into Arabian Sea

-

1. Luni River
2. Sabarmati
3. Mahi
4. Narmada
5. Tapti
PA

Gulf of
I
Khambhat
 1. Luni River
-

1
Origin: Nag Hills, Rajasthan
-
Flows through: Rajasthan -Gujarat
I Only river e
of salt
that river saline water
contains
-
They don’t reach up to oceans and ends in Rann of Katchh

C
2. Sabarmati
-

-
Origin: Aravalli mountains (Udaipur, Rajasthan)
-
Flows through: Rajasthan-> Gujarat

SS
-
Gandhinagar and Ahmedabad are located on its bank

3. Mahi
-

-
Origin: Vindhya mountains
~ Flows through: Madhya Pradesh -> Rajasthan ->Gujarat - Gulf of Khambhat
↑

4. Narmada
R
This crosses Tropic of Cancer two times
A
-

L Length: 1310 km
↑
Longest Westefna
rn River flowing into Arabian ⑳flow
Sea
Origin: Amarkantak Plateau, Madhya Pradesh
RM

-
Flows through: Madhya Pradesh > -> Madhya
Gujarat Pradesh
Gulf of
-> Gujarat->Gulf of Khambhat
Khambhat
-
Flows in rift valley, flows b/w Vindhya and Satpura
W
Jabalpur is located on its bank
-
Tributaries: Banjar, Tawa, Shakkar, Halon

5. Tapti
PA

-
Length: 724 km
- Origin: Betul Plateau, near Amarkantak Plateau (Madhya Pradesh)
L Surat is located on its bank
1 Tributaries: Aner, Gomai, Girna, Purna
-> Goa
-

Rivers:
-

-
Zuari
-
Mandovi known as Lifeline of Goa, Panaji is located on its bank

-> Kerala

C
-

Rivers:
-

↑ Bharatphuza
Periyar known as life line of Kerala, Longest river of Kerala

SS
↑

-
Pamba drains into Vembanad lake

-> Karnataka
-

Rivers:
-

-
Kalinadi and Sharavati
↓
Jog falls
R
A
Source of river of Ghaggar: Himachal Pradesh

:
Kaveri is known as “Pooni” in Tamil, fourth largest river flowing in Southeast direction
RM

through Karnataka and Tamil Nadu

/
Does not drain into Bay of Bengal: Indus

Headwater of river Ganga: Bhagirathi

PA

-
Allahabad: located on the confluence of river Yamuna and Ganga

-
Decommissioned Havelock bridge built over: Godavari

- State that has largest catchment area of Godavari Basin: Maharashtra

2
River that cover an area of 65,145 km of which 80% lies in Maharashtra: Godavari

Largest drainage basin is of river Godavari

E
 ↑ Mahanadi basin doesn’t extend to: Uttar Pradesh

-
Second longest river of India that covers 10% of the country’s area: Godavari

-
River basin in Odisha: Mahanadi

C
-
Sundarban Delta is created by Ganga-Brahmaputra rivers

Tapti empties in Gulf of Cambay of the Arabian Sea, in state of Gujarat

SS
-

Oh
State
City not located on banks of river Ganga: Hazaribagh

- Cities that does not lie on the path of river Ganga: Lucknow

R
Gandak river comprises of two rivers: Kaligandak and Trishulganga

Wang Chu river is tributary of Brahmaputra and flows through Bhutan

A
"
Branch of Godavari that joins Bay of Bengal flowing through Yanam enclave of the Union
territory of Pondicherry: Gautami
RM

Mouth of Indus River lies to the north of the Tropic of Cancer

Only large river in the Indian Desert: Luni River

Ghagra rises in Nepal Himalayas Flows through Venezuela, Brazil, Peru, Bolivia,

-
PA

Ecuador, Guyana, Suriname

The largest Amazon river, is the 2nd longest river in the world, with a length of 6,400 km is
located in the northern part of South America

-
Longest river of the world: Nile called as Boon of Egypt Only river that flows through one
- country
/ The city of Sanghai is located at the mouth of the Yangtze River
↓
World’s 3rd longest river
~
River that cuts Tropic of Capricorn twice: Limpopo river

↑
River that cuts Equator twice: Congo river

-
Gharials are seen in Chambal River

C
-
Rank on the basis of Basin/Water discharge:
-

1. Amazon
2. Congo

SS
3. Ganga -> Dolphins are found here

-
Great rift valley is in Africa

R
A
RM
PA
 DAMS, LAKES,

C
WATERFALLS

SS
R
A
RM
PA
 Hydroelectric Power Projects
-

& Multipurpose Project

-

Purpose: Flood control, hydropower generation, irrigation, tourism

-

/ M.E = P.E + K.E

C
↑
Potential Energy (P.E): °
-
@
⑩x#@
energy stored
P.E is the energyis that stored\@
the isenergy that
in anisobject
stored in an
in an object
object due due
to itsto its
position relative to some zero position

SS
↑ Kinetic Energy (K.E): form of energy that shows an object or a particle has by reasoning
- -

of its motion Water when stored egas

gainsP.E
P.E

·
↑
Mentioned as “Temple of Modern India” by Jawahar Lal Water

Not
Nehru

-
1. Damodar Valley Project
-
R
India’s first river valley project (1948)
Dam
Turbines
A
-
It is based on the Tennessee River of USA
There are 8 dams built on Damodar and its tributaries
jo,
I
RM

K.E Electric energy (E.E)

&
Another type of Dam: Earthen Dam
PA

2. Bhakra Nangal Project

-
Constructed during First Five Year Plan
Built on Sutlej river
-

Made of two dams:

↑

Bhakra: Himachal Pradesh (Govind Sagar Lake from Bhakra Nangal Dam)
·

Nangal: Punjab
↑

Highest Gravity Dam bears forces on its own

-
Largest Dam of India in terms of area
Nathpa Jhakri Dam is also built on Sutlej in Himachal Pradesh
-
 Dams

1. Rihand Dam
-

W Built on Rihand river (Tributary of Son)

- Govind Ballabh Pant Sagar Lake created from this dam
↑
Largest Artificial Lake of India

C
2. Hirakud Dam
-

↑
In Odisha, Sambalpur district

SS
-
Built on Mahanadi river
W
Longest dam of world/India (4.8 km/25 km)
-
Sunderlal Bahuguna
3. Tehri Dam ↓
Chipko Movement: against deforestation
- -

S In Uttarakhand
Built on Bhagirathi river Anti-Tehri Movement
/

-
Highest Dam of India (261 m) R
A
4. Farakka Dam
-

-
In West Bengal, built on Ganga river
-
This dam was built to provide water to the Hooghly river
RM

3. Vyas River Project

-

-
Harike Dam was built through this project in Punjab (Kapurthala)
↑
Sutlej and Vyas meets here
An Indira Gandhi Canal was constructed from it
PA

↓
Has the largest irrigation facility

State-wise
- -

Jammu and Kashmir

-

I
Dulhasti Hydroelectric Project Chenab Rail Bridge

-
-

All on Chenab river

- Salal Hydroelectric Power Station
↳highest railway bridge is constructed on Chenab river near Salal hydroelectric project
 Baglihar Hydroelectric Project -
>
On Chenab river

=
Kishan Ganga
Tulbul All on Jhelum river
Uri

C
Himachal Pradesh
Pong Dam (Maharana Pratap Sagar): Beas river
Chamera Dam: Ravi river

SS
Uttar Pradesh
Matatila Dam
I
-

Betwa river
I Lakshmibai Dam

-
R
Rihand Dam: Rihand river (Govind Ballabh Pant Sagar Reservoir)
A
Gujarat
-

Ukai Dam: Tapi river

RM

I
Kakrapar Dam: Tapi river
-
Sardar Sarovar Dam: Narmada river

Madhya Pradesh
-

Tawa Dam: Tawa river (tributary of Narmada)

PA

Ban Sagar Dam: Son river

Omkareshwar Dam: Narmada river
Indira Sagar Dam: Narmada river
Gandhi Sagar Dam: Chambal river

Rajasthan
Mahi Bajaj Sagar Dam: Mahi river -
Jawahar Sagar Dam (on Chenab river)
Bilaspur Dam: Banas river
Rana Pratap Sagar Dam: Chambal river
 Maharashtra

-
Jayakwadi Dam: Godavari river
Chhom
kDhom Dam: Krishna
I
Koyna Dam (largest dam of Maharashtra): Koyna river
Panchet Dam: Damodar river

C
Chhattisgarh
-
Indravati Dam: Godavari river

SS
Karnataka
-

-
Jog/Mahatma Gandhi Dam: Sharavati river
-
Linganamakki Dam: Sharavati river
Shivsamudram Dam: Kaveri river
-

- Almatti Dam: Krishna river

R Many dams are
A
Kerala constructed on it
- -
↑
Periyar/Mullaperiyar/Idukki Dam: Periyar (life line of Kerala)
RM

Telangana
-

/
Pochampad/Sriram Sagar/Kaleshwaram Lift Irrigation Project : Godavari river

Tamil Nadu
PA

v
l
Paykara
· Dam:
ykara Dam: Paykara
Pykara riverriver
&
Mettur Dam: Kaveri river

Andhra Pradesh
-

Srisailam Dam
I Krishna river
L

I
Nagarjuna Sagar Dam
Waterfalls in India
-

C
m
--

SS
/2nd highest waterfall in India

--

R
Highest waterfall in the world: Angel waterfall in Venezuela

.
2nd highest in the world: Niagara Falls (in USA-Canada border)
A
Niagara of India: Chitrakote waterfall in Chhattisgarh
RM

Nuclear Power Plants: where energy is generated through Nuclear Fission, in

-

which Uranium and Thorium atoms are used, during nuclear fission, a neutron
collides with such atoms and splits it, releasing a large amount of energy in the
form of heat and radiation
PA

-> becomes self-

sustaining
or to reduce the speed of
neutrons

↑
Heavy water
↳ chain reaction
"
Moderators later used to control chain reactions: D O, Graphite
2

Coolant: typically liquid to reduce or regulate the temperature of a system, for

example: H. O, .
D O, liquid Sodium
 C
Concept used in making Hydrogen Bombs

:
SS
Homi J. Bhabha is known as the “Father of Indian Nuclear Programme”/“Father of Atomic
Energy”

India’s first nuclear power reactor: Apsara (Trombay, Mumbai, 1956)

R
1st completely indigenously built nuclear power plant: Kalpakkam

e
U
A
RM

↳
1st

↳
1st indigenously
built
PA

↑ Chernobyl Disaster: 26 April 1986

 Lakes of India

-
An artificial lake named Govind Sagar was created in 1976 by a huge hydroelectric power
dam in Bhakra on the Sutlej river

Pushkar Lake is situated in Ajmer, Rajasthan

C
W
Lake that is the result of Asteroid impact: Lonar Lake in Maharashtra
Crater lake
Wular Lake: largest freshwater lake in India, also the result of tectonic activity

SS
Barapani Lake: Also known as Umiam Lake, in Shillong, Meghalaya

Tsomgo lake is a glacial lake located in Sikkim

I
Bhushi lake is in Maharashtra
R
Bhojtal, formerly known as Upper lake is situated in Madhya Pradesh
A
~

↓
constructed by Raja Bhoj (Parmar Dynasty’s
most famous and powerful ruler) Also
RM

established Bhopal city

Anchar lake is in Jammu and Kashmir

- Kolleru lake is located in Andhra Pradesh, situated delta that is formed between Godavari
and Krishna
PA

-
Pulicat lake: b/w Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu, India’s 2nd largest Brackish water lake
-1st Ramsar site
· Largest Brackish water lake: Chilika Lake Largest Inland Salt water lake: Sambhar
F
↳-
fresh water+salt water
largest saline water lake lake, Rajasthan
↓
I
Renuka lake located in Himachal Pradesh salinity more than Chilika
but area less than Chilika
I
I
Loktak lake: world’s only floating lake in Manipur
Odisha
 Suryadhar lake is located in Uttarakhand

"
Pangong Tso, Tso kar, Tso Moriri: Salt water lake

in Aksai Chin border

Sur Sarovar, also known as Keetham lake, is a man-made reservoir added to list of Ramsar

C
Site in the year 2020

Kanwar TakAl in Bihar: Ramsar Site, 2022 Ramsar, Iran Convention in 1971 on

SS
-

largest Ox bow lake - wetlands

Schemes launched for Wetland and
Thol lake, Gujarat: Ramsar Site, 2021 Mangrove Conservation on World
Environment Day:
I
Wadhwana wetland, Gujarat: Ramsar Site, 2021 1. Amrit Dharohar Yojana

R
Nizam Sagar Dam located in Telangana on Manjira river
2. MISHTI (Mangrove initiative for
Shoreline Habitats and Tangible
Incomes)
A
/

↳by Hyderabad Nizam

Nagarjuna Sagar Dam is on Krishna river

RM

Barrage/Dam closest to India-Bangladesh border: Farakka Barrage

:
Maithon Dam in Jharkhand constructed over Barakar river

Diamer Basha Dam is constructed by Pakistan on Indus River

PA

Tawa Dam: Madhya Pradesh

Ujjani Dam: Maharashtra

'
Isapur Dam is in Maharashtra on Penganga river

/
Tehri Dam is multi-purpose rock and earth-fill embankment dam on the Bhagirathi river
 Thein Dam is on Ravi river, also called as Ranjit Sagar Dam

:
Hundru waterfall in Subarnarekha river

Kunchikal waterfall, highest waterfall in India is on Varahi river

Dudhsagar waterfall is in Goa

C
Bhambavli Vajrai Waterfall is located in Maharashtra, Satara district

SS
Khandadhar waterfall: Odisha

Chulia waterfall is situated on Chambal river in Rajasthan

Duduma waterfall is in Odisha

R
Gokak waterfall is in Ghatprabha river (tributary of Krishna) in Karnataka
A
RM
PA
 C
SS
MONSOON/FORESTS

R
A
RM
PA
I Factors affecting climate of India
-

1. Latitude
2. Altitude

°
u
⑫
°@°
3. Pressure
Himalayasand wind system
4. Relief
Distribution of land and water
features
Ocean
5. ⑳EZ@} Currents
Distance from sea

C
6. Distance from Sea

Climate: the average weather in a given area over a longer period of time. Data taken of

SS
-

30 years

Weather:
- the term refers to temporary conditions of the atmosphere, including
temperature, atmospheric pressure, wind, humidity, precipitation, and cloud cover

Winter Season
Chilling winds from a
-

Arctic
R
Artic/Central Asia am
effect winter season
affects
A
Winter Rainfall
-

It is known as Upper atmospheric Circulation

rainfall caused by jet streams in
RM

Northern Plains that carries Western

&
Jet stream winds
Caspian Cyclonic Disturbances
↳ Sea

C ↓--
Mediterranean
Sea ↓
PA

Winter rainfall
Cyclonic benefits Rabi crops
disturbances
↓
Because it is west to India

Inward of Western Disturbances through jet streams is marked by increase in prevailing night
temperature
 En
↓

C
In upper troposphere
(9-13 km) very high
speed of winds

SS
3 Eeee
ta ** at R Temperature inversion

fff--
A
x
~
↓
RM

Hot during day but at

night radiates terrestrial
radiation
Also in Indian Peninsula

↑
India

-
Summer Season
PA

Summer rays
- over Tibetan
-

I
-
ITCZ now shifts in upper region x4-
↳444 ......... Plateau
· !
Trade winds meet and air ascends
I
During July: 20-25 N
-Relatively High Pressure
Intense heating

Creates low pressure

 Pre-Monsoon Showers
- -

↓ ↓
Nor-Westers Blossom Showers
b
- -
-

-
Seen in Kerala/ Karnataka
↓ ↓

C
Helps in growth/cultivation of
Kal Baisakhi Bardoli Chheerha coffee
↓ ↓
Calamity in the In Assam

SS
Mango Showers
month of - -

Seen in Kerala
Baisakh in West
Helps in early ripening of
Bengal
mangoes Nor-Westers
↓
1
%
helpful for growth of
jute, tea
R
A
On Set of Monsoon Blossom showers
I
RM

It is derived from
Arabic word “Mausim”
meaning seasonal
recen
reversible
reversal of winds

Begining in Kerala
PA

-
in 1st week of June

3
Rain shadow zone
in the Western Ghats -> Western Ghats I

·
↓
Orographic rainfall
****
Winds from South West ↓
direction Wind ward side leeward side
(On shore side) (Off shore side)
 Rain Bearing System
-

Punjab
<
-
Rajasthan ->

S↑ 94Mean
= North-Eastern Hills
Khasi Hills

C
I
-

Desert
W
- I4 Highest rainfall recorded
I ↑ ↓

SS
Winds move ↑Y Mawsynram/Cherapunji
parallel to Arabian Sea M Bay of Bengal
Aravallis hence
Arabian
*
no
Sea
no rainfall
hence
· no rainfall
-> ↑ -
↑44 Desert
+***
->
↑ y
R
Bay of Bengal branch and Arabian Sea branch of South West Monsoon meet at Punjab
A
-

Break in Monsoon
I
RM

Sudden decrease in rainfall after the onset of

monsoon

Retreating monsoon
-

I
↓
PA

Also known as North-East Monsoon

and it causes rainfall over Coromandel
coast (Tamil Nadu/Andhra)

-
↓
Flood in Chennai
In North India
** ↓d
xt Cyclonic
Clear skies *
*
-

↑
October heat: oppressing heat +y 4 -
L o disturbances
 North East winds weakens thus
Effect of El-Nino in Monsoon water returns

I
Seen in 3-7 yrs
I

·
Adversely effects
affects effects
the monsoon

0
g

C
-

Rainfall

SS
Om R
M
<

Warm current
A
Fishing Industry won’t flourish
Ocean Water No rain in Australia and India
Id

i
RM

Surface Deep
water water

1
,B
Tahiti
Darwin
Meaning: Child
I
Christ/Small boy
L 0
PA

I
They measure the pressure difference b/w
Tahiti and Darwin
I
If the pressure difference is negative then El

I
Niño will happen every year Intense rainfall in
↓ Australia and India
Meaning: Small girl Mpp/p
Opposite to that of
El Nino
 Variation in Temperature/Rainfall

in
1. Diurnal Range of Temperature
2. Annual Range of Temperature
3. Annual Range of Rainfall

Extremities of Climate seen

~
C
More in the interior of
Continents and less in the
the coastal cities Kanpur

SS
The far we go from Ocean into the
Continent, extremities of Climate is
Mumbai seen

Extremities of
Climate not
R
A
seen ↓
Because it is a coastal city.
Why?
RM

1. Continentality effect
2. Moderating influence of Sea

Seasons and Months

-
PA
 Forests
-

Eastern Himalayas
-
1. Evergreen Forests
-

-
These are layered forests (shed there leaves not all together)
-
They are seen in places of high temperature and high rainfall
↓ ↓
30·C 200 cm a

C
-
In India, seen in Western side of Western Ghats, Andaman and Nicobar Islands, North-East
↑ Highest biodiversity seen here
Eg: Amazon Rainforests (known as “Lungs of the World “)

SS
↑

-
Vegetation seen: Rosewood, Ebony, Mahogany, Cinchona, Aini, Epihytes
-

/
Also known as Desert covered by forest

-
2. Tropical Deciduous Forest
--
Rainfall: 70 cm-200 cm
-
R
70-150 cm: Dry Deciduous

- 150-200 cm: Moist Deciduos

A
↑
Also known as Monsoon Forests
RM

~ These are the most predominant forests in India

- They are seen in: Peninsular Plateaus, North Indian Plains
-
Trees:
-

Moist Deciduous: Shisham, Sagon, Sandalwood, Teak, Sal

-

Dry Deciduous: Tendu, Khair, Palas

-

↓
Leaves are used to make Bidi
PA

I
Guttation: Hydathodes

3. Tropical Thorn Forests

-

S Rainfall: less than 50 cm

-

I
Thorns are modified form of leaves (to avoid water loss)
-
Trees: Babul, Khejri, Cactus
- -

↑ Special type of grass seen here: Tussocky grass

- In India: seen in Rajasthan, Punjab, Gujarat
-
 4. Coniferous Forest
- -

I
Shape: Cone
-

W
Seen in areas of high snowfall
-
In India: seen in Upper Himalayas
W Trees:
-

target: 33% (India)

Softwood trees: Chir, Pine, Cedar, Deodar, Spruce

-
-

C
Gymnosperms National Forest Policy: 1952= 1988
Chipko Movement: 1978, led by

SS
Sundarlal Bahuguna
5. Montane Forests Forest Day: 21st March
Indian Forest Research Institute located
-

W
In mountain region
- Categories:
-
in Dehradun, Uttarakhand
1. North India: seen in Himalayas - Bugyal Grassland seen
-

a. Upper part: Alpine/Coniferous m, eg: Rhododendron

- -

R
b. Lower part: Deciduous forests
-

2. South India
A
Evergreen forests seen here due to rainfall
Sholas seen here -> Grassland/Forests of Western Ghats
RM

India State Forest Report: tells about the total Forest cover in India
-

↳
Biennial Report
Forest Cover: 21.71% 2021 report
1
-
-
-

- Tree Cover: 2.9%

-

-
Forest and Trees: 24.62%
-

-
Highest Forest cover (area): Madhya Pradesh (1st), Arunachal Pradesh (2nd)
-

Highest Forest cover (%): Mizoram (1st), Arunachal (2nd)

PA

- Lowest Forest cover: Haryana

-

- Highest increase: Andhra Pradesh

. . .
-
Highest decrease: Arunachal > Manipur

6. Mangrove Forests
-

W
Known as Littoral/Swamp forests
W Seen in coastal areas
W More in Sundarban Deltas -> Sundari Trees
- Region: West Bengal
-
They are called living roots
-
Trees are viviparous
 Small grass
Elephant grass but Grasslands
but nutritious
not nutritious
XX I
A Tropical grasslands Temperate grasslands
1. Savannah: in Africa 1. Prairies: North America

I 2. Campos grassland: Brazil 2. Steppes: Asia/Europe

3. Llanos grassland: Venezuela 3. Velds: South Africa

C
4. Downs: Australia
Known as Big Game country due to
5. Pustaz: Hungary
extreme poaching of animals
6. =
Canterbury: New Zealand
New Canterbury: New Zealand

SS
7. Pampas: Argentina

-
Prairies: Known as wheat granaries of the world
Pampas: grass seen “Alpha alpha grass”->nutrient rich grass
/

R
A
Shifting Cultivation
-

I
It is known as Slash and Burn Agriculture
- Not good for environment, causes deforestation and soil Goo
looses
ses it’sitsproductivity
loses productivity
RM

Across the world known by different names:

-

1. Indonesia: Ladang
2. Mexico: Milpa
3. Sri Lanka: Chena
4. Vietnam: Ray
PA

5. Brazil: Roca
6. Venezuela: Konuko

Across the India

-

1. Jhum: North East 7. Kuruwa: Jharkhand

2. Kumari: Western Ghats 8. Bewar/Dahiya: Madhya Pradesh
3. Pama Dabi/Bringa: Odisha
4. Penda/Podu: Andhra Pradesh
5. Dipa: Chhattisgarh (Bastar district)
6. Waltre: Rajasthan
 SOIL AND NATIONAL PARKS/

C
BIOSPHERE RESERVES

SS
R
A
RM
PA
 Soil

=-
°
°
@°@\
$
⑩
°
@ \@ @
Which of the following is responsible for the formation of
Factors for the formation of soil:
soil?
· mostly missing in Indian soil
1. Parent Rock
2. Climate
I

C
3. Time Also known as Humus

°}
°
@]
\@\
4. Human Habitation
Topography X

SS
a. 1 & 2 Does not impact soil A
V
b. 1, 2, 3 B
c. All C
d. 1, 3, 4 ↳
Soil texture
Study of Soil: Pedology
R
ICAR: Indian Council of Agricultural Research
Weathering is an in situ process
depends on
Parent Rock
A
HQ: New Delhi
I
This institute has categorised soil into 8 categories
I
Indian Soils lack: N2 , P, Humus (organic matter)
RM

Categories:
-

1. Alluvial soil: 40%

I
*
*
2. Red soil: 18% more imp
3. Black soil: 15%
4. Laterite soil: 4.3%
PA

5. Desert soil
6. Montane soil
7. Marshy/Peaty soil
8. Alkaline soil

Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal, Assam

: -
1. Alluvial Soil
Covers 40% area of India (In India, most fertile type of soil)
Found in Northern Plains + Deltas of Peninsular rivers
Rich in Potash and poor in Phosphorus
 Formed due to sediments deposited by rivers
- They are of two types:
1. Khadar: New Alluvium, more fertile
2. Bhangar: Old Alluvium, less fertile

2. Black Soil P
(18%)
(15%)

C
-

&
It is formed due to eruption of lava
↑ Found in North Western part of Peninsular Plateau

SS
--

Maharashtra, Gujarat
I Also known as Regur
& Clayey in nature
- It is impermeable soil (high water holding capacity)
It develops cracks when dry and sticky when moist

.
↓
Self-ploughing characteristics
R
Most suitable soil for cotton cultivation

·
A
I W Loamy Soil: sand content is more
requires 210 frost free days -

They are rich in Iron, lime, Alumina

RM

3. Red Soil⑳
-
(15%)
(18%)
/
Formed by the weathering of the metamorphic rock
I
It is red due to presence of Iron Oxide
Changes colour to yellow on hydration
PA

↑ It is found in water deficit region: Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Maharashtra, Piedmont Zone of
Western Ghats
-
In low rainfall areas

4. Laterite Soil (4.3%)

--
It is formed by leaching process (where important minerals such as Silica washes away with
the soil)
-
Found in regions of high temperature and high rainfall
-
It is known as Brick Soil
-
Good for Cashew growth and cultivation
I
Found in Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Kerala

5. Marshy/Peaty Soil
-

- Seen in coastal areas

I
Has organic matter/humus

C
I It is seen in regions of high humidity and high rainfall

SS
6. Desert Soil
-

- Seen in extremely low rainfall areas (<50 cm): Western Rajasthan, Gujarat, Haryana

7. Montane/Forest Soil
-
-

High humus is seen

R
A
National Parks Biosphere Reserves
RM

-
-

- Fixed boundary ↑
Fixed boundary

-
Limited human activity allowed S Human activity is allowed to a certain
level
PA

-
Protects flora, fauna, landscape /
↳
ItProtects
has threeparticular
zones: wildlife
-
Core
-

Buffer
/
Manipulation
National Parks
- -

Assam
st
Manas
↓
Na
-
Meri Kazi
↓
dig
sal
Manas NP Nameri NP Kaziranga NP Dihang NP
-

C
-
Aurang Sheikh 2112
- -

d
Famous for One-horned Rhino
↓ ↓

SS
Orang NP Dibru Saikhowa NP >
--
Raimona National Park (notified in 2021)
>
-·

Dihing Patkai National Park (notified in 2021)

West Bengal

WB a Jalpari Nora Single - bi

↓
Jaldapara NP
R ↓ ↓
Neora Valley NP Singalila NP
A
S
o
s
sta
it -
RM

Sunderban NP Gorumara NP
I
Boxer E

↓
Buxa NP
PA

Madhya Pradesh
-
MP As Sanjay
↑
s IEE
↓
sing Bandhu
↓
Sanjay Gandhi NP Madhav NP Bandhavgarh NP
25 Paanch a
↓ ↓
Kanha NP Pench NP

Paan x Monday Est Saat d

↓ ↓ ↓

C
Panna NP Mandla Plant Fossil NP Satpura NP

↳je
- -

Van It

SS
↓
Van Vihar NP

Rajasthan

Raja Mukund is
R Running in Saree in Desert
A
A ↓ ↓ ↓
Mukundra Hills NP Ranthambore NP Sariska NP Desert NP

↓
RM

7
?
Great Indian Bustard
↓
(state animal)
Keoladeo NP
PA

Uttar Pradesh
-
UP
-
de Pilibhit & Nawab It do Chandraprabha
↓ ↓ ↓
Pilibhit Tiger Reserve Nawab gang Bird Sanctuary Chandra Prabha WS

-
dis
-
Chambal A x Dudh
-
It
↓ ↓
Chambal WS Dhudhwa NP
 D 35 as e

Uttarakhand

↳
1. Jim Corbett NP: India’s first NP, estd. in 1936, Project
Under Project Tiger,
Tiger 1973 If 1973
started from here

C
↓
Old names: Hailey’s National Park -Ramganga NP

SS
-

2. Rajaji NP
3. Nanda Devi NP
↑
Project Elephant: 1992
4. Valley of Flower NP
5. Gangotri NP

Gujarat
-
R
A
Gujarat H Meri Black Van Beach E
↓ ↓ ↓
Marine NP Blackbuck NP Vansda NP
RM

Gir
-

213
↓
Gir NP
↳
Famous for Asiatic Lions
PA

Himachal Pradesh

1. Pin Valley NP
2. Simbalbara NP
3. Great Himalayan NP
4. Khirganga NP
5. Inderkila NP
Jammu and Kashmir, Ladakh --
State animal: Snow Leopard

1. Hemis NP: largest National Park

2. Salim Ali NP
3. Dachigam NP
4. Kishtwar NP
Salim Ali Bird Sanctuary: Goa

C
↑

SS
Kerala

1. Eravikulam NP
2. Periyar NP
3. Silent Valley NP

R
A
Tamil Nadu

1. Annaimudi NP
RM

2. Mudumalai NP
3. Guindy NP
4. Indira Gandhi NP
5. Gulf of Mannar NP
6. Palani NP
PA

Karnataka
I
1. Rajiv Gandhi NP (Nagarhole NP) -> said 3
I ↑

2. Kudremukh NP sig: 94 it *
E 1
3. Anshi NP
4. Bannerghatta NP
 Sikkim
1. Kanchenjunga NP

Bihar
1. Valmiki Tiger Reserve

C
Odisha

SS
1. Bhitarkanika NP
2. Simplipal NP

Jharkhand
1. Palamu NP
2. Betla NP
R
A
Chhattisgarh
RM

1. Indravati NP
2. Kanger Valley NP
3. Guru Ghasidas NP

famous for Sanghai Deer

Manipur -
1. Keibul Lamjao NP (World’s only floating NP on Loktak Lake)
PA

Biosphere Reserves
-

I
Total: 18
I
12 UNESCO Biosphere Reserves: Man and Biosphere programme (MAB), 1971
 Cold Desert-
I
Arunachal

· Meghalaya

C
-
Assam

SS
R
A
-
Nilgiri Biosphere Reserves: 1st Biosphere Reserve ↳
in be
to Kerala, Tamil
included Nadu,
under MABKarnataka
I
Largest: Great Rann of Kutch
RM

Under UNESCO, MAB:

-
1. Nilgiri Extended to 3 states Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka
-

IGulf ofRann
2. Great Mannar
of Kutch
3. Sundarban
4. Nanda Devi
PA

5. Nokrek
6. Panchmarhi
7. Simplipal
8. Achanakmar-Amarkantak (Chattisgarh-Madhya Pradesh border
9. Great Nicobar
> Added under MAB in 2018
10. Agasthyamalai
11. Kangchenjunga Highest mixed >
--
and first
first WorldWorld Heritage Site
Heritage
12. Panna (latest added)
 National Commission on Agriculture (1976) of India has classified forestry into 3

:
categories:
1. Urban Forestry
2. Rural Forestry
3. Farm Forestry

In 1972, West Bengal Forest Department recognised its failures in reviving Sal forests in South

C
Western districts of the State

SS
Coringa is a beautiful Mangrove forests where the Godavari joins the backwaters of Bay of
Bengal (Godavari and in backwaters of Bay of Bengal)

Littoral forests (Mangrove forests): Sundari trees

Nallamala range of Forests: Andhra Pradesh-Telangana

R
Moist Tropical Forests: Bamboo, epiphytes, Aini, semul, gutel and mundane
A
Mid latitudinal coastal region: Temperate Evergreen Forest
RM

Hubbardia heptaneuron: a species grass which is on the verge of extinction due to its
insensitivity towards the environment

Temperate grasslands: ideal for wheat

Roaring forties: other names Shrieking sixties, furious fifties

PA

It’s in Southern Hemisphere because of less landmass

Westerlies in SH

Largest tropical rainforest in the world: Amazon

Artificial ecosystems: Garden

Biotic component of an ecosystem: Wind

-
Abiotic: non-living
 IUCN
-

-
Estd: 5 Oct 1948
-
Red List of Threatened Species estd: 1964
-
HQ: Gland, Switzerland
↑
Publishes Red List

C
SS
R
A
RM
PA
 AGRICULTURE

C
SS
R
A
RM
PA
 Different types of Cultivations

- I

v V
Subsistence Commercial

&

C
↓
f V
V W
Farming that focuses on
Primitive Intensive Mixed Plantation

SS
producing agricultural
products for sale in market
V
When farmers grow crops rather than solely for
V V

Shifting Nomadic Herding to meet the needs of subsistence purpose

themselves and their
families on small holdings

:
Primitive tools
used in The farmers cultivate
agriculture on a small plot of
A
land, simple tools and
more labour
RM

Shifting Agriculture: also known as Slash and burn agriculture

Names across the world
Brazil: Roca
-

Vietnam: Ray
-

Indonesia: Ladang
-

Sri Lanka: Chena

PA

Names across India

Western Ghats: Kumari
Chattisgarh: Dipa
Rajasthan: Waltra
Jharkhand: Kuruwa
North East: Jhum
 Mixed Farming
↑
It is a type of farming which involves both the growing of crops and raising of livestock (Agriculture +
Livestock)

Plantation Agriculture
I
In this single type of crop or plant is grown in a big part of a land Factory or processing unit
-

-43
connected
Grown to earn profit
/
Eg: Cotton, jute, sugarcane, rubber, tea, coffee

C
Somehow similar
-
> Cash crops Grown to earn the profit in local market

SS
Organic Farming
Agricultural process that uses biological fertilisers and pesticides acquired from animal or plant waste

:
Zero use of artificially made chemicals here

Zero Budget Natural Farming (ZBNF)

~

No use of any kind of fertilizers/pesticides

Terrace Farming R
The process of cultivating crops on sites of
A
hills or mountains by planting on graduated
terraces carved into the slope
V
It is mostly practised in India’s hilly regions, such as
RM

Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand and certain

North-Eastern provinces

1
. Soil conservation is aided
-

Reduces soil erosion

PA

Intercropping and Mixed Cropping

-

Similarities: growing two or more crops in the same

field

Differences
Mixed Cropping Intercropping
(

Seeds of two different Seeds are not mixed

crops are mixed before and grown in a row
sowing format
Different Cropping Seasons

- I

:..
V
Kharif Rabi Zaid
Sowing: July Sowing: Oct Short cropping season
Harvesting: Sept-Oct Harvesting: April May-June
-

Also known as Monsoon crops

C
SS
-

- -

-
I

Fodder crops

R
Leguminous plants
Millets
A
Different Types of Crops
RM

Cotton
It requires black soil
Fibre crop and also known as Silver Fibre
Requires: 210 frost free days
Kharif crop

Jute
PA

Golden fibre
Topmost producer: India (West Bengal)
Topmost exporter: Bangladesh
I
Nor-westers good for growth of jute

Coffee
I

Coffee bowl of the world: Brazil (topmost producer)

.

India (topmost producer): Karnataka

. . .
Arabica Liberica Robusta >
-
Coffee varieties
↑
Soil: laterite
↑

Blossom showers help in growth of coffee

Rice
-

Also known as paddy before processing

·

Sowed in swampy areas >

-
Methane gas is produced

C
I

Requires: high rainfall and temperature

Varieties:

::
Aus: grown in March

SS
Aman: Jan-Feb
Boro: Oct India’s most consumed staple crops:
Staple crop Rice and Wheat

Tea
I
Grown in acidic soil
-

Moderate rainfall
Required shadow
India (Topmost producer): Assam
R
:
A
In the world (topmost producer): China

Leguminous crops
RM

Nitrogen fixing bacteria reside in their roots

Kharif crops
Eg: Pulse, Rajma, Soyabeans (top producer: MP)
H
No rhizobium
Rhizobium bacteria
reside in thier
roots
PA

↑
Millets N
-

Also known as Superfoods/Sri Anna P Macronutrient

I

Eg: Bajra, Ragi (finger millets), Jowar (Sorgum) K

I

Topmost producer: Rajasthan

Revolutions

C
SS
-

1st in: Mexico + Latin America

R
Green Revolution (wheat revolution)
↳ Spectacular increase in production of food grains
A
/
Term: William Gaud
Father
-

World: Norman Borlaug (USA)

India: M S Swaminathan
RM

↳ PL-480 variety of wheat (imported from USA)

In India Increase in wheat production

↳
W
↳ Introduction in High Yielding
It was introduced in two phases Variety seeds + Technology
PA

3rd FYI
↑
1960s
V
1970s
In 1st phase >
-
Introduced in
Punjab, Andhra

H
Estd: FCI, CACP in 1965
 Demerits of Green Revolution
Groundwater levels

:
↑

↑
Soil alkalinity > Gypsum can be added to reduce soil alkalinity and if the soil is acid then lime

can be added
White Revolution (1970-96)
I
Also known as “Operation flood”
/
Reduced scarcity of milk production in India
I
Father: Dr. Varghese Kurien

C
Different Cultures in Agriculture
-
Horticulture: Culture of Garden crops

SS
Viticulture: Grapes

i
Aquaculture: Aquatic plants and animals Hydroponics: technique of growing plant using
Pisiculture: Fishes water-based nutrient solution rather than soil
Sericulture: Silk
Apiculture: Bees
Silviculture: Forest management

Soil Conservation Methods

R
A
Contour Bunding/Ploughing: a land management practice for marginal, sloping and hilly land where the
soil productivity is very low. It involves placement of the lines of stone along the natural rises of a
landscape
RM

Mulching: the process of covering the top soil, with plant material, such as leaves, grass, crop residue, etc
.
Retains soil moisture

Shelter belts: Planting rows of trees on one side of an area that prevents the wind from eroding the soil
PA

Contour Bunding Mulching Shelter belts

 One Liners (MCQ)

-
“Agriculture Census” is conducted in India at an interval of 5 yrs

I
The technique of watering plants by making use of narrow tubes which deliver water directly at the base
of the plant is called: Drip Irrigation

C
I
The word agriculture is derived from the latin words Ager and Culture, where “Ager” means soil

According to 2009 data by National Institute of Hydrology, 51.09% of land is used for agriculture

SS
·
One of the adverse effects of DDT is that it can kill beneficial insects like honeybees

R
A
RM
PA
PA
RM
A
MINERALS

R
SS
C
 Minerals

V
W

Metallic Non-Metallic

C
W W V
Ferrous Non-ferrous Fuel Minerals Other Non-metallic Minerals
I
Eg: Iron, Manganese, V g
Eg: Copper, Bauxite Organic Inorganic

SS
Chromite
I
Eg: Fossil fuels, Mica, Limestone,
crude oil, natural Graphite
gas

Mining -
R
Ore = Metal + Impurities
A
g

Refining >
- Gives metals/non-metals
RM

Distribution of Minerals

Gondhwana: Gold
· Dharwad/Cuddapah: Gold, Iron
Vindhyan: Non-metallic minerals
PA

W
Vindhyan

Gondhwana

Dharwad
& Cuddapah
 NW NE

Marble, granite, L
- > Chota Nagpur Plateau, Odisha
Cu, oil, building
materials V

Coal reserves

C
L
Gold
SW

SS
Iron
Ores
Hematite
Magnetite
R
Has highest % of iron (roughly 70%)

:
Limonite

Reserves
A
Topmost: Odisha (Hematite)
Karnataka (Magnetite)
RM

Topmost reserve in the world: Australia

Production
Odisha > Chattisgarh > Karnataka

State Region Mines

PA

Odisha Sundargarh Badampahar

Mayurbhanj
Jhar

Jharkhand Singhbhum Noamundi

Chhattisgarh Durg Dalli Rajhara

Bastar Bailadila
Dantewada
 Karnataka Ballari Baba budan giri

·
Chikkamangaluru Kudremukh
Chitradurga

Manganese (Mn)
Reserve

C
Topmost in world: South Africa
Topmost in India: Odisha

Sundargarh

SS
Keonjhar
Kalahandi
Mayurbhanj
Koraput

Karnataka: Ballari, Chikkamangaluru

R
Bauxite: Ore of Aluminium; non-ferrous
A
Reserve
Topmost in world: Australia
Topmost in India: Odisha
RM

Jharkhand: Lohardaga, Palamu, Ranchi

I

Gujarat: Bhavnagar, Junagarh

N Madhya Pradesh: Katni, Balaghat

Few Aluminium producing Companies and their HQ

-
NALCO HQ: Bhubaneswar (Odisha)
PA

BALCO HQ: New Delhi

-

>
-

/
HINDALCO HQ: Mumbai
>
-

Vedanta Resources HQ: Mumbai

>
-

Copper
Production
I
Topmost in India: Madhya Pradesh

F Balaghat (mines)
Malajkhand (region)
 Rajasthan Jharkhand: Singhbhum

:
Jhunjhunu and Alwar (regions)
Khetri (mines)

Mica: it is used as insulators in electronics and electrical appliances

Production
India: Andhra (top), J & K, Bihar

C
I

Gold

SS
Kolar Gold Fields Karnataka
Hutti Gold Mines (Raichur)
L

Ramagiri: Andhra Pradesh

Diamond
India: Madhya Pradesh (Panna) is the only state that produces diamond
↑
Topmost in World: Russia
R
A
Lithium: known as “White Gold”
World
-
Reserve (top): Chile
RM

Production (top): Australia

Tertiary Coal

Coal
W
Known as “Black Gold” and “Buried Sunshine”
Calorific value
↑ 3
-

-
Carbon content Quality of⑳coke
coal
PA

Moisture content V

Four varieties
I
Anthracite: 80-90% Coking coal (used in metallurgy)
-

Bituminous: 60-80%
↑

Lignite: 40-60%
↑

Peat: <40%

v
- Brown >
> Also found in India

coal
Also called as Brown coal
Mostly found in India
-

Reserve (top): USA

India
Reserve (top): Odisha > Jharkhand > Chhattisgarh

:
H
Production (top): Chhattisgarh > Odisha

States
-
Mines
- -

C
Jharkhand Jharia, Bokaro, Giridih, Karanpura

SS
Chattisgarh Hasdeo, Korba, Mand-Raigarh
Madhya Pradesh: Singareni (coal mines)

Tamil Nadu Neyveli

↑
Odisha Jharsuguda, Talcher, Ib valley

Tertiary Coal: low-grade coal >

-

↳ Peat is a tertiary coal

R
Seen in J & K, Meghalaya
A
Oil and Natural Gas
↳ Largest component of natural gas: Methane
India
RM

Western offshore: Mumbai High, Gujarat

-

Assam: Digboi

Rare Earth Metals

Total: 17 15 lanthanides + 2 (Yttrium, Scandium)
-
>
-

Topmost producer+ reserve in world: China

PA

·India (topmost): Kerala (Producer); Andhra (Reserve)

↳ Rich in Monazite sand, thorium
 One Liners (MCQs)

-
Main mineral constitutions of continental mass are: Silicon, Aluminium

Hirakud Captive Thermal Power Plant is located in: Odisha

The major resources of Gondhwana coal, which are metallurgical coal are located in: Damodar valley

C
I
Peat has low carbon content and high moisture content

Reserves of silver found in: Odisha, Jharkhand, Andhra, Gujarat

SS
(

-
Amarkantak Plateau, Maikal hills and the plateau region of Bilaspur-katni are known for presence
of: Bauxite

H.V.J gas pipeline from Hazira in Gujarat to Jagdishpur in UP) passes through: Madhya Pradesh

↳ H: Hazira in Gujarat
V: Vijaipur in MP
J: Jagdishpur in UP
R p
India’s 1st interstate gas pipeline, the
project began in 1986, with the
establishment of GAIL Ltd.
V
Guj-Raj-MP-UP-Haryana-Delhi
A
↑ Feldspar is a large group of rock-forming silicate minerals that constitutes more than 50% of the
Earth’s crust and is widely used in the glass and ceramic industries
RM

I
Jaduguda is know for Uranium deposits
↳ In Singhbhum, Jharkhand
H

Also found in Cuddapah, Andhra

PA
 C
WORLD MAP

SS
R
A
RM
PA
 Continents
↑
Top (Area + Population wise): Asia (
Strait: a narrow water body that separates
↑
2nd (Area + Population wise): Africa two landmasses/joins two water bodies
Strait of Malacca Separates Malaysia and Indonesia
Joins Java Sea and Andaman Sea
ASIA
-
Sunda Strait Separates Sumatra and Java
Joins Java Sea and India Ocean

C
· 8
SS
West Malaysia
-East Malaysia
↑
⑧ R
- -E
u
me
-

&
A
-

-
RM

& & & & & & & & & & & &
Indonesia

-
A
INDONESIA
⑰ Malaysia
-

Country with most no. of Muslim population T East Timor

↑

Sumatra (Largest island), Kalimantan, Sulawesi, Java, Papua Thailand

(5 main islands of Indonesia) m Cambodia

.
Capital: Jakarta (at present) Will change to Nusantra
-
E Laos

:
PA

V M Vietnam

MALAYSIA Due to Global Warming MA

Myanmar
Capital: Kuala Lumpur Ple Philippines
CAMBODIA MYANMAR ·

Capital: Phnom Penh Earlier known as “Burma”

EAST TIMOR
·
-

Capital: Dili
-

Capital: Nay Pyi Taw

VIETNAM
Capital: Hanoi PHILIPPINES
THAILAND
↑

Capital: Bangkok
-
Capital: Manila
LAOS
-

Capital: Vientiane
 Gobi Desert
1
Islands disputed

·
between Japan and
Russia

Located between

C
A country that is T mainland China and

only surrounded by ↳ s Korean Peninsula

①

:
land and no ocean/

SS
coastline
-

O
-

*
~

LAOS L
Landlocked
country

R
A
RM

South Korea
SOUTH KOREA
Capital: Seoul
North Korea E
Yellow Sea
=
Shares border with North Korea
Japan
Kuril Islands
NORTH KOREA I
Taiwan
PA

Capital: Pyongyang #iii i o 'I'd'nt

Shares borders with China and Russia

JAPAN
Lake Baikal: World’s deepest lake in Russia
Largest island: Honshu
Capital: Tokyo

TAIWAN
Earlier known as Formosa
Capital: Taipei
 SOUTHWEST ASIA

C
.. SS
Caspian Sea (it is a lake), a
landlocked water body of
Europe and Asia
R All landlocked
A
TURKMENISTAN Liechtenstein and Uzbekistan are the only doubly
Capital: Ashgabat landlocked countries
↳
RM

UZBEKISTAN Country that is surrounded by

-
Capital: Tashkent landlocked countries

KAZAKHSTAN
↑

Capital: Astana

TAJIKISTAN
PA

↑
Capital: Dushanbe

KYRGYZSTAN
I

Capital: Bishkek
 7 Sea of Azov

·
Kerch Strait L

2
-
V
Sea of Marmara

C
SS
R
A
* CASPIAN SEA >
-

Surrounding 5 countries * BLACK SEA > Bordered by

RM

↳ T: Turkmenistan ↓ The: Turkiye

Rivers Volga, Ural, and A: Azerbaijan Rivers Danube, Dnieper, Bu: Bulgaria
Terek discharge into R: Russia Dniester discharges in R: Russia
the Caspian Sea I: Iran the Black Sea G: Georgia
Old name: Persia K: Kazakhstan U: Ukraine
·IRAN R: Romania
PA

↑
Capital: Tehran KERCH STRAIT
It connects Black Sea and the Sea of Azov UKRAINE

...
AZERBAIJAN Separates Kerch (Ukraine) and Russia Capital: Kyiv
Capital: Baku
-

BOSPORUS STRAIT RUSSIA

It connects the Black Sea to the Sea of Marmara -
Capital: Moscow

TÜRKIYE IRAQ
N
Capital: Ankara -

Old name: Mesopotamia

Spreads across two continents: Europe and Asia /

Capital: Baghdad
 Strait of Hormuz
I
Connects the Persian Gulf (west) to the Gulf of Oman and the Arabian Sea (southeast)

C
SS
..
Referred as “the land

- between two rivers”

Tigris and Euphrates rivers

R SUEZ CANAL
? Connects the
A
Mediterranean Sea to
Red Sea
RM

V
7 Bab-al-Mandab Strait (Gateway of Grief or the
Mediterranean Sea Red Sea Gate of Tears)
Connects the Red Sea to the Gulf of Aden
PA
 C
SS
8
- Dead Sea: high salinity

R
A
RM

RED SEA Bordering countries

PA

↑
-

D: Djibouti
E: Eritrea
S: Saudi Arabia
S: Sudan
E: Egypt
Y: Yemen
AFRICA

C
SS
T Old name:
Abyssinia

R
A
- Old name:
Nyasaland
RM
PA

Zimbabwe + Zambia (previously

AFRICA
...
I

Known as “Continent of Continents”

Known as Dark Continent and Black Continent
known as) Rhodesia
 Atlas Mountain Range: NW part of Africa
Canary current 1
n

C
SS
L
7 Lake Turkana
World’s largest hot
desert
R ·
> Lake Victoria
A
Great Rift Valley <

g
RM

- -

L
V
V
Namib Desert Madagascar (island
Kalahari Desert
V country)
Benguela current
PA

Longest river of the world: Nile (formed from Blue Nile + White Nile)
↳ ↳ Origin: Lake Victoria of Tanzania
-

Empties in: Mediterranean Sea -

↑
Empties at: Mediterranean Sea
-

Highest peak of Africa: Mt. Kilimanjaro

 NORTH AMERICA
Earlier was part of Russia > Largest Island

Arctic Ocean g
↑
I
f
Bering Strait

C
I
Connects Arctic Ocean
and Pacific Ocean 49th Parallel Line
:
-

Boundary between USA and

Canada

SS
Atlantic Ocean

Pacific Ocean

R >
Panama Canal
A
-

Connects the Atlantic Ocean with Pacific Ocean

·

Links North America and South America

RM

NORTH AMERICA

CANADA
↑

Capital: Ottawa
PA

Young fold mountains Great Lakes: Near

-

E
D

Canada-USA border
↓

& T Old fold mountains

V
Great Lakes consists of
-
H: Huron
↑
O: Ontario
M: Michigan
-

Desert
↑

Mojave Desert
-

E: Erie
S: Superior
-

Sonoran Desert
I
Lake Superior: largest freshwater lake in the world

.
Highest peak of North America: Mt. McKinley (also called Denali)

ECUADOR
SOUTH AMERICA Capital: Quito
First country from which equator passes

C
VENEZUELA
Capital: Caracas

SS
BRAZIL
Capital: Brasilia
Currency: Brazilian Real

R
A
RM

PARAGUAY
PA

CHILE
Capital: Santiago Capital: Asuncion

ARGENTINA
Capital: Buenos Aires

BOLIVIA
Capital: La Paz

URUGUAY
Capital: Montevideo
 g
-
Amazon forest

C
SS
R
A
:
ANDES MOUNTAIN RANGE (World’s longest chain of mountains)
Young fold mountains
RM

Highest peak: Mt. Aconcagua (Argentina)

Driest desert: Atacama Desert

EUROPE Arati Saha was 1st Indian women swimmer to 7

Separates Europe and
7 cross the English Channel Asia

Ural Mountain Ranges(old z

I
PA

fold mountains)
English Channel
T T ↳ Highest peak: Mt. El’brus

Alps Mountain Ranges <

(Young fold mountains)
q >
-
CYPRUS
-

Underwater
canyon:
Eratosthenes
 O

C
SS
7 Hindenburg Line between Germany

& and Poland (German defensive

line in French territory during
World War I)

:
R
Scandinavian countries: Norway + Sweden + Denmark
Nordic countries: Denmark + Finland + Sweden + Norway + Iceland
A
Block mountain in Germany: Rhine Valley
: Vosges mountain in France
RM

OCEANIA

D
Melanesia <
PA

L . Polynesia
Great Barrier Reef
 ·

C
-

SS
V
-

R
Bass Strait

Great Australian Desert (Gibson Desert) L

ARCTIC
India’s first research centre: HIMADRI
A
↳
Estd: 2008

ANTARCTICA
RM

Highest peak: Mt. Vinson

· Indian Research Centre in Antarctica: Bharati, Dakshin Gangotri, Maitri
↓
Estd: 1984
PA