Lesson 4:

Stopping Sight Distance for Horizontal Surfaces

Insufficient sight distance and limited forward visibility can

adversely affect safety and increases the risk of a collision by
reducing reaction and stopping distances. Adequate sight distance
provides drivers with sufficient time to identify and appropriately
react to all elements of the road environment, including other road
users and hazards. Sight distances are particularly important in areas
where pedestrians and bicyclists are known to cross the road.

Sight distance - is the length of roadway visible to the driver.

Stopping Sight Distance (SSD) - is the minimum sight distance

available on a highway at any spot having sufficient length to enable
the driver to stop a vehicle traveling at design speed, safely without
collision with any other obstruction.

Factors Affecting Sight Distance

1. Total reaction time of driver

2. Speed of vehicle
3. Efficiency of Brakes
4. Frictional resistance between road and tire.
5. Gradient of road

Total reaction time of driver - it is the time taken from the instant the
object is visible to the driver to the instant the brake is effectively
applied, it divided into two types:

1. Perception Reaction Time - It is the time from the instant the

object comes on the line of sight of the driver to the instant he
realizes that the vehicle needs to be stopped.
2. Brake Reaction Time - The brake reaction depends on several
factor including the skill of the driver, the type of the
problems and various other environment factor.
PIEV Theory was proposed to provide detailed account of driver’s
reaction. PIEV is the amount of time it takes a driver to react to a
hazard. Total reaction time of driver is split into four parts:

1. Perception - Is the time required for the sensations received

by the eyes or ears of the driver to be transmitted to the brain
through the nervous system and spinal cord or it is the time
required to perceive an object or situation.
2. Intellection - Is the time required for the driver to understand
the situation, it is also the time required for comparing the
different thoughts.
3. Emotion - Is the time elapsed during emotional sensational
and other mental disturbance such as fear, anger or any other
emotional feeling superstition.
4. Volition - Is the time taken by the driver for the final action
such as brake application.

Stopping Sight Distance for Horizontal Surfaces

𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 = 𝑉𝑡
𝑉2
𝐵𝑟𝑎𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 =
2𝑔 (𝑓 + 𝐺)

Where:

V = velocity in m/s
t = perception-reaction time
Prepared by: Engr. Roselle D. Tuazon
f = coefficient of friction between tires and pavements
G = average grade of roadway

Reaction Distance - The distance a vehicle travels from the moment

a driver sees the object until the driver applies brakes.

Braking Distance - The distance a vehicle travels from the moment

the brakes are applied until the vehicle come to a complete stop.

Note: Usually 2.5 seconds is used as Brake Reaction Time or

Perception-Reaction Time.

SAMPLE PROBLEMS:

1. Determine the minimum stopping sight distance on a -3.5%

grade for a design speed of 110 kph. Coefficient of friction
between tires and pavement is 0.28. Driver’s reaction time
(including perception time) is 2.5 sec.

2. While descending a -7% grade at a speed of 90 km/h, George

notices a large object in the roadway ahead of him. Without
thinking about any alternatives, George stabs his brakes and
begins to slow down. Assuming that George is so paralyzed
Prepared by: Engr. Roselle D. Tuazon
 with fear that won’t engage in an avoidance maneuver,
calculate the minimum distance at which George must have
seen the object in order to avoid colliding with it. You can
assume that the roadway surface is concrete and that the
surface is wet (coefficient of friction is 0.29). You can also
assume that George has a brake reaction time of 0.9 seconds
because he is always alert on this stretch of the road.

3. A car traveling at 70 kph requires 48 m to stop after the brakes

have been applied. What average coefficient of friction was
developed between the tires and the pavement.

4. A vehicle moving at 80 kph up a 4% incline was stopped by

applying brakes. If the coefficient of friction between the tires
and the pavement is 0.30, compute the distance traveled by
the vehicle before it stopped.
Prepared by: Engr. Roselle D. Tuazon
 Lesson 5:

Passing Sight Distance on a Level Road

Prepared by: Engr. Roselle D. Tuazon

Most roads and many streets are two-lane, two-way highways on
which vehicles frequently overtake slower moving vehicles. Passing
maneuver in which faster vehicle move ahead of slower vehicles
must be accomplished on lanes regularly used by opposing traffic. If
passing is to be accomplished safely, the passing driver should be
able to see a sufficient distance ahead, clear of traffic, to complete the
passing maneuver without cutting-off the passed vehicle before
meeting an opposing vehicle that appears during maneuver.

Passing Sight Distance (PSD) - is the minimum distance open to the

vision of the driver of a vehicle intending to overtake the slow vehicle
ahead safely against the traffic in the opposite direction.

Important Assumptions:

1. The overtaken vehicle travels at uniform speed.

2. The passing vehicle has reduced speed and trails the
overtaken vehicle as it enters a passing section.
3. The passing vehicle accelerates during maneuver and its
average speed is 10 mph higher than the overtaken vehicle.
4. When the passing vehicle returns to its lane, there is suitable
clearance length between it and the oncoming vehicle in the
other lane.

Prepared by: Engr. Roselle D. Tuazon

 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑃𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑆𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 𝑑1 + 𝑑2 + 𝑑3 + 𝑑4
Where:

d1 = distance traversed during perception and reaction time and

during the initial acceleration to the point of encroachment of the left
lane
d2 = distance traveled while the passing vehicle occupies left lane.
d3 = distance between the passing vehicle at the end of its maneuver
and the opposing vehicle
d4 = distance traversed by opposing vehicle for two-thirds of the time
the passing vehicle occupies the left lane or sometimes taken as 2/3
d2

Prepared by: Engr. Roselle D. Tuazon

SAMPLE PROBLEMS:

1. Compute the passing sight distance that vehicle A could

move while overtaking the slow-moving vehicle B before
meeting the on-coming vehicle C.
Speed of car A = 97 kph
Speed of car B = 80kph
Perception-reaction time = 2.5 sec
Average acceleration = 2.4 m/sec2
Time the passing vehicle occupies the left lane = 10.4 sec
Distance between the passing vehicle at the end of its
maneuver and the opposing vehicle = 84 m

Prepared by: Engr. Roselle D. Tuazon

2. Compute the passing sight distance for the following data:
Speed of the passing vehicle = 26.67 m/s
Speed of the overtaken vehicle = 24.44 m/s
Time of initial maneuver = 4.3 sec
Average acceleration = 1.473 mph/sec
Time of passing vehicle occupies the left lane = 10.4 sec
Distance between the passing vehicle at the end of its
maneuver and the opposing vehicle = 76 m

Prepared by: Engr. Roselle D. Tuazon