UNIT -1

or-273
group 4
Carbon
->

a
Absolute zero

semiconductor behave
silicon as
perfect insulator
ger
↳manium

Si Ge
28 4 28 18 I

Valencyntence e =
4

Conalent
Bonds Strong ⑧
&

⑧
Si ⑳ ·
Si . a
Si 8

·
Ses o Si .
Si

⑧
Si ⑧ ⑧
0 Si
-
⑧8
Si
W

hold the Si tied

e-of together .

(a) Pure form (Intrinsic) .

 ·
⑳
· 8

energy ⑨88 00
⑧ 08

⑧
O
2
888
⑧ · ·
⑧
Ge
80 Sl ⑧ ->
e- ⑧
⑧

↓valency
⑧
⑧ ..
888
⑧

hole ⑧

8
. ⑧
·

Trivalent : -

valency is three outermost shell has 3e-Al

,
B, In , Ga

strong
story...
Conalent

So
Bonds

·
se

Si Si
·
.
Al

Si . Si
hole
· ..

.
-

(b) P
Iype (Entrinsic)
Overall the
charge .

Pentavalent-8-
strong
↑
N (Extrinsic
&
⑧

Si Si Sie (C) Typeoverall-ve

charge
.
· ..

shees
freee
-

Si - :
D - Si
&
·
-

⑧
Si . a
0
Si
-
..
Sie
W
 The
valency is 5
and outermost shell has
Ses

Eg-Phosphorus (P)
Antimony (5b)
Arsenic (AS) .

①1 .
What is absolute zero ?
semiconductors insulators at absolute zero ?
9.2 Why be have as
.

silicon is
⑦.. Why preferred over Germanium ?
while electrons in silicon
Sol
-
. Valence electrons in ye in are
fourth shell are

available in third shell i .

e closer to the nucleus
ye electrons are at high
and

energy
levels than those in silicon thus
Ge electrons will require
smaller amount of additional to
escape from the atom
energy
due to this produces
reason
ye more no .

of electron whole
pairs
than silicon which
give rise to
greater leakage current thus

making be unstable at high temperature that is

why silicon is

preferred over Germanium .

->
metals Potential differences
-

-E
(vasis
-work
Done
t -
 1V =
1 Joule
of work done
1 colourb .

free electrons :
· -

valence electrons bound to the nucleus

The which are
loosely of
an atom and
free to move when external
energy
is
applied
called
are
free electrons .

Electrical
potential
·
.

electrical
The
capacity of a charged body to do work is called

potential .

V=
q
The unit is volts or
Jouls/Coulomb .

·
Electric Current
In a metallic wire of electrons available
large ,

to other at random
a no .
are

which move
from atom one .

when an
wire
electric
potential applied metallic
is across a

free moving
Memlooselteached
starts electrons

y
I

n towards voltagesame
any of
is health and election
current
*** - Is
.

·
current : -

Rate of flow of electrons

per unit time . I 1
=

t
 electron = 1 .
6 X10-9 C

·Ohm's Law : -

Ohm's Law states that the current

through any two points of the conductor is
to
directly proportional the potential difference applied across the conductor
provided physical conditions temp etc das not change . .

Mathematically it is represented as :
· -

VxI
V =
IR
↓= constant R &resistance) .

I
· Unit of resistance is ohm (1) .

Tu Su
"

Q .

~I

+ylik -

V = 12V

Sol .
V = IR V = IR
Reg
.
R, R2 =IXT
+
=

=12 i = Tw
V =

IR I =
1A
12V =
IX12

R =

It I
-
e =

A A

I =

A :
Restivity
Area of cross
.

section
l =

length of the conductor .

 A wire
⑦ .

of length Imm ,
Resistance 2n

if specific resistanc is doubled , I

unam is made three times the

first length
Sol Ol= 1mm j 28=

R = 2r L =
3L
R =

Il r = 2r
A A = xy'2
=
4xr2
= 4A

Kirchoff's Laws
·
KCL-> Kirchoff's current Law
·

RVL->Kirchoff's Voltage Law .

i is Pin = 0

z A n 0
=

i4
is
At node A

is tip - is -iz -ij =

0

i
or
+iq iz +iz +i5
=

The
algebric sum of the currents flowing fowards the junction and
away from it

will be equal to 0 .

① Find the
.
current
flowing through 12 i resistor in the circuit

I
11
below .

↑ 4
10A A
 m I ↑

sol ·
Al

ohm's Law
Applying KCL At mode A , By applying
10 A + 2A+ 4A 5A+
=

11 . Y IR=

16 A = 5 A+ 11 V 1/ X12
=

16 A -5A =

I1 V =
132V
11A =

I1

Kirchoff's Voltage Law :

Sur of E .

m .

f or voltager Crisis of potential) around any closed look of a circuit

equals
n = D
to sum
of the potential drops in that look .

>Un =
0
n 0 =

In a closed look of a circuit

A C
+

R,
1
R3 -2 clockwise (I , -I2)
I I11- Iz- Anticlockwise (I , +I2)

D
F E

So
applying IVL in loop 1 CABEFA)
+V-I , R , -(I , -

Iz)Rz =
0
+

②
Applying IVL in look 2 (BCDEB)
-

v2 + Rz(I Iz) R2Iz,

- -
=
0
-

②
12n 6
A B C

aut
-

G
(I , -Ia
+

102 IOV
.

F E D
Sol .

Applying IVL10in look 1 (ABEFA)

+12V-i1 (i
+
12 ~- 1-i2) = 0

12-12i1-10i1+10i2 =
0

12-22 i 1 +
10i2 = 0

22i1 + 10i2 -12

-
=

or
,
22 :1-10i2= 12

or , 11i1 -5iz 6 ② =
-

Applying KVL in loop & (BCDEB)

+ 10 (i , - i2)-biz 10 -
= 0

10i , -10i2-6iz-10 = 0

10i -16i2-10 = 0

5i -Siz -5 0
=

5i 5
- 8iz
-

,
=

sub iz=-0
·

11i1 -
5 X

+ 1 98-
i

11 .

11i 6-1 98 .

,
=

II i 4 02 .

,
=

i 365
42
=
= 0 .
.

iz =
0 .
762 .

R2

R
0 R3 Sol Reg R,
i
=
+
.
.
.

RT
R1
Req .
0 Find the and direction
.

magnitude
batteries
of current in
shown in the circuit below
each

of the as .

30V
↑W
A -
I B
i+ ~

12n i1 8
-
-

+ LOV zow
I c
+
-
-

F
i2 ~
12
t
-
X D
E ~
(I, + Iz)
IOV

Sol .
RVL in loop 1 (ABCFA)
+ 30 -

4i1-bi + 2012-20-12is
10 - 24 i1 20i2 0
=
+

24i1 - 20i2 10 =

12i1-10i2 =
3 -

RVL in CD 3F)
Now
applying loop 2
-

+
20-2012-12 (i1+ ig) + 10 =
0

12i1- 12iz 20i2 30 0

- +
- =

12iz -32iz 30 =

12i1 32iz +
30 - G =

solving eq① & simultaneously ,

we
get
 /
12i2 -10ig =
5

12i1 +

32ij
=

30
- - -

+
42ig =
+ 25

is -
ig =
0 .
595A

12i , -10x0 595 .

=
5
5 95 5
12i1
- .
=

10 95
12 i1
.

e5

is 1995-0
:

① . Two batteries are connected in parallel . The EMF and internal

resistance of the battery is lov and ou

respectively and the

corresponding zow
values are 100 and 4
respectsiely.
A
resistance of is connected connection
across the
parallel .

Cal ·

the value of : -

value and direction of in each

(i) current
battery .

(ii) Terminal
voltage
NOV
sol .
I
+Gr
-
-

I I

130V 4u(i1
I -
+
-

is i,t is
20
-m
I
Sol .

-110-6i1 +4 i2 + 130 = 0
-
bi +4iz = -

20
,

3i , -2iz =
10 -

130 4i2 20 (i , + iz) 0

- -
-
=

- 130
4iz-20iz-20ij 0
-
=

+ 130
24i2 20i1 0
- =
-

20i1 24 ig -130 ②
+ =
-

multiply eq① by 12 .

/
36 120
S
-24
i

i1
=

2
130
i2ig
-

56i1 = -
10

i1 = -0 -
1785

3x -0
1785-2iz 18
.
=

0
5358-2iz 10
- .

2ig 10 5358
- .

ig 5 26 -
-
=

(ii) 00= (is+ig) XRL

=
(0 1786 - +
5 .

26) x20
=
108 . 772V .
 Thevnin's Theorem
Thunin's Theorem states that
any
linear network
consisting of
and resistances matter how complex
voltage sources no it is

be replaced by (Therrin's
can a
single voltage source
voltage
vir) and a series resistor called Thevnin's resistance
(RT) This VTH is potential
·
equal to the
difference between the
terminals network when the load resistor IRL) is
of the
removed network
from the .

Rin is equal to the equivalent resistance of the network with the

load RL removed
resistor
R,
being .

V-
I
Ra R

RTH

I RL .

Remove the load resistance RL the network

from
·
.

R,
R3
· A
t
v
Ra

·
B
 Calculate the Thevnin's Calculate open circuit
Voltage
·
. the

which the terminals A and B when

voltage appears across

RL removed
they are
open i e when is
.
.

VTH =
VOC =
1 x R2
(R1 R2)
+

·
short circuit the and calculate resistance of
voltage source eq .

the circuit -

R,
R3
0 A

R1

o
B

R , 11R2 + R3
RTH
R RE
=

·
Replace load RL in the therin's equivalent
resistor ,

circuit and calculate the load current .

It = H RTH
↑IL
(RTH +Ru)
VTH
.

I RL
 7 2 .

ION
0 .

12 V Ry =
50
R2 How
. s

Find the current the 500 inthe circent shown below

through
Thurnin's Theorem
using .

7 2
.

ION
⑧

I 0 .
8
R2 tow

⑧
↑

Sol . I =
I --
12
=
R +
Rat r 7 2 + 40 +0 8
. .

0 25 A
=
.

UTH =
VOC = IXR2
=
0 25 X 40
.

=IOV

RTH I Sn 1140m +10N

8
4 1
480-
+ 1
+
+

48

=> 16 66
.

.
 RTH
=
16 662 .

IOV I -Bon

Itn VTH
,556+ 50 = 66
=
1 A
+n RL) 66
=

, + .

=
0
.

15 A

Norton's Theorem
two terminal linear network one
Any contar independent
ong replaced
and
voltage sources
maybe by
current

an

equivalent circuit
consisting of a
current

source .

i the norton (IN) in with

parallel
current

.
e

a resistance (RN) where (IN) is the

short

circuit current at

the network terminals and (RN)

is the equivalent resistance
of the network as seen

from the terminals .

PROCEDURE ? -

Remove the load resistor across which the current is

to be calculated and short circuit the terminals .

·
Cal .
The short circuit current at the terminals : . e

(IN) norton's current .

·
Replace the voltage sources and current sources with their
internal resistances short ircuit for
i .
e
voltage source

and circuit for current

open
source

· cal The
eq resistance
of the network ensuring all
.
.

resistances back except the load resistor

are
put .

this is known as norton's resistance (RN) .

· Redraw the circuit as shown below and Cal the load

current (IL) .

Ic = N
IRN+RL) ·

↑ 3RL
BRN
IN

Ques .

By using Norton's Theorem

find the current
through
12 ohm resistor
- , ou

zort 12 ~ 14 W
-
 Su
10

20V
⑧ SC
14 W
-

Sel
IN=
=

2 5A .

Su 10
&

·
⑧

I
sa 14 W
SC
⑧

10 + 14 118N

+1444
8+(10 14) 8+(24)
+

RN = Gu

x6
6r 12 ~ = =
0 .
8333A .

2 5A.
↑
 -

16 N

Su
8 8/116
+

wes .

I
40V IOw
Sch
- zon

load current
Using norton's Theorem cal The
through load
·

resistor RL= Iow .

16 N

In
%
I
Su

S2
Sch
con ! sa

⑧
1
1 +
=>
8
8
-

100
-
IN
& 5A I
=

It
=

-2
8118 16 ⑤
T
+

Ih= ↑
8
I
+
It
&I
+
161120 .

32
8
+

-
2

1 to 201120 so
=
20 ⑧
Eoro
2IX

8+ 16118120
 8118

It I =

! +

so t
0
=10

Maximum Power Theorem

Transfer
The maximum states that the
power transfer theorem max .

power
is
transfered from a source to a load when the

load resistance is equal to the output resistance of the

network load terminals This is
as seen
from the .
theorem

communication networks network

useful for analyzing .

Any
into a
can be converted
single voltage source by the use of
Thevnin's Theorem The theorem aims
man
Power transfer at
.
.

finding RL such that the

power dissapiated in RL is max .

P =
IL RL

( + r) ①
p 2
= R. . .

now
for to be max .

O
Differentiating ①writ ,
RL, we
get
 (Rin+RI)2-2RL (RIn+RL)
= Vin O
=

&
(RTH + RL3

=
VTr2[IRTH+RL) 2
-

2RL(RTn+ RL)]
(RTH +RL) ↑

2) CRIRL) 2 =

&RL(RL)

=) RTH+= 2RL
=3 RL= RTH ·

Substituting RL=RTH in
eq
.

Pmax= VIH2 -
XRL
(RL+RL32
=) 2 x
4RL2
Penars- e

201 30n

Ques
60V 10c RL .

circuit shown below

for the find the current
through RL when
it takes the value of 50 and 25n .
(is IL =
? 0 .

48
Rc =
5 and 25n 0 -

324
(ii) Also calculate the value
of RC for which the
Pdissapiated
in it would be max ,
and
find this
pour .

30

st
Solo IL ? =

RL =
5N-
20
-
125
voltage : 10 -
020 5
2 30

Aus 0 3

G --
un 7
-
- I +
20
-8
⑧
I
0 -
- 12518
- 25
-
I
Rin=
+ to ↳t 85

#
=

3 :90 H =

20 20 3 3

↳
0
↳ --
NTH

&T HARL -
20

11075
5
-
il X +

T 3 T
15 125
3
- 110
-
-
115
3
3
E
 -5
3

5 =

⑪ 0 .
3

Ans -

RT 36 67
10
=
.
=

RL =

RTH ·

RL =
36 6 7u
.

-2 -00
4x36
=
=

5667
.

674x36 .
67
6
-
7
100

-
100

-E Siz
Aus
w

Solving Linear Equations using Gamer's Rule .

 low fou zon
Iow
- m m

continP
++ I
-
- -
-

Es
is
-

IOV
20 ~
Ce
13
-
-

-
t 50V
IOw I
17
-

Applying ku in loop 1 : -

10i1-20 (is-is)-10 0 =

oi , -20 is + 2012-10 0
=

30i1 + 20i2 -10 0 =

3is-2iz 1 ① =
-

Applying Kevin look 2 : -

to-20i2 +10-10(iz-iz) -201ic-is) = 0

40-20i2 + 10-10i2 +10iz-20i2+ 20i =

50-30ig-20i2 H0iz +20 is =

0

50-50 i2 +10iz +
20i1 =
0

(50-50 is +
10iz +20i1) = 0

200 ,
-50i2 + 10iz=- 50
2i1 -

5ig+ 1iz =
-

5 -

2
Applying RVL in look 3 : -
 10iz + 50_10(iz-i2) -10 0
=
-

oiz +
50 -10i3ic-10 iz
-
+10 -
10 =
0
50 + 10
20 iz 0
+
-
=

10i2-20i3 + 10 =
0

10in-20iz =
-
to

12 -

2iz =
-
1 -

3iz-2ix +0iz = -1 -
xix-5ix +
iz =
-
5 -
0it+iz-2iz =
-

1 -

⑯
ai , ziz a , ziz C ,
+
a
,
+
=

ag / is +aggiz +azziz 2
=

aziz +azz in +
azz is Cz =

all a 12 a 13 is C1

921922923 i2 C2
a31932 933 is C3

j I =all I
I I
is= C &12 a13
e
now
,

C2 & 22 a 23

C3 932933 a31C3 933

A
is
Jaa, acce
=

Applying Cramer's Rule in ⑰ ,⑥ we

get ,

(3)()- Es)
[I
is=
X

I 52 I
a , aDz ⑰
als

921 922 923

231932 933

tanaas-ai/ais)+as/al
1) 2/2) / +
=
- +

3(52) 28 2) %3
+ +
+

-
 => - 1A 2A , 3A .

:
, AnE

Ques with internal

Convert a
voltage source of 20V
.

resistance
-

5 into
of ~ an
equi· valent
current source .

sol V IR
voltage
=

source

I -
↑A

current
I ↑ source .

4A 3 ju

⑦ . Converta current source

⑧ of 100 A with
internal resistance
of low into an

equivalent voltage source .

so w

V = IR
V =
100 x 10 = 1000V .

Determine
·
⑦ .
the eque valent resistance and
across the arcuit
O

voltage
.

serie Gr

inmiempare
a series

-
N

i
↑

parallel
5A e 10n

6 +

10/11 .
4 + 7 .

21130 S
i =
128 + 7 -

2 =
8 48.

e
8x3
6 . . 224
=

216
-
44
V =
I

V =

5x6 61 .
- 33 .
05
 Nodal
Analysis : -

2Rw
m ⑧ I
I↳,
- u
RI R2 in
V
I
=
1ku
is Ni
, +iz I

,
R3 V2
-

4R -

IOV 200

A
-
>

is =

is ic + -
①
(ii) (-) +
( )
=

V =
!

= ,
- -

I ]=- [ ]
~

~I , ] =
+
( ]
v =
 V, =

10V

V2 =
20V

1
=
+

=
t =
#2-1
4
=

E
4

-4 =
v = 16

-eher
10

18
8,
⑧
-
2

0I xi
- 5 28
⑧
2
2, 3 ↑
-
* -
I
2

8 10 12
10

-in
-

0 #

8,
-
O
I
5
6 15 120

-
/
-

0 12
4 ,

2 25 :
3
8 S 120 Eto

->
Tro

⑬i
120
I 10
 -
-
17
-

2x -
⑰
3

i
+ -20-
=

= 2 .

17A

-28

=
iz = 2-17 +
0 .

94
-A
 'R' in the
Ques Find the
0
.

voltage drop across resistor

armit below .

SV 10 V
+- -
t

LOV
t
-
-

t --

5V 17V

30-8H10 -121-17+ 5 + 20 =
0

Ri /Ov =

is di in
Ques . What the
Here the potential blw
it
·

the points x and Ch shown

X 4V
m

↑V

B
2n I
2V- 3n

35
I

-
3w
B-
Sol V IR=
V =
IR Y
-

2 =
IX5 4 =
1x 8
2 = IX5 I = I
is =
0 .
4A 8
5
0
12
=
.
 3
v2
2 1
x
=
=

V2 1
x 3 3
=
=

V2 -V , =

3
1 -

25

-12 3
=
=

10

=
0·
3
=> 4-0 3 .

=
3 7V Ans
.
.

superposition Principle .

In
any
network
the current in
containing more than one
is
voltage sum
sources .

branch
any
the
algebric of
the no .

of indivival currents
(depench·gon the total no .

of
sources) which ·
voltage
action
each
of d due to

into
the
separate
consideration
voltage
each Taken
of source .

·
ing replaced
when

their internal
remar
voltage
resistances
sources are

respective
by
the of sources .

Sch 10 N

inte
-
t -

Ques I t

zov CSV

so doing zov source and

replacing 28V source
with its internal resistance
- >
I ! => I2'
Sch 10 N
-
M

!
I

I ~ I

zov sin

= e

22

= 13 45 .

IF beg 545 = =
!48A .

I 1 487x
=
.

a
12
+
10

=
1 .

487x10 14
-
.
87
22 22

= 0 .

675A

1 487x 811A
Ib 4 0
. .
=
: =

:
Su I
Iy 10 N
-
- =
~ In X +
IT2

I Bize -
28V
 Reg =
10+
=
14 .
Su
8

IT 892
↑
=
1 .

Ix =
1 .
892 *

1892x8 =
0 -

756A

892x12
Iy
1
-
.

20
Ign I
Iy
= -

.. 487 1134
-8
-

=
0 .

353A
Ix Ia
I12n
=

134A
+

=1 .

0 756
. +

0 675 ⑪
⑦
.

⑪ 156
1 43 /A
.

0
.

615
=

I10M =

IT2 - Ib ·
=

1892-0 .
811 =
1 .

081 A .

It states that the or current

element

voltage across through an

ina linear circuit is the
algebric sum of the voltage across

element due to each

or the currents
through that

independent source
acting alone .
 IOw zON
-
+- Me
Ques
-

.
I t I

-30m
20V
50V
-

find the total current flowing through the resistor 300

by using superposition principle .

-
-10
-b 20w

so t
~Ia
o 30
osc .

R
+

=
Reg =
2201130) + 10

1 + 1
20 30
#
60 =

= 10 60
5
=
22

IT - =
2 27 A
-
.

22

Ia = 2 27
.

x
30 +
20

908A
2 27x -
Y 0
.
.
=
=
 wai5-1302
53 =

- n -

Step ,
2 20
I

in↳
10 I t2 .

e
I
zou
e 2
~ k
=

(101130) + 20

- Ho

Ho
27 5w
.

212 -j 0 727
.
- =

Ic = 0 .
127
(8 +
30) =
0 . 1817A

Iy 0 12
(5) 5452A
.

0
=
= .
 130n =
1 0897 A
.

Alternating Current (AC)

I AC
um peak voltage or max Voltage
- - -

↑
I
v =
vmsinwt

voltage Senate
-

-
of
Um - - -
are
- T

freq . 50H2
230V
f =

DC

V =
IR

The
ratatory electromagnet" generators
produces voltage alternating in
-
polaretyande reversing
0

,
positive and
negative
e

It Imatian
!
~
M Anis
of Motion .

Rotating EnternalConnection
tionary magnetic filed a

~AC I DC

amplified or in
voltagereduced
be
can
scaling of voltage
is not
by use
of DC
easy .
*

transformers .

As DC
generators
voltage to
can be
generated
solar
are
and
easy construct
less in cost
e

through
sanels
.

1 .
 Amplitude
The attained
man -
Jositive
I
in
or
negative value by an
alternating
quantity one complete cycle is known as

amplitude , plak value or max. value .

The value is
max.
of voltage or current represented

by um or Em and Im.

Cycle
When a wave
form reaches a
complete set of the and
-
ve values , it is called one cycle such as in a
sinusoidal wave which
completes one set of +ve and -ve

values is called one cycle of sine wave .

One is
cycle corresponding to the 2 or 360 :

Lime period
Time taken in seconds current
by voltage
a or to
is called Time period
complete one
cycle .

Frequency
time
No .

of
cyclesis made per
unt
by
It is
an
alternating in
quantity called
frequency
second
. measured

cycles Hertz
or
per
.
 SJP = No .

of magnetic poles .

N R P M
speed of rotor
.
.
.
=

f =

frequency of emf of generator .

I cycle =
2 Rev=2 pair of poles of conductor
1 No of poles
cycles emf
=
= . .

No .

of cycles
=

P/2 .

No .

of revolutions per second :

# .

60

No of per second
Noof cycles No revolution
cycles of
: . .

x
.

revolution second .

**s
spend
(N) -
In USA mechanical
we use
5oherty for AC at man 50 Hz .

In Europe we use
higher frequency then 5012

Revolution : -

By phase of alternating quantity

time
.

St is meant
fraction of
peak value .

period which has

allapsed
last similar
since
which passes
alternating
quantity through
position
⑧

the
the
of reference .
Phase is the which is measured in
angle angle degress or

radiance .

Alternating Current voltage

v
=

vm sin wt
+(Vm)
-
- =
I =
Im sin wt
I
27
O
x -

↓
-Vm) - - - - sime period

R->ohm(-)

3
M

50HZ EIR - IXL Resistor

↳
-
-
Henry Inductor &
I
220V - conductor .

=C - Farads
IXc

where ,
Reactance due
2xfl wl the
changing of inductor
xL to
->

=
= .

xc =
1 =
1 ->
Reactance due to the
capacitance .

2xfc we

z =
((X
-xc)2
Total impedence of the circuit .

At Resonance : -
Inductive reactance will be equal to the
capacitive reactance .

I h
2 =

2 =

2 =
R .

XL =
XC

w =
1

anf
Phase(D)
can-2 25
=

Tan-2 ,
0
=

0 =
Tan-1 (0)

0 = 0

Ques ) Write
.
down the equation for a sinsuoidal
voltage of 5042

its peak
having corresponding voltage
at 20V Draw the
voltage vs
.

time
graph .

8 + = 50HZ

Umax =
20V
+ 20 -- =

V =
Umsinct I
↓ d ↑

proms is
is
20 ! 5ms
-

w 2 xf
-con
=

- - - -

= 2x3 14x50 .

=
314
sams
 V =
20 sin 314 t
T =
1

#
t 0 0)
T= = 0 -

ms

is = Find
Ques .
The eq .

for an Ac
given by 77 sin 314t .
the
peak
value
frequency ,
time period and instantaneous value at T=

2ms .

sol · = 77 sin 314t I radiance =

57 296
.

-
i
=

17xein (314x2ms) =
0 .

628x57 296
:

i 77 sin (628x10-3)
=
=Sin (35 .
98)
i 77 x sin 10 628)
=
.
radiance to
degree
- (r)
i xx sin (36)
(rad x )
=

i =
77X0 58778-

i =
450259A .
 value
Average of waveform

The value
average of a waveform found for any
can be

wave like sinsuoidal

The
triangular
,

value
traparoidal
,

other shape of a cycle of

or a
any argo
.

waveform isthe area under the

waveform divided by
the
length of one
cycle .

vc in volts)
+Vm----

25
I wet

"
⑧
(sec)
-

Vm = - -
- -
↑

Vav =
O

fig .
(a)
Area under the
T I werve

I
Vav= I Wat
T

for a sinusoidal wave

,

V = Vm sin wt
 T

sin wt dut
I
Vav= I um
2

S
A 2x

I se
·utdut
I
or var= + odwt

·
⑧

= I-cosct]
-
- [cas-cos of

- - [ -
1 - 1]
2x
- -
v X-1

AT
Vav - Im 2x
x

T is the
where
Total
length
of one
cycle
will be
.

area under the curve zero because half

is anis and half
of its wave
form above the nt

is below the nt anis thence the value of full

argo
-

is zero
sign wave .
 Full wave
Rectifier

- - -

Um
-

YWt
0
fig .
(C)

of full recifier
Infic augolue
the wave a
g ,

wave
rectifier over the same

time period .

Var= m
X

The effective or RMS value of a wave

form .

The RMS or
effective value of a wave is the root

meaned
squared values .

Iman)
square .

wamaoally
a
Irms= Leff=

e
 or
Irms=/Im -cosawt) but it

sinc=1-cos 20

tinzut]
e

-Im
2

Byusinga gromete ene

relation .

Irms=
Im [2x-s-o+ st
e
2

=(x2x /Em =
=

I
= 0 .

707 Im

0
=>] RNS value half wave

rectifie .

Ques .
An
alternating·
current
varyin g sinsvoid-

ally frequency H2has

we
th a
of 50
RMS value id 40 A
an
of fr .
-

(i) Instantaneous value ·

0025 sees .
after
passing through max + ve value
.

its Time measured from a max value

when instantaneous current is 14 14A .
.
80b 50HZ
frequency
=

RMS value 40 A- =

Im
is -1
=

It
to =

⑧ *
/2 ;
to x 58 = Im

40x1041
=

56056 . Im sin(wt)

sin(I wt)
+

coswt -

w =

2 xx50 =

100 x rad/s .

i = 56.56 COS looxtampere .

t 0 .
0025 see .

27f
=

w =

2XxX50 .
56 56cos100xx0 0025
·
. .

180
-

56 %
56x0099 = 40 A .

is
↳

= 14· 14 A

14014 =

56 .
4 COS 100 x 180[
Cos100X 180 t
1/2
=
 iroxiso+ :

cas-'(s)
= 0000 419 sec .

, ,so
t =

sinsuoidal
Ques . A
Alternating voltage of 5042 has an

RMS value 200 . Write down the equation for the

instantaneous value and
find this value 0% 125 sec after passing
through a the max. value .

ii) What time measured from a the man value will the
instantamous will
voltage be 14104 .

Tip
Solo V =
Vm sin t
-

frequency =
50H2
RMS value 200 282 82
=
.

+Vm
-- =

vm=

=
Vrms XSI
200XJI .
!<2
= 200X 1041 T14 -> WE
= 282082 ----
Um
-
 W =
2xx50 = 100x
rad/s .

V =
Um sinct
Um 0125)
sin(+100x
x0 .

=
Vm cos (100 x x0 .
0125)

=
vm cos (100X 180x0 0125) .

=282082COS (225]
= 282 82 X-0 707
. .

19909U 2-200V

↳is Time measured= !

V = 14104

14104 = 282-8 coswo

14104 = 28208 cos 1100 x 180) t

14104 = 282 8xCa(100x180)

. t

cos-(
100X 180xt
:"S)
=
 100 x 180xt = cos"
(0 5).

100x180 X
t

=
600

t
184 soo
=

"
=
0 . 003
Aus
-

·
Form Factor · Power Factor

caso-active
Ratio of rms value to the value
average
·

For =
RMS value

Avg . value

Peak factor :
max. value
rom's value
Ratio of man value to the ems value .

200
- -

-
82
-1011 fined -

Oman
Peak factor
2
-
- 10414 .

-
was
 ⑦ RMS value of
.

rectangular wave of an amplitude

of 9037V .

RMS ~max
Solo =-
JI .

+Vm
---Yv3437V .

I . 45. Vo7vs
4

-2-3

um
I i56tyg
- -
-

V32 + V4 V57V62 + v> 2

2
Vrms =
v,2 + v2 + + +
Vg2
·

⑭andO
vg2 X -

1.
3) 2 =
9037 .

② .

Argo value over half a

cycle of a sinsuoidal AC
whose RMSvalue is 31 As
, 011=
ugo 1011=
27092 Auso
collArg =
3/

-
Aug
~

~
~

~
~
 Lutorial -

1 -

10.1 6+10
1/104 + 7-21130
# =

1028 + 72 =
8 48
.

16 + 104
8048x30
-
=
60b/m .

8 48 + 30
.

V = IR
5x6 61 33005
V
Ans
- ->
=
.

A
Sol 20
Voltage 20V NUA
=

Resistance = 5x q

i
current= V =

I .
⑭ 4A 5 voC
20 =

IX5 ↓
I
4
A
=

B
1
un 2V me

-eu
+ +

so "
-

-
I
- GV-

UsingkVL .

LOV-1i+2V-/r-1n
- - +
6V -
1i =

0
0
-

V -
ye
=

Yi Y
=

e 1A
=

.
 ↑

Soly .
Current source= 100A
A
Resistance
-

10 ↑

P
=

V IR voC
voltage
=
=

V =

100X 10 01000V ↓
V =
1000V .
Anso B

sol5 :
Limitations of ohm's Law : -

-
- -

This law is valid

.
↳
only for conductors and that also at

a constant temperature .

2 Incase
.

of insulators ohm's law is not applicable as

they
don't conduct at all .

3 . This law is not

followed by semiconductors
 Tutorial -E

~
 IOn 2V
-

MI
+ -

10) i4
↳
2 4e
m =
+

-
-

D It Es
+
->

YV I 11
E -

↑
an
3# -
h
3 IOV

Am 21
Apply RUL8 -

y -

2i1 - 2(i i2) ,

-
=

y -

4iz +

2i2 =

is =
4 -

①
Y

In loop 3 Applyev : -

10-4)iz -is)
-
=

-
10 -

4iz 4i +
= 0

is = -
-

0
2
In
look 48 -

2
-

10 in -

Y(ix i2) -
=

2-min + hix = 0

in =
Ye2 -

③
14

In look
28 -

2(is-i)-4(is-in)-4(ic-i3 = 0

10ic+ 2 i , Yey+ Yig 0 +

0
=

10inta
use
e
-

Ex 5ic+
(2-- 10) 0
-
=

14

=
54 4 ( )
-
+
= 0

is =
-

2022A .
 i ,
=
422) -

4
⑰ = - 0 -
11A
Y

In
a
m
I S &
20] N
I -

t >

in N

B
En IV
-
A
au
- n
+- b
C S ? I
↑
T

an N
&
I

S I
I
i B
3M
-

is Y -

-
t
W
-
I 2 +- 4
de
2V

from look 1

i1 =

2A

-
:

in
Look
+

1
2
-

21
Apply
· -3)
-

l -
RVL
6(ix 2) -
=

0
-

92 2iy
+
+
13 =
0

i
+3 ①
=
-
Loop 3 :

3iz +

2 -

4(iz -

2)
-

2(iz- i) -

1 =
0

993 +
9 +

2i2 =

9iz 9
2(3)
- +

0
+

81z +

81 +

4iz +

26 =
0

xiz 107 0
- + =

iz = 1039A

2 =

1075A

·
voltage
=
4(1039 -

2)
= -
2044V Also

10c X
YOU y 10w
- ⑧ Me N

30)
- ⑳
=- I
↓ 2OnE

10U ⑪ zon
lov in
is I
30V
310w
sol At mode ns
-

x 40 -
# + +-
y 0
+

10 20
20

40
y
2u +

20 +
x +
x +
-
=
0
wo
2x

yu+60- 0
y
=

4n 60 ①
y 0
-
+ -
=

At mode
y:
x 1 -
+

+ =
0

2y
-40 -x 100
xy 20 0
y
+ + +
+
=

5y
-
x +

10 =
0 -
0 x5 +

2
I
201 0
5y 300
- =
+

80 0
5y
x
+ =
+
-

192 +
380 =
0
 x 20
20 y
- =
=
=

is
(n+)
.. = -

1A
(2)
= =

is =
y =
-
+
20

= 2A

iz y =
=

=
-
 zutorial-3

-
⑧

0
 V
m
1 .
)
11) ,

350 SRL
=
10w

san

33
24V

3
e

1) Remove the load resistance (RL= 101) .

VA V
5

E
⑧
->
nee
11) ,

350 Ven
34m

33
24V

3
e
At mode
,

EY +A 0
=

U 8

& VA-48 +VA =

VA =
16 V

writing equo for UTH .

VA-12-Uth = 0

UTH = 16-12 =

YA

short circuit 3
- m - A

and mo
 -
4

(4 5)
10
Rin = +

8 - +

3 T
32730
-
3
3.
=

=
RTH

reno-
I2 =
VTH
RIRL
RL
IL =

I I
62

-
= 0 :

1935 A

un 3 A
Me e
2 ) :

12 V
-A
532 3
Se

34n

I B

1 .
) Remove the RL= 52 .
 0 &

na 11 3
13
us &
-

ala

12V 3
2A 4

2u

l +

i +
z
=
0

-
-
0 =

36
-

3UTH+ 24-4 VTH =

0

36-7VTH +24 = 0

7 WTH =

60
O V
VTH = .

short circuit
 -mo

↳
Reg Rin
(5 5) 3
+
+
= =

=
5
RTM
-
/

·
IL =

RTH +RL
a

-
I
VTU

I 0 857 A
:
-
.

-
 zw A
e e

30) 6

32n
12V

som
0 Al 4

B
Revove the RLacross A

zw A
e e
6

32n
12V
⑧

I
0 A 4
⑧

B
conventing went
voltage source
source
.
To

v =

& =

10 X 2 =
20V .

*
~

16
-

I
>

si
N N

*
⑧

E
0
+ 12V

2
L2
-

3m
->
is ⑧
-

a
t

LOV
-

2i 21
20-
,
-
= 0 12 -

62 =

i2 = 0 = 5A is =

GA
4

30 I =
TA -
 short circuit

2n Ge

2n O

Rin 204w
1 6
= + =

I =
7
6 +
204
=

2A Also
-
- - ~

2A 24m 6 w
 Series RL circuit
I- >
vii , In

se
R
L
VR =
IR VL= IXL

④
e

v 2
di
=

sincot
Fit) Im

V(t) =
LdIL(t)
duot
=LdImsinct
dwt
VL(z) =
(Im cosnt

umlobutmust ·
um
sin(+ wi
a
inse
2
n
-

0 2x 3x wt
 Current 90%
:.
lags the
or
voltage by
90 %
:
Voltage leads the current
by
Phasor
Diagram

=
22 V =
IXL
v

(4 7

IP
UR I =
I

=>
current
lags behind
by an angle p .

·
l
·
Impendance Triangle : -

act V

cos
I
I

z XL= WL
①
=

I .

I
R
Ening
react
p B ve
I
cas = -

H power -VICOS I .

power fact or consume

Ques) A coil takes 2.5A when connected across
200V The Find
,
50H2
supply .

power=400w ·

inductance , power factor

.

solo] I =

2 5 A
.

v =
200 v

F =

50Hz
P = 400W p =
I
VICOSO

w
L = cosd
2014 E
=
:

x25
M

cosp 0 8
-
=

200 V ,
50 H2

=
Ez
Z
=

Cosp : =
0 .
8 x 80 = R

8x80 64
=
 sind= I sinp+cosp= 1

sin24=1-cosp
z
sind =

2xfl sinp -1-2022

=

orL= 2 sind 10 8 = .

2xf
x =
2x fe sing =
15004
86
2x3 14x50
-

Sind 1036
=

=
18 sinp =
0 -
6

314
= 0 .
1529 H .
.

Aue

20) Acoil R =
51 and inductance = 3108mH
cal .
The current when connected to the
2000 , 5042 vector
supply -
Delaw the
for the puasor diagram
.

(ii) NonInductive R = IOX is then connected

in series with a coil · cal- the
value current & the
new
of the
power factor :
Ol R =

5n
-
1 =
398 mh
V =

200V
f =
50HZ

1 =

3018mh R =
52

-um-m

200V , 50H2

V Iz x 2x fl
=

2x3 14x50x
.

xXL2
=>

z =
3018
-
9 48.
.

z =
1500
2 =
-
15
z =

555 Ampedence .
 I
= % 17088A
-
=
=

power
factor
12 casp :
=
V =
IXL =
B
n 355
0 .
44
98
=

>P I

VR =
IR I
I

ii 1 =

3018mh R =
52 10w

-um-m

200V , 50H2
2 =

552
102 +

=>
15+ 102
=> 555 =

5/53 =
18 02 1
.

- 094
I
I
=
=
= 11 .

18 02
.

power factor-cos4 502

= =

0-832
 ~
-

~
 5 A 50 B Y
I u O M u
·

prom
I
10) -
I

75V
312m I
64V

is
when 75
acting alone
,

5 A B
50 Yu
u S M u
Es so
St- I
O

I
I
a + I

~
I
I I
->

i
3
-E ,
⑧
00 f -

75V
C
12

is2
w ⑧

is
-

-
35
I

E I
Apply RVLs
75 -

5r ,
C
- 20 (i , -is) =
0

15-511 + Mic = 0

is M -2
=
Loop 3
,

Yis-122iz-i2) =
0

163 12i2 0
=

-
+

iz =

Giz -

Loop 2 ,
20(iz -i2) -5(iz) -12(i iz) 0
=

- -

-
372 +

201 + 123 = 0

37i2 +

60 +

16i2 +

92 = 0

is =

3A

when 64Visacti alone

ng ,

5 A B
50 Yu
u M
I O
97
u
9
i
I

I
I
+-
-

M
-

-
1
I
I

· inC zom
ise res
-

,
64V
 Applying revL

Loop ?
5iy-20(14-15) = 0

y+ 205
-25 = 0

in 25 3
yi5
= -
=

Loop 6
-

64 -122is -15) -

4(16) =

- 64 -

166 +

125 = 0

is - -
=

200RI20(ig-in) -
5
(ig) -
12 (ig-is) =
0

37 is + 20in 1216 0
-
+
=

37 5 + 16ig 915 +
-
48 =
0

1243 -
48 = 0

is = -
4A
-

⑭
 % - I =

ic 15 +

=
5 +

( -
4) =
1A

2V
Gu

2) II u

W 192
M
11
↳In
3an 33w

11
25V

is
when 2 V

Gu
acting alone

2V

+1 - M

Le
is
-

un- & ⑳

3an I
is
330 E
13 Sim

⑧ ⑳
⑳pe Applying a -
a

-
7 ,
+is =
2 -

↳3 .

iz -

3( 3 -

iz) =
0

Miz 3i2 + = 0 -

2
22
2ez-List
0
-
is en
0

bix +i
2 +

3)
C = 0
7

168ix + 4ix-8 +

6312 =
0

1012 8 -

0
=

u2
= -
8
-
A
10 I
↓

=
:.
e
=
=

- -

LOOP'
when 25 Vis acting alone .

Gu

2 2)
-
I
0

61
u
⑧0
0
-
+-
- =

is +
is = 0 - ⑧0

-
I

i2'1 ⑬
↳In
ii
-

= 3an 33w -

=
-

I
Ic
 2003 3
-

33
-
i
d
=

wig' -3uz'
0
-

=
0

is =

Siz ⑭

200p 2
2-zizi ! )-3cis-is')
0
25 = 0
-
+

6i2' + ! +

3ig' +
25 = 0

is =

i = a
=

In
when
only , 90
acting alone ,

Gu
⑧ u

W 192
M
11
↳In
3an 33w
⑳ ⑧

Loop1-6i ,
11

+19-Ci , "-is") = 0

-
Ti , "tig" + 19 =0
 i ," = 19 -

5
7

Loop3
-

is" -

3(iz" -ic") -19 =

0

vis" +32" -19:0

is"= 19 -
⑱
20042 U

zis-(is"
"I -

is")-3(i" -

iz") =
0

-bear!" is" j.
⑥

i
=
0
-

101" -323=0

is"
-
=

i "

-Stee
9
3 +
=
-

7
in Lacross 6
,8 38
=
H +
2 -

101

i 1
=
.
30 =

18
-

101 101

i =

1 ,
0
Il

=
~
,

Gow
M
150
M in30w
3)

15o ↑ 13A
34Ow -v
I

when is
1500
acting alone ,

Gow
150 30w
S M
I -
I I
M
-
m

+is6 2
12
t ⑧
3 yow
150 -
⑧
-

I
2001
32
Applying levL

-
15 - 60-40L-iz) + 150 0
I
=

- 115 e + 401 +150 0

2
=

,
G

y
eg
=

150 -
①

200p1
- 402 , -

2) -

30i2 = 0
40(150)
-

702 +

402
=

8050 + 16009 + 6000 = 0

, ,

iz =
*

when
only 50v
acting .

Gow
30w
wish M m

is I2 zyoni
I
 2001~2
-

15is'-60i2'-40(is'-is') = 0

wi
↓ I

eg =

-
Look 1
-
40 (ii-iss-30is' -50 = 0

70 ! +

40i2= 50
0
I
-

To , + -
0

115

( 8050
-
+
1600) i , -
5750 =
0

i
45
-
=

when
only 13A
acting
Gow
wish M in30w

I
in C 348
I

ij-i i
Y
=

13
-

y
=

13 -

35
-
I
Ly
=
ij 13- -

⑧
3
 -

30i -40(ij -[5) = 0

-
706 +
409520
is I is
=

Apply kn using mesh

analysis .
(Supermesh)
-

15in-60 is-40(is-is) = 0

15iy-10055 +
406 = 0

15(i5-13) -

100is +
40(i5) =
0

2 -
105 -
700 +

160)5 +

1365 = 0

16
-
is 0 3*
5
e

:. I rusistor
through 30n

at 55 e

40) given irms=YO

+ = 5042
,
A

im =
=irmsx/I
=

4052 =

56 %
67A
W 2 xf 100x rad/S
=
=
 i

% =

56 .
6 Sin100xt A

(i) After passing through max

paint
i =
56 6 Cos100xt .

= 56 6 COS100X180
.

X0 0025
.

= 56060345° = 566x00707
=00004 A

↳i) When i = 14014A

14014 = 56 6 COS100x180
.
t

I COS100x180t
=

100x180t Cas (0 25) 7505

-
=
- =

+
=

4019 see

50) given 5042

f =

verms = 200

Um Vams XSI
=

2005
=
282 2V -

2x +
w = = 100x
rad/s
V =

Vm sinwt
28202 Sin100xA
 After passing max value

V =
282 2 Cos1007t -

(i) After
=
0 .

0125s

V 282 2 Cos 100 x

180x0
·
=

=282 2 CoS225 .

= 282 2x 0 707
.
-
-

V= -
200V

AV 14104 volts
(ii)
=

141 4
.
=

282 2Cos100x180A
.

Cos180x100t
I
=

180x100t = 60
t =
1 see .

300

60) Um =
100V
vor
W = m valts .

=3108 V
- -
(1) Irms =
205A
P =
400 watts
vems = 2000

f =
50H2

:. P =
(Irms]2 · R

400 =

(205)2 .
R

⑩ =R
205x205

R =
64v

Inductance = z = 12

·
engby: steene
I em

25

25

6400 = 4096 + x22

X
1
=
12304 =

us -
 Pour
factor =
1
vens .
Rems
=

c -
s
=0 -
8

2) XL
2xfl
=

= 2x 3 .

14x50x313x10-3
= 9 -

98 - = /Or

2 = 122

= 100 : /9

=
1202 ~

I
7 2 1604A
=

p Tan"
(*)
=

Tan 55 %
(2)
=
 Power cos4=cos-
factor , 59
= 0 , 57 .

Rs =

17

2 =
100 =

5559
= 1907 ~ .

I =

E 10 15A
.

= =

0 san-2(1) 32%
=

Power factor (31) 86

p
cos = cas
=
0 .

Sch 122 16 ~ 8
6
ne

30)
aI

100V
M

2 I (2e
-xC)2 =
16
6)2 -

=
1102 =
$5+
100
=

154
=

290732 .
M .
 23
=

82
I
.

(is 3 36 A
E 243
I =
= :

is v2
=

121 =2
x0 = 2 70027

Vz 122 20 540054
6
= =
=

8
4
v3 210621
22z
= .
=

X
=

(iiis P =

vIcord
=
100X XCosO
29073

-03 +33636
336 WAITS .
40)
(a) + 1
=25
=

2x2 x25/10 -
6

ax55x10-8 142 45 H2
=
.

-
Resonant
frequency
,

(b) X
=
=
2xfl =
2x (142-45)
=
4407r

+
Xc
2xxxx142 45)225x10- 3
=
=

axfC .

=
4406

2 =
I-XL) 2

% 2 =
R =

102

I
2 10A .
= =

↳e) quality
facto : "
= 4047
 Vox

I
It
->
Step down ->

N >N Transformer
, , ->
i
SI - +-

Acto
ve
0
N18 N2 DC
*
D 1

230V

5042
Sin
wave
-

3 3 VO

to

Type n
Type
-

e-
-

e e

e- e- e

↓
e- e e
-

Doping
depletion layer
creating
a
potential addition
of impurities
Vsi=0 . 7V-
for silicon
for Ge +0 -
3 V
 Biasing : -

Forward
Forward Bi
using

S
PDIE Break
down
Reverse
Biase 10 .

7 V

it
.
-

w
Ruer
-

Reverse
high resistance voltage
no current

-
I

E
I-DE I
-

a =

+-
-

ten
F -
P-N Junction is an
interface
boundary blw thetwo ora

semiconductor material
types mainly p-type & n-type
.

PandN semiconductas created method called

type by the are

doping -

&
⑧

·
Si ..
Si ..
Si 8

⑧
0

⑧
Se ⑧ ③
Si Sh ⑧

⑧ Si
-

⑧
Se ⑧ ⑧ Se ⑧8

Hole

Sit
&
⑧

·
Si . . .. 8
Si ..
Si . Sie
·

⑧
freee- ⑧
Sie ·
P Si Si Si
·
·
.
Al

⑧
Si .
..
Si Si . Si
⑧ ..

W
-

N
Type P-Type
P
type
and n
type semiconductors are
joined together
by the
process diffusion .

↑
Type hous > electrons .

NType electrons holes .

is
similarly than
for Type cone.
of electrons
greater conc of holes .

.. elections are
majority carriers .

hols are
miniority carries .

Dus to the difference in the concentration of elections

and hols on either side of the junction .

There
appears
a conco
gradiantis .

process
called diffusion .

Due to this electrons and holes tend to move to the

region
of higher come. to lower cone .

Diffusion Current .

M-side and
hous
fromp type diffuse the to

electrons
from type diffuse to the
p-side .

gives rise to a small current across the junction

known as the
diffusion went
Jn= drift Current + diffusion
density current density .

from ede
election
ween an
· misea donar is
diffuse d
e

immobile or static ·
As the
process goes m
is developed on side
layer of trecharge
·
unction
n

of the I
.

Sini a
imised
ary
when Adeghi pow and
fromoupside which is
immobile static As the
process goes
on
or .

is
layer of-ve charge developed or
pride .

of the junction
.

regt·
Thi of
+rea-recharge
either side the
of
on

innction is
termed as
depletion
region
.

this region
Du to the
space charge
on either side the junction of
of and
with the direction
from
+ve
charge to ve
-

is
charge developed
Due to this sof & in
,
towards
election
present P-type
will junction
&

and to mate the and

cross to the n-sided inction
p-ny
This motion is termed
as the drift
and mient due to this
is knownas Drift current

Diversion of Direct
current is
Opp -

Diffusion wesent .

Conductivity
L
&
Mobility -

of amaterial is < to
the conc of elections

constant Fe
is
appleset

free elutions could

get
accelerated and
velocity would increase

definately with time .

 because of the collisions
lose and
energy
~-

state condition
steady
is reached where

finite value of def

velocity (vd) is

obtained .

was is inc direction

opp to
that of .f and
magnitude
is GTOE .

Vd < E

or E

we
mobility of parties
for elections or hobe

Mobility of
*

's
Mnt e

Mps
y
-
 ut
Unit m2
/V-sec
-
.

vd
m
msec
u
=

5
um

=> defined as
ang particle dift velocity
perunit electric
field
.

is defined
mobility as the
ang particle
·

of drift velocity per unit electric

field .

.. due electric field

to a
steady
state drift
random o
is
superimposed
upon the of
electrons such a directive flow of e
is constitutes a current .
 V-I characteristics
+

I
Avalanche

~
Breakdown Forward

Breakdown characteristics

voltage!

S
↑
-

V
Reverse
0 7 .

VJOSi -

+ V
0 3
for Ge
.

Reverse Saturation
characteristics Gerrent
(I0] -
I

Biasing of PN Junction
S C
.

P
N

I
⑧ ⑧

E-->

voh

t -

I -

Forward
Bearing .

for
diode
an ideal

0 C
. for forward
P N
⑧ ⑧
biase .

-
t
-
t

Reverse
Biasing .
ID 10=

(eVs/nVT-1) vD -
forward voltage (Vf)
or

rer. Saturation current .

reverse
voltage (vr) .

+ + -

ee
+
+ - +

e e
+
-
+ e e

width
of depletion Basics of
region increases electronics
JoB
yupia
17- 1
for Ge
-> 2
for Si.

VT > Volt equivalent of Temp .

V + =
It K- boltman's constant
q To
semp . In Kelvin
q- No .

of charge carrier
Vi I 27 273 electron
charge
= - +
or on an .

11600 =300K .

q
VT
= e, -
=

19 -- 23j -

19 +

23
V 02586
-

+
=

0 .

↳ x 10

=
25 .
86mV 1 3806
.

width of I 26mV 1 x
10Y
13806

101589 104
= 11600
x