Ebook Human Services in Contemporary America PDF Full Chapter PDF

Human Services in Contemporary
America - eBook PDF

Visit to download the full and correct content document:
https://ebooksecure.com/download/human-services-in-contemporary-america-ebook-
pdf/
TENTH EDITION
Human Services in Contemporary America

W i l l i a m R . B u r g er
Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
Want to turn your
C into an A? Obviously, right?
But the right way to go about it isn’t always so obvious. Go digital to
get the grades. MindTap’s customizable study tools and eTextbook
give you everything you need all in one place.
Engage with your course content, enjoy the flexibility of

studying anytime and anywhere, stay connected to assignment due
dates and instructor notifications with the MindTap Mobile app...
and most of all…EARN BETTER GRADES.
TO GET STARTED VISIT

WWW.CENGAGE.COM/STUDENTS/MINDTAP
Tenth Edition
Human Services
in Contemporary America
William R. Burger
Kingsborough Community College of the City University of New York
Australia • Brazil • Mexico • Singapore • United Kingdom • United States
Human Services in Contemporary © 2018, 2014 Cengage Learning
America, Tenth Edition
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. No part of this work covered by the copyright
William R. Burger herein may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means,
Product Director: Marta Lee-Perriard except as permitted by U.S. copyright law, without the prior written
permission of the copyright owner.
Product Manager: Julie Martinez
Content Developer: Alexander J. Hancock
For product information and technology assistance, contact us at
Product Assistant: Ali Balchunas Cengage Learning Customer & Sales Support, 1-800-354-9706.
Marketing Manager: Zina Craft For permission to use material from this text or product,
Intellectual Property Analyst: Deanna submit all requests online at www.cengage.com/permissions.
Ettinger Further permissions questions can be e-mailed to
permissionrequest@cengage.com.
Intellectual Property Project Manager: Nick
Barrows
Art and Cover Direction, Production Library of Congress Control Number: 2017932522
Management, and Composition: Student Edition:
Lumina Datamatics, Inc. ISBN: 978-1-305-96684-0
Manufacturing Planner: Karen Hunt
Loose-leaf Edition:
Cover Image: Huntstock/Thinkstock; ISBN: 978-1-337-27451-7
Monkey Business Images/Shutterstock;
wjarek/Shutterstock; Piotr Wawrzyniuk/
Shutterstock; juefraphoto/Shutterstock; Cengage Learning
Monkey Business Images/Fotolia 20 Channel Center Street
Boston, MA 02210
Unless otherwise noted all items
USA
© Cengage Learning®
Cengage Learning is a leading provider of customized learning solutions

with employees residing in nearly 40 different countries and sales in
more than 125 countries around the world. Find your local representative
at www.cengage.com.
Cengage Learning products are represented in Canada by Nelson

Education, Ltd.
To learn more about Cengage Learning Solutions, visit www.cengage.com.

Purchase any of our products at your local college store or at our
preferred online store www.cengagebrain.com.
Printed in the United State of America

Print Number: 01 Print Year: 2017
Dedication
To all of you already in the human services field and to those who choose to
enter this field, we all thank you. We need you now more than ever.
W. R. B.
About the Author
William R. Burger received his doctorate in social psychology, but his academic
background also encompasses the fields of educational psychology and philoso-
phy of education. While attending graduate school at Harvard University, he was
awarded a research assistantship for his work in the area of community decision
making.
Bill has served as Director of the Mental Health and Human Services Program
and Chairperson of the Department of Behavioral Sciences and Human Services at
Kingsborough Community College of the City University of
New York. Currently, he is a Full Professor within the Univer-
sity. He has served as a consultant to a variety of human ser-
vices programs in New York and Massachusetts, has lectured
at various colleges and universities, and has written a number
of guest editorials for various newspapers.
Bill resides in Massachusetts with his wife, a cat, and a dog.
iv
Contents
Preface xv
Chapter 1
Human Services in the United States Today 1
Introduction 2
Human Needs: Focus of Human Services 2
Criticisms of Maslow’s Theory 5
Role of Primary Social Supports in Meeting Needs 5
Self-Help Groups 6
Effects of Social Programs on Primary Supports 7
Overview of Human Services 7
Human Services Workers 9
Kinds of Help Provided 9
■■ Real Life Human Services work 10
Sponsors of Human Services 12
Studying Human Services Firsthand 13
Human Services Workers and Bureaucracy 14
The Trend Toward Privatization 14
Suggestion for Class Report or Term Paper 16
Sources of Need Satisfaction 16
Falling Through the Safety Net 17
Political Controversy and Human Services 18
A Conservative Point of View 18
A Liberal Perspective 19
Human Services and the 2008–2016 Obama Administration 19
Election of 2016: The Trump Administration 20
The Ebb and Flow of Support for Human Services 21
The Impact of Contemporary Problems on Needs 22
Natural/Human Caused Disasters 22
The Needs of Emergency Services Workers 26
Terrorism 26
Heroic Phase 28
Honeymoon Phase 28
Disillusionment Phase 28
Reconstruction Phase 29
Poverty 29
Prejudice and Discrimination 30
Discrimination Against African Americans 31
Discrimination Against Latinos 32
Women’s Issues 34
v
vi CONTENTS
Questions for Class Discussion or Special Assignment 36

Social Change 36
The Changing American Family 36
Economic and Political Factors 38
Psychological Stress 39
Developmental Crises 42
Food Justice and Health 42
Distribution of Food/Price and Quality of Foods 43
School Food 43
Children, the Food Industry and Fast Food 44
Immigrant Workers 45
Health Care in the United States 45
Medicaid Expansion 47
Patient’s Bill of Rights 47
Young Adult Services 47
Behavioral Health Care 48
Roles of Human Services Workers 49
Canadian National Health Plan: A Model for the United States? 49
Managed Care 50
Summary—52
Additional Reading—52
References—53
Chapter 2
Groups in Need 59
Introduction 60
America’s Poor 60
Who Are the Poor? 61
Welfare 62
Welfare Reform 62
Welfare Reform—Again 64
Other Programs for the Poor 65
Suggested Class Assignment 66
The Unemployed 66
Consequences of Joblessness 67
Unemployment Rates 67
Unemployment Insurance 67
Impact of Unemployment on Human Services 68
Children in Need 68
Children and the Changing American Family 68
Children of Single-Parent Families 69
Abused and Neglected Children 70
Causes of Child Abuse 71
Helping the Abused or Neglected Child 72
Survivors of Domestic Violence 73
Who Are the Victims? 73
Theories 75
Interventions 76
vii
CONTENTS
Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, and Transgender Communities 77

Guidelines for Mental Health Practitioners 78
Affirmative Therapy 79
An Important Note about Differences 81
Senior Citizens 81
Social Security 82
Health Care for the Aged 82
Medicaid for Senior Citizens 83
Dementia 83
Community Programs for Senior Citizens 85
Nursing Homes 85
Working with Senior Citizens 86
Current Aging Trends 87
People with Disabilities 87
Mainstreaming People with Disabilities 88
Psychological Barriers against People
with Disabilities 89
The Rehabilitation Process 90
People with Mental Illness 90
Prevalence of Mental Illness 91
Trends in Mental Health Care 91
Deinstitutionalizing Mental Patients 92
Community Care for Mental Patients 92
Current Problems in Mental Health Care 93
What Mental Health Services Are Needed? 94
The New Chronic Patient 95
Is Reinstitutionalization the Answer? 95
Substance Abusers 96
Illegal Drugs 97
Legal Drugs 98
Major Drug Types 99
Narcotics or Opiate Users 99
Opioid Epidemic in the United States 100
Sedative Users 101
Stimulant Users 102
Dissociative Anesthetics and Hallucinogen Users 103
Designer Drug Users 104
People with Co-Occurring Disorders 104
Who Are the People with Co-Occurring Disorders? 105
Obstacles to Treatment 105
Interventions and Possible Solutions 107
Community and Government 108
Criminals 108
Juvenile Offenders 109
Juvenile Correction Programs 110
Adult Offenders 110
Probation 111
viii CONTENTS
Prison and Correctional Programs 111

Alternatives to Incarceration 111
People with Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities 112
Classifying People with Intellectual Disabilities 113
Factors That Cause or Contribute to Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities 113
The Homeless 116
Why Are People Homeless? 117
Helping the Homeless 117
People Living with HIV/AIDS 119
What Are HIV and AIDS? 119
The HIV/AIDS Pandemic in the United States and Beyond 120
The Global Pandemic 120
The U.S. Epidemic 121
HIV Prevention in the United States 122
The Needs of People Living with HIV 123
Summary—125
References—126
chapter 3
Human Services in Historical Perspective 135
Introduction 136
Prehistoric Civilizations 136
Early Civilizations 137
Middle Ages 139
Renaissance 140
Human Welfare Services since the Renaissance 141
Industrial Revolution 142
Early Reform Movements in the United States 143
The Depression and World War II 144
The 1960s 145
Mental Health Services since the Renaissance 146
Early Mental Asylums 146
Era of Humanitarian Reform 147
Freud’s Influence 148
Trend Toward Deinstitutionalization and Decentralization 149
Community Mental Health Movement 149
Advent of Generalist Human Services Workers 151
Future Trends 153
References—158
ix
CONTENTS
chapter 4
Theoretical Perspectives 159
Introduction 160
Scientific Theory 160
Theories About Human Disorders 161
Three Levels of Observation 161
Biopsychosocial Model 162
Political Implications of Theory 163
Models of Dysfunction 163
Medical Model 163
Medical Procedure 164
Treatment Approaches of the Medical Model 164
Other Medical Treatments 165
Criticisms of the Medical Model 168
Human Services Model 168
Hansell’s Theory 169
Human Services Interventions 169
■■ REAL LIFE HUMAN SERVICES WORK 170
Issues Underlying Conflict Between Models 171
Holistic Trend in Medical Theory 171
Psychoneuroimmunology (PNI) 171
Alternative Medicine 172
Schools of Therapy 173
Psychoanalytic Viewpoint 173
Major Freudian Concepts 173
Therapeutic Concepts 174
Free Association 174
Transference 174
Psychoanalytically Oriented Psychotherapy 175
Criticisms of Psychoanalysis 176
Some Useful Applications of Psychoanalytic Concepts 177
Humanistic Perspective 177
Humanistic Approach to Helping 178
Self-Actualization 178
Responsibility 179
The Self-Concept 179
Criticisms of the Humanistic Approach 179
Positive Aspects of the Humanistic Approach 180
Behavioristic Model 180
Classical Conditioning 181
Operant Conditioning 181
John B. Watson and Little Albert 182
Behavioristic View of Abnormal Behavior 182
x CONTENTS
Behavior Assessment 183

Systematic Desensitization 183
Token Economies 184
Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT) 184
Criticisms of Behavioristic Approaches 185
Positive Aspects of Behavioristic Approaches 185
Which Theory is Best? 185
Alternative Therapies 186
EMDR 186
Systems Theory—188
References—189
chapter 5
The Human Services Worker 192
Introduction 193
Different Styles of Helping Relationships 193
The Relationship in Psychoanalytic Therapy 193
The Relationship in Behavior Therapy 194
The Relationship in Humanistic Therapy 195
■■ Real life Human Services work 195
Characteristics of Effective Helpers 197
Empathy 197
Genuineness 197
Objective/Subjective Balance 198
Self-Awareness 198
Acceptance 199
Desire to Help 200
Patience 200
Basic Helping Skills 200
Listening 201
Communicating 202
Giving Feedback 203
Observing 204
Confronting 205
Clarifying 206
Paraphrasing 206
Highlighting 206
Summarizing 207
Problem Solving 207
Interviewing 208
Report Writing 209
Factors that Influence the Use of Skills 209
Values 209
Professional Codes of Ethics 210
Physical and Emotional Well-Being/Stress and Stress Management 217
xi
CONTENTS
Environmental Factors 218

Multicultural Awareness 218
Knowledge, Awareness, and Skills 218
Knowledge 219
Awareness 219
Skills 220
Prior Training 221
Crisis Intervention 221
Recognizing Crisis 221
Types of Crises 221
Crisis Symptoms 223
Crisis Intervention Strategies 223
Crisis Outcomes 224
Human Rights, the Law, and Human Services 224
Voluntary and Involuntary Services 225
The Right to Refuse Services 226
Due Process 226
Least Restrictive Alternative 227
The Worker in Group Settings 227
Definition of a Group 227
Group Leadership Skills 227
Selecting Group Members 228
Establishing Goals 229
Establishing Norms 229
Intervening 229
Promoting Interaction 229
Appraising/Evaluating 229
Terminating the Group 230
The Worker in the Community 230
Advocacy 231
Community Organizing 232
Community Outreach 232
Case Management 233
Providing Information 235
References—236
chapter 6
Careers in Human Services 239
Introduction 240
Generalist Human Services Work 240
Functions 240
Training and Education 244
Physical Therapy 246
Functions 246
xii CONTENTS
Creative Arts Therapy 248

Functions 248
Art 249
Dance 249
Music 250
Occupational Therapy 250
Functions 250
Clinical Psychology 252
Functions 252
Setting A: Psychiatric Hospital 252
Setting B: Public or Private School 254
Setting C: Community Mental Health Center 254
Counseling 256
Functions 256
Rehabilitation Counselor 257
School Counselor 258
Work Settings for Counselors 259
Graduate Training 260
Licenses and Certification 260
Alcohol and Substance Abuse Counseling 261
Functions 261
Treatment Settings 262
Detoxification Centers 262
Residential Rehabilitation Programs 262
Day Treatment Programs 263
Therapeutic Communities 263
Outpatient Counseling Programs 263
Employee Assistance Programs 264
Social Work 265
Functions 265
Psychiatry 268
Functions 268
Professional Organizations—270
References—272
chapter 7
Social Policy 273
Introduction 274
What Is Social Policy? 274
Social Policy in Modern Times 275
xiii
CONTENTS
Purpose and Types of Social Policy 277

The Scope of Social Policy 277
Making Social Policy 278
Identifying Unmet Needs 279
Who Identifies Social Problems? 279
Initiating Social Policy 281
Who Are the Decision Makers? 283
Factors in Establishing Social Policy 283
Research 283
Pressure and Lobbying 285
The Media 287
Opposition 289
Implementation of Social Policy 289
Funding 290
Interpretation of Policy 291
Who Implements Policy? 291
Critical Thinking Activities 292
Recognizing Deceptive Arguments 292
Defining Poverty 293
Evaluating Sources of Information 295
Recognizing Stereotypes 296
References—298
chapter 8
Prevention in Human Services 299
Introduction 300
Defining Prevention and Its Targets 300
Prevention in the Past 301
Ancient Preliterate and Literate Civilizations 301
The Dark Ages and the Renaissance 303
The Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries 303
1960s to the Present 304
Levels of Prevention 306
Primary Prevention 307
Secondary Prevention 308
Tertiary Prevention 308
Why an Emphasis on Primary Prevention Is Crucial 309
Primary Prevention Strategies 312
Obstacles to Development of Primary Prevention Programs 313
Professional Issues 314
Political Issues 314
Economic Obstacles 315
xiv CONTENTS
Summary of Primary Prevention Programs 315

References—316
chapter 9
Current Controversies and Issues 317
Introduction 318
Clash of Values in Social Policies 318
Euthanasia 319
Reproductive Choices 322
Target Populations: The Struggle for Support 323
The AIDS Epidemic 324
The Homeless 325
Welfare Recipients 325
Sexual Expression Among Older Adults 327
Professionalism in the Human Services 330
The Role of Human Services Workers 332
Who Do Human Services Workers Serve? 333
A Basic Reading and Thinking Skill 335
Ranking American Values 335
References—336
Glossary 337
Name Index 345
Subject Index 352
Preface
This text was written in the hope of enhancing the student’s ability to help others
with problems in their lives. The ability to help others in a professional context
requires a base of knowledge along with a range of helping skills that can, to a large
extent, be taught and learned. This text is intended to help the beginning student
take the first steps toward acquiring the needed knowledge and skills.
The content provides a general introduction to the field of human services
and is designed for introductory college courses in human services, mental-health
technology, social work, community mental health, and other human services
programs. It is expected that most students who read this text are headed toward
careers that involve direct contact with people. However, the book would also be
useful to those considering administrative work in the human services.
Students in the human services typically begin their training with hopes
of helping other people lead more fulfilling lives. Unfortunately, these hopes are
sometimes dampened by the realities of the outside world. Although humanistic
values do play an important role in present-day America, they must compete with
other motives such as profit, power, and self-aggrandizement. In order to be effective,
the human services worker must be able to face the harsh realities of our complex,
imperfect society even while keeping the ideal society in mind and working toward
it in a realistic way.
In the pages that follow, I have sought a balance between idealism and realism. I
certainly do not intend to discourage idealism in students. However, experience has
shown me that discouragement often attacks those who expect too much of clients,
helping agencies, and themselves. This disillusionment can be avoided if the student
knows what to expect.
This text offers a great deal of valuable information about human services, a
field that has greatly increased in scope and complexity over recent decades. The
material is presented in a provocative manner, raising issues not usually addressed
in introductory texts. The impact of political, economic, and social pressures on
human services is explored.
First the goals, functions, and organization of human services are examined
in the context of contemporary social problems. Next, the groups of people who
receive help from human services are described. A historical survey of human
services follows, providing a background against which current efforts can be
viewed. The major theories that govern helping efforts are covered, along with
techniques and methods. The student is also provided with practical information
about career options in the human services field.
The final chapters are certainly unusual for an introductory text. I feel it is
important for students to know something about how social policies are developed
and about how human services workers might influence policies. These social
policies, which determine who receives what kind of help, have a great impact on
worker and client alike. It is undeniable that today’s student is the policymaker of
tomorrow.
xv
xvi Preface
In the chapter on prevention, I demonstrate a strong bias in favor of programs

aimed at preventing problems and dysfunctions from developing in the first place.
Frankly, I try to persuade students, instructors, and human services agencies that
prevention programs should play a major role in the future of human services.
The text concludes with a sampling of current controversies affecting human
services. This section is offered with the intent of fostering a realistic understanding
of conflicts and issues that confront a services workers. In addition, I also discuss
the issues of the various titles by which human services workers are identified.
The introductory course in human services is perhaps the most important a
student will take. It is here that the student’s attitudes and philosophy are developed.
I believe that a humanistic perspective, combined with a realistic awareness of
societal problems, provides the best foundation for creative and effective helping.
MindTap
MindTap®, a digital teaching and learning solution, helps students be more
successful and confident in the course—and in their work with clients. MindTap
guides students through the course by combining the complete textbook with
interactive multimedia, activities, assessments, and learning tools. Readings
and activities engage students in learning core concepts, practicing needed skills,
reflecting on their attitudes and opinions, and applying what they learn. Videos of
client sessions illustrate skills and concepts in action, while case studies ask students
to make decisions and think critically about the types of situations they’ll encounter
on the job. Helper Studio activities put students in the role of the helper, allowing
them to build and practice skills in a nonthreatening environment by responding via
video to a virtual client. Instructors can rearrange and add content to personalize
their MindTap course, and easily track students’ progress with real-time analytics.
And, MindTap integrates seamlessly with any learning management system.
New to the Tenth Edition

In each new edition of this text, I seek to examine and reflect the ongoing changes
in our contemporary culture and its influence upon our ever-evolving system of
human services. While focusing on the nature and scope of human services here
in the United States it becomes essential to stress the interconnectedness of events,
which occur throughout the world as they influence change in this culture. The cost
of gasoline for our cars or oil to heat our homes, the cost and availability of certain
food and clothing, and the competition and availability of jobs are few examples
of areas, which can be significantly impacted by events occurring in different parts
of the world. Historically, these changes more significantly affect groups that are
already disproportionate in need. Consequently, the human services system must
continue to adapt and change as necessary in order to be responsive to a dynamic
cultural landscape.
During the passage of time since the previous edition of this text, our culture
has experienced an acceleration of violence in the form of acts of terrorism, mass
shootings and widespread gun violence. The 2016 U.S. Presidential Election has
xvii
Preface
been one of the most unusual polarizing and divisive events in recent history. Each
candidate had espoused a radically different political agenda and vision for the
future of the country. Throughout the world, large numbers of displaced people
seek refuge and asylum in other countries having escaped from their war-ravaged
homelands.
As I continue to believe, to be effective on every level of our human services
system, it is valuable for workers to understand the social, economic, and political
landscape in which human services will operate. In order to keep pace with the
number of events and changes occurring over the past several years, this tenth edition
has a number of new sections and topics as well as currently expanded and updated
material throughout the text. The new sections include a review of human services
during the 2008–2016 Obama Administration, the emerging concept of behavioral
health, multicultural counseling and working with diverse populations, emerging
human services target populations, current NOHS Ethical Guidelines, a view of
the new administration of President Donald Trump, and current controversies. In
addition, there is completely revised and updated material on drugs, drug abuse and
the opioid epidemic, additional new examples of Real Life Human Services work,
updated material on AIDS, and a more current look at the American family.
On a personal note, I continue to thank all of you who value this text. I am
pleased to see more material written in this field and an increase in worthwhile texts
as well. There is still and always a lot more work to do. I believe this tenth edition
will provide the reader with a continued realistic and comprehensive framework to
view our contemporary human servicces system.
W.R.B.
Acknowledgments
In this tenth edition, I was very fortunate to work with a group of individuals who
significantly added to the quality and scope of this text. I wish to acknowledge the
scholarly contributions of Dr. Joseph Verdino, Dr. Michael Barnhart, Dr. Lourdes
Follins, Dr. Monica Joseph, Dr. Joan Standora and Professor Arlene Lehman, all of
whom are faculty within the Behavioral Sciences and Human Services Department
of Kingsborough Community College of the City University of New York.
I must thank Mary Gifford for the number of never-ending hours and days she
spent entering my words into the computer and offering numerous suggestions. I
must acknowledge my friend and former colleague, Dr. Edward Martin for once
again offering his considerable technological expertise to this project. I am thankful
to Ms. Beryl Skog, Ms. Kim Gifford, Ms. Jenise Lucey, and Ms. Hayley Sumner
for their contributions to the Real Life Human Services Work section. I thank Mr.
Neil Brander and Ms. Julie McCarthy for their photographic contributions. I thank
Kate Gibbs at the front desk of the Berkshire South Community Center for always
asking me if I am going home next to work on my text. I would like to thank
Julie Martinez and the Cengage team with special thanks to Alexander Hancock for
his responsiveness, skill, and consistent effort. Finally, I would like to thank all the
individuals involved with the National Organization of Human Services. You do
great work.
William R. Burger
1
Human
Services in
the United
States Today
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
LO1 Understand the nature and scope of human

services in the United States today
LO2 Identify the role of primary social supports in
meeting human needs
LO3 Examine the role of human services workers
and the kinds of help provided
LO4 Explore the diversity of Real Life Human
Services Work
LO5 Understand the nature of political
ontroversy (liberal vs. conservative) and
c
the impact on human services
LO6 Review human services under the 2008–
2016 Obama administration
LO7 Explore the 2016 election: President
Donald Trump and the road ahead
LO8 Understand the impact of contemporary

problems on human needs including:
• Natural/human caused disasters
• Terrorism
• Poverty
• Prejudice and discrimination
• Social change
1
2 Chapter 1
• Economic and political factors

• Psychological stress and developmental crises
LO9 Learn about food justice and health
LO10 Examine the nature of health care in the United States
Introduction
Over the years, human services in the United States have evolved into a network of
programs and agencies that provide an array of services to millions of Americans.
The one feature shared by all of these services is that they are designed to meet
human needs. Thus, this chapter begins with a consideration of the full range of
human needs and the kinds of services that seek to meet them.
Some service agencies are devoted mainly to helping people meet basic survival
needs such as food and shelter, whereas some are concerned with helping clients
achieve more satisfying relationships or attain other kinds of personal fulfillment.
Primary social supports, such as family and friends, also play a role in meeting
human needs, and that role will be examined in this first chapter.
There is controversy about just what needs should be met by agencies sup-
ported by public or private funds. There is, in fact, a great deal of controversy about
questions involving the scope and quality of human services. This chapter provides
an overview of human services that addresses some of these questions.
Critics argue that human services are wasteful and inefficient, whereas support-
ers are convinced that more should be done to meet people’s needs. Some social
planners want to cut funds for services, but others demand increased funding.
Because these conflicts are fought out primarily in the political arena, it is vital
to grasp the liberal and conservative positions that underlie the countless debates
about specific programs. Both positions are outlined here.
This chapter also includes a survey of some contemporary problems that may
affect the ability of Americans to meet their own needs. For example, a person
involved in a natural disaster such as a hurricane or earthquake is very likely to
need help from human services on an emergency basis. Social problems such as
discrimination, poverty, and unemployment may also reduce a person’s ability to be
self-supporting. Victims of these problems may need help only temporarily or for an
extended period.
So this chapter introduces some of the topics basic to a study of contemporary
human services. At first glance, they may appear to be simple topics, but closer
examination shows them to be very complex—so much so that the brief prelimi-
nary information given in this introductory chapter is elaborated on throughout
the book.
Human Needs: Focus of Human Services

LO1 A number of theories have been proposed for conceptualizing human needs.
Although at first glance his theories appear dated, Maslow’s work (1968) is
still referred to and considered by many current authors in the field (Ivey, Ivey,
Need for self-actualization

Ability to direct one’s own life,
a sense of meaning and fulfillment
Esteem needs
Self-esteem, esteem of others,
achievement, recognition, dignity
Belongingness and love needs

Love, affection, belongingness;
need for family and friends
Safety needs
Security, stability, freedom from anxiety
and chaos; need for structure and order
Physiological needs
Homeostasis; specific hungers; food,
water, air, shelter, and general survival
FIGURE 1.1 ■ Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
& Zalaquett, 2016; Neukrug, 2017; Schiff, 2015; Woodside & McClam, 2015), to
be a benchmark for understanding the concept of human needs. He conceived of
needs as existing in a kind of pyramid, or hierarchy, as shown in Figure 1.1.
At the base of the pyramid are the basic physiological needs such as hunger,
thirst, and the need for oxygen. These are matters of life and death. It is only when
such survival needs are satisfied that the individual focuses on safety needs, which
are met by a stable, predictable, and secure environment. Clearly, this type of envi-
ronment requires decent housing in a safe neighborhood.
Once safety needs have been mostly satisfied, the need for belonging, or belong-
ingness, and love begins to emerge, expressed by a desire for affectionate relations
with others—one’s family, lover, or some larger group. After the first three levels
of needs—physiological, safety, and love/belonging—have been largely satisfied,
esteem needs come to the fore, such as the need to be respected as a competent or
even a superior person. Most of us desire the recognition and appreciation of others.
The highest need, that for self-actualization, has to do with fulfilling one’s
innate tendencies and potentials. This need involves expressing one’s inner nature
and talents. For one person, the path to self-actualization might be artistic creativity;
for another, it might be studying Eastern religions. This highest level of motivation
generally becomes prominent in later life. Young adults are generally preoccupied
with making a living and winning the love and approval of others. Maslow (1970)
estimated that the average American adult has satisfied about 85% of physiological
needs and that the percentage of needs satisfied declines at each step up the hierar-
chy. At the top step, only 10% have attained satisfaction of self-actualization needs.
Maslow (2011) believed that needs arrange themselves in a hierarchy in terms
of potency—that is, physiological needs are stronger than safety needs, which in
turn are stronger than love needs, and so on. The higher the need, the less impera-
tive its fulfillment is for sheer survival and the longer gratification can be postponed.
4 Chapter 1
Deprivation of higher needs does not produce the kind of desperate emergency reac-
tion triggered by deprivation of lower needs. For example, needs for belonging are a
luxury when food or safety is denied.
Maslow (1987) also pointed out that for higher needs to be satisfied, environ-
mental conditions must be favorable. By this he meant that a person must have a
supportive family, a decent income, opportunities for a good education, and so on.
People without these kinds of advantages face an uphill struggle to attain the higher
levels of need satisfaction. In general, Maslow stated, counseling and psychother-
apy are more appropriate and effective in helping people achieve higher needs than
lower needs. At the lowest need levels, psychotherapy is not much use at all. People
who are struggling for basic survival are too worried and preoccupied to give much
thought to higher needs. Social planners agree that society must offer tangible kinds
of help like food and shelter and medical care to the truly disadvantaged.
Some human services devote themselves to safety needs. The criminal justice
system, which includes law enforcement and corrections, is designed to meet safety
needs. Citizens want to live in secure communities and go about their daily activi-
ties without fear of being threatened, robbed, or assaulted. To this end, the public
spends millions for police, courts, and corrections. Chapter 2 discusses some reasons
for the partial failure of the criminal justice system to create a safe environment.
One of the most consistent findings of social research is that the risk of phys-
ical or mental illness is greatest when the individual cannot find a place in the
social order. Persons who have been deprived of meaningful social contact for
any of a number of reasons are at relatively greater risk of developing tuberculo-
sis, alcoholism, accident proneness, severe mental illness, and suicidal tendencies
Abraham Maslow
(Cassel, 1990). Accordingly, some human services are designed to help people feel
that they belong and are valued members of a group. It is expected that such
membership may help keep a person out of an institution and, therefore, serve
an important preventive purpose. For example, some agencies set up senior clubs
for elderly people who would otherwise be living a lonely, isolated life. Another
example is the establishment of psychiatric residences for former mental patients
who have no family.
Some human services agencies are primarily concerned with meeting the higher
needs for esteem and self-actualization. Others help meet these higher needs indi-
rectly by fulfilling basic needs, thus allowing individuals to pursue higher needs on
their own initiative. Education, particularly at the higher levels, is attuned to help-
ing students attain fulfillment and satisfaction through pursuit of a career.
In general, human services workers encourage people to function at their high-
est possible level. More tangible kinds of help are provided in the form of scholar-
ships and grants offered by a number of governmental and private agencies.
■■ Criticisms of Maslow’s Theory

The idea that our lower needs must be satisfied before moving to the next higher
ones is contradicted by several kinds of evidence. In some societies, for example,
people periodically go hungry but, at the same time, exhibit strong social ties and
a strong sense of self. In fact, a certain degree of hardship in meeting basic needs
can bring people together and give them a sense of purpose in working together
to overcome adversity (Neher, 1991; Schiff, 2015). Similarly, many couples in
our own society report that a strong bond was formed during a period of early
struggles that was weakened by later affluence. Contrary to Maslow’s theory, these
examples suggest that deprivation of basic physiological needs may sometimes
facilitate satisfaction of higher needs, such as the need for intimacy. Aside from
anecdotal evidence, there are a number of research studies that have attempted to
test Maslow’s concepts. The results been mixed: some support and others refute
various hypotheses.
In general, the research conducted in work settings has not supported Maslow’s
theory. For example, Wahba and Bridwell (1976) asked workers to list their needs
in order of importance and found that the rankings did not fit Maslow’s hierarchy.
Other investigators have suggested that more than one need may be operating at
a time (Mullainathan, 2015). In other words, a person may be striving to fulfill
simultaneously both basic and growth needs. Still other studies have suggested that
moderate levels of deprivation stimulate creative potential, ward off boredom, and
enhance a sense of competence. This idea runs counter to Maslow’s notion that
higher needs emerge only after fairly complete satisfaction of lower needs. It may be
that some need deprivation is experienced as a challenge and, ultimately, is growth
enhancing.
Role of Primary Social Supports in Meeting Needs

LO2 Most people seek gratification of needs through a network of social relationships.
For example, family, friends, and peer groups can meet needs for nurturance and
intimacy. Religious and social groups help meet needs for belonging, esteem, and
6 Chapter 1
spiritual enrichment. A job satisfies crucial economic needs and also provides a
setting for social interaction with coworkers. Additional support may come from
informal social contacts, like bartenders and hairdressers, well known for listening
sympathetically to the problems of their customers. This network of relationships,
which makes up the primary social support system, is the traditional source of need
satisfaction in our culture. One important feature of this support system is that
usually some sense of mutual obligation underlies the transactions. In other words,
a person is expected to give something, to meet certain needs of others, in exchange
for what is received. Sometimes it is enough to simply let others know that one is
ready to help if the need arises.
Too many people in this country are still sadly lacking in primary social sup-
ports. They may have no friends, no family, no job, and therefore no way to meet
important needs. In some cases, a person may have family and friends who would
be willing to help but who lack the means to do so. The national community-based,
nonprofit organization, Mental Health America, released its 2016 annual assess-
ment of Americans with mental illness report. This report focuses upon the treat-
ment individuals receive throughout the United States. Their findings conclude that
23% of adults (43.7 million people) have a mental health condition and more than
half of them do not receive treatment (Nutt, 2016). As detailed in Chapter 3, certain
human services came into being to meet the needs of people who have nowhere to
turn for help. Over the years, human services have expanded greatly and now go far
beyond helping the poor, sick, and disabled. Gradually, they have taken over some
of the functions of primary social supports. For example, the task of caring for poor
elderly persons, once assumed by the family, is increasingly being accepted by gov-
ernment human services agencies.
■■ Self-Help Groups
Self-help groups are basically mutual-help groups made up of people who have sim-
ilar problems. They occupy a position somewhere between traditional social sup-
ports and formal agencies that provide services. The increasing popularity of these
groups may be due partly to the decline of the extended family and other tradi-
tional sources of support in our society (Gladding, 2012). Whatever the cause, these
groups have experienced tremendous grown over the past 40–50 years.
Riesman (2000) points out that “more Americans try to change their health
behaviors through self-help groups than through all other forms of professional
programs combined” (p. 47). What distinguishes these groups from formal service
organizations is that they operate without professional leadership. Many profes-
sional therapists view self-help groups as useful adjuncts to treatment and urge cli-
ents to participate in them (Ambrosino, Ambrosino, Heffernan, & Shuttlesworth,
2016; Comer, 1996; Gladding, 2012).
A wide variety of problems or disorders may be the focus of a self-help group.
Alcoholism, drug abuse, compulsive gambling, bereavement, overeating, phobias,
rape victimization, unemployment, and physical illnesses (e.g., heart disease, dia-
betes, and cancer) are some examples of issues that may be addressed in support
groups. Two advantages of self-help groups are that they are less expensive and,
because they offer support from other people who share the same problem, less
intimidating than a professionally led group. A number of self-help groups are
mentioned or described in various sections of this book.
■■ Effects of Social Programs on Primary

Supports
During the 1960s, there was a vigorous expansion of social programs designed to
eliminate poverty, remove slums, and improve the health and education of poor
people. By the end of the decade, some social planners had come to realize that
(1) the programs were not always having the desired effect and (2) new problems
were being created. For example, it appeared that welfare programs were having
the unintended effect of breaking up families and sometimes leading to family non-
formation. The programs were administered in such a way that a mother with lim-
ited income received not only cash but also a package of other benefits including
medical insurance, food stamps, and rent subsidies. If a father was present, he was
usually a low-paid worker at risk of being laid off. He could jeopardize the entire
benefits package if he attempted to support the family alone. If he left, little effort
was made by the welfare program to require him to support the family in any way.
In fact, the family was more economically secure without him.
Clearly, the system provided little incentive for the family unit to stay together.
The lesson to be drawn from this part of our national experience is that programs
designed to help, however well intended, may have perverse or unexpected conse-
quences. When these programs weaken the family and the neighborhood, there is
good reason to be concerned. The strength of the primary supports of family and
neighborhood is essential if individuals are to cope with a complex society. They are
the basic linkages of one person to another. Butler and Kondratas (1987) maintain
that America has a strong public interest in government programs that strengthen
families. When the family is fragmented, what often follows is poor education, poor
skills, and poor performance. This in turn causes the perpetuation of poverty, and
the vicious cycle continues.
Overview of Human Services

“What are human services, anyway?” is one of the questions students most fre-
quently ask. It would be helpful to provide an “official” or generally accepted
definition, but there is no such thing. Actually, ideas about human services have
changed over the course of time. As discussed in Chapter 3, early approaches to
human services were centered on the hazards of illness, disability, and economic
dependence. Programs were designed to help people who were unable to take care
of their own needs. It was recognized that people with little or no income in increas-
ingly complex industrial societies were at risk of starvation or serious distress. This
view, which equates human services with providing services only to the economi-
cally dependent, now seems rather narrow.
Another approach is to define human services in terms of the activities of mod-
ern society that enhance the well-being of its citizens. Martin (2011), for example,
suggests that “human service agencies come into the picture when people find them-
selves confronting barriers to getting their needs met and their own resources for
overcoming these obstacles are insufficient.” (p. 5). This is a broad definition that
might include a wide spectrum of services, ranging from job creation to maintain-
ing a clean, safe, and pleasant environment, all aimed at helping people achieve the
highest possible level of self-sufficiency. Another more succinct definition of human
8 Chapter 1
services is offered by Alle-Corliss and Alle-Corliss (1998) viewing human services as

“encompassing professional services provided to those in need.” Still another per-
spective is offered by Kanel (2008) who observes “human services uses a multidisci-
plinary, holistic, and eclectic approach to helping people with various needs.”
Experts do not agree on the range or type of helping activities that should be
included in human services. A definition that falls between the very narrow and the
very broad ones just discussed is preferable. Human services are organized activi-
ties that help people in the areas of health care; mental health, including care for
persons with intellectual and developmental disabilities and the physically handi-
capped; social welfare; child care; criminal justice; housing; recreation; and educa-
tion. Another type of service that might be included is income maintenance, a term
that refers to programs like unemployment insurance and social security, which pro-
vide income to people who are unemployed or retired.
It should be noted that human services do not include the help given by family,
friends, or other primary supports. To be considered human services, the help must
be provided by some type of formal organization, be it a clinic, hospital, nursing
home, agency, bureau, or other service institution.
Obviously, human services cover a lot of ground, having increased greatly in
size and scope during recent decades in the United States. Currently included in
social welfare are expenses for social security, welfare, veterans’ programs, educa-
tion, housing, and other public programs.
The federal government is the major provider of social welfare benefits. In fact,
most of the huge federal budget, approximately 90%, goes for social programs of
one kind or another. The Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Reconcili-
ation Act of 1996—better known as The Welfare Reform Act of 1996—has had a
significant impact on the cost of social welfare programs, the exact magnitude of
which is still to be determined. By any standard, the human services industry is one
of the largest industries in the United States. The Bureau of the Census lists many
occupations that may be included under the heading of human services. The follow-
ing chart highlights the projected percentage change between 2005 and 2015 of the
fastest-growing occupations (Statistical Abstracts of the United States 2011, Bureau
of the Census). The 2015–2025 Census Bureau figures indicate a continued growth
pattern in these occupational areas.
Home health aides 145%

Human services workers 150%
Personal and home care aides 135%
Computer engineers and scientists 125%
Systems analysts 135%
Physical and corrective therapy aides 95%
Physical therapists 92%
Occupational therapy assistants and aides 81%
Teachers and special education 77%
Correction officers 81%
Child care 77%
Occupational therapists 75%
Psychologists 53%
■■Human Services Workers

The personnel at human services agencies can be divided into four general catego-
LO3 ries: (1) those who provide help to recipients, (2) supervisory personnel, (3) admin-
istrators who determine the policies of the agency, and (4) support personnel who
do clerical, maintenance, and security work. In addition, some settings, such as hos-
pitals and nursing homes, require kitchen, housekeeping, and other support work-
ers. In smaller agencies, workers sometimes have to do work in several of these
categories.
A great many job titles, positions, and professions are included under the gen-
eral heading of human services worker. These range from positions that require rela-
tively little formal training, such as mental hospital aide and teacher assistant, to
those that require extensive formal training and education. Clinical and counseling
psychologists, psychiatrists, social workers, and nurses are included in the latter cat-
egory. Chapter 6 goes into detail about a wide range of career options in the field.
There is considerable variation in the extent to which different professionals
identify themselves as human services workers. Social workers, for example, have
generally been more accepting of the term than have psychologists or psychiatrists.
The term human services worker is more than a way of identifying workers in a
particular field; it carries with it a certain attitude or philosophy about the field. The
underlying idea is that the separate disciplines should emphasize what they have in
common—serving people’s needs—rather than emphasize their differences.
Some activists would like to phase out specialty training in favor of generalist
training in human services. However, there is considerable resistance to this idea
from professionals who wish to preserve separate identities as psychologists, social
workers, psychiatrists, and so on. Apologies are offered if all this sounds confusing;
it is confusing because the field of human services is undergoing rapid change. It is
not possible to know for certain how human services workers of the future will be
trained or what their job titles will be.
■■ Kinds of Help Provided

Human services provide many kinds of aid and services. Perhaps the most basic
kind of direct aid consists of tangible items such as food, clothing, shelter, tools, and
other useful articles. Victims of natural disasters and homeless poor persons may
be in dire need of this kind of help. The Salvation Army and the Red Cross are well
known for providing hot meals and shelter to homeless people.
In most situations, cash transfers can readily be exchanged for needed goods
and services. Social security, welfare, and unemployment insurance are among the
most important benefits of this kind because millions depend on them for economic
survival. These cash benefits can be used in any way the recipient sees fit. This free-
dom worries some politicians, who fear that the money will be used for nonessen-
tial or even destructive items. Consequently, some benefits are offered with strings
attached—in other words, the benefits can be used only for some specified purpose.
Food stamps, for example, are given to eligible poor persons but can be used only to
buy food. Another example is a housing subsidy paid directly to the landlord for a
welfare recipient’s rent.
In addition to these forms of aid, some services are designed to increase clients’
capacities to gain satisfaction of needs by their own efforts. The next few paragraphs
10 Chapter 1
Real Life Human Services Work
Construct, Inc. is a community-based nonprofit organiza- the very generous south Berkshire community, particu- LO4
tion serving the housing needs of south Berkshire county, larly by the interfaith community.
MA. It was formed more than 40 years ago, just after the I came to this agency 20 years ago to find out
assassination of Martin Luther King, Jr., when a group of about housing and homelessness and am still here.
citizens gathered for conversations to address poverty Another economic crisis (similar to the one in the 80’s
issues in the 15 towns that comprise South Berkshire. In which gave rise to social concern about homelessness
its early days, Construct built or rehabilitated 65 homes across America) has brought scores of new households
and sold them to low income first-time home-buyers. to our door, seeking assistance with joblessness, fore-
Since that time and until 1990, Construct also spon- closure, or eviction. The agency is small enough that I
sored low-income housing projects. From its inception it am able to do much of the direct service work in addi-
has been the mission of Construct to provide affordable tion to the administrative work. On a given day I may do
housing and housing/homeless supportive services to 15 a little of everything from bookkeeping, to grant writing,
towns in south Berkshire County. to staff supervision, to casework, plus unclog a toilet,
I came to Construct, Inc. as a volunteer in 1989. I or unload groceries from the Food Bank into the shel-
was in my third year of seminary and was very con- ter pantry. I try to meet each person who is brought to
cerned about the lack of affordable housing in south our door, whether he is a chronically homeless man who
Berkshire and the rising numbers of homeless, not only has abused alcohol his whole life, a young teen addicted
locally, but statewide and across the nation. Today, 20 to heroin and carrying an “attitude,” or a single mother
years later, with the help of a strong and active Board with three children recently let go from a nursing position
of Directors, a small staff, and a fleet of volunteers from struggling to find new employment, where he or she is, in
the community, Construct, Inc. has developed 53 units a spirit of compassion and nonjudgment, and we begin
of affordable housing, 10 single rooms for homeless men to build from there. Although I had clinical training when
and women, 7 supportive housing units, and manages I was in seminary, over the years my best teachers have
another 10 units of affordable housing for the Community been the clients and residents themselves. I feel blessed
Development Corporation of South Berkshire. In addi- by this job and the people I meet each day, and I hope
tion, we have an adult homeless education program that that the work we do here together is a blessing in their
serves an average of 35 adult learners each year and our lives as well.
homeless prevention program that serves an average of
Cara Davis, BA., M.DIV.
500 households annually. We are largely supported by
give brief preliminary definitions of some of the major kinds of services offered by
human services workers.
Primary prevention refers to services designed to prevent people from develop-
ing an illness or psychological problem. These services are usually offered to healthy
or relatively well functioning individuals and often have an educational, or informa-
tive, component. A school program designed to inform teenagers of the hazards of
alcohol abuse is an example of primary prevention.
Counseling helps people consider their choices and options in life. Counseling
may focus on career choice, budgeting, legal matters, or marital problems. Career
counseling, for example, may help a client select a suitable occupation, whereas mar-
ital counseling may focus on a decision about continuing a marriage. Some forms
of counseling become involved in helping a client deal with personal problems and,
therefore, overlap with psychotherapy.
Johannes Kroemer/Getty Images

Homeless shelter
Psychotherapy has the general goal of changing a client’s behavior or emotional

responses to improve psychological well-being. Typical goals are to reduce anxi-
ety, to improve social relationships, and to control undesirable behavior patterns.
Hence, such therapy carries an implication that the client suffers from some degree
of psychological impairment.
Crisis intervention is a special form of help designed to meet the needs of a per-
son faced with an unusually difficult life situation. The word crisis implies that the
person’s usual coping mechanisms may not be enough to handle the situation. There
is a risk of severe emotional upset or even disorganization.
Situations that might trigger a crisis include loss of a loved one or being the
victim of rape, assault, serious accident, or large-scale disaster. The helper provides
support and suggests effective ways of coping with the crisis. The goal is not to
change the person’s personality but to restore the client to the precrisis level of func-
tioning. Crisis intervention may be done in the context of face-to-face meetings or
by means of a hotline. The latter is a telephone service that allows the caller to
get in touch with a counselor at any time of the night or day. The most familiar
hotlines are designed to help suicidal individuals. Hotline services are also available
12 Chapter 1
to battered women, to rape victims, and to people actively struggling with alco-
holism or other chemical dependence. A closer examination of crisis intervention
follows in Chapter 5.
Rehabilitation is designed to help people with disabilities achieve the highest
possible level of productive functioning. Some experts make a distinction between
habilitative and rehabilitative programs: the former aim to help those who have
never been productive, whereas the latter focus on restoring skills to those who
were once capable. In either case, the emphasis tends to be on practical skills such
as those involved in self-care and earning a living. The type of disability may be
physical, emotional, or developmental.
Social support may be offered in various forms to those who can benefit from
a strengthening of social ties. An example is a club for senior citizens that enables
them to get together with peers once or twice a week. Other familiar examples
are the athletic and social programs for teens provided by many Ys and commu-
nity centers. In addition, many self-help programs such as Alcoholics Anonymous
emphasize social support in their therapeutic approach.
Community organizing represents another indirect form of support for those
in need. The general idea is that the human services worker works with commu-
nity leaders to provide some program needed by an unserved population in the
community. For example, the worker may help the community set up a training
school for persons with delayed intellectual development.
Many human services agencies provide a mix of aid and services to clients. Both
mental hospitals and prisons, for example, provide aid in the form of food and shel-
ter and may also provide counseling, therapy, or rehabilitation.
The employment services of some states link direct cash benefits to job and
career counseling. At the other end of the scale are smaller programs that offer only
one service or a limited range of services to clients.
■■ Sponsors of Human Services

Human services organizations may be sponsored—that is, organized and funded—
by private citizens, by religious and other groups, or by government. Private agen-
cies may be operated on either a profit-making or nonprofit basis. Nursing homes,
rehabilitation hospitals, and agencies providing home nursing care are often pri-
vate profit-making corporations that are run in basically the same way as other
businesses. This means that management is under pressure by owners to keep costs
down and to show a profit at the end of the year.
Many other private agencies are organized on a not-for-profit basis. Youth
employment and child care agencies are sometimes nonprofit. The Red Cross and
the Salvation Army are examples of large nationwide private human services agen-
cies operated on a nonprofit basis. Typically, such agencies are controlled by a board
of directors that lays down general policies and selects the administrative officers
who are responsible for the day-to-day operation of the agency. These agencies raise
money by appealing to the general public for donations. An important advantage of
nonprofit status is that it exempts the agency from certain taxes, which, in effect,
allows more of the income to be used for helping consumers of the service.
Religious and other groups also sponsor nonprofit helping agencies. The Fed-
eration of Jewish Philanthropies, Catholic Charities, and the Lutheran Brotherhood
are supported by major organized religions. In addition, unions, fraternal organiza-
tions, and ethnic groups sponsor countless helping agencies all across the country.
The necessary funds are raised by appealing to parishioners and members for dona-
tions. Increasingly, both private and religious agencies are making use of profes-
sional fund raisers, who are paid on the basis of a percentage of the income they
raise.
There has been an increase in voluntary giving in recent years due in part to the
increase in natural disasters such as Hurricane Katrina in 2005, Hurricane Sandy in
2012, and Hurricane Matthew in 2016. For example, Americans contributed $212
billion in 2001 in spite of the weakening economy and a shattering act of terrorism.
This trend of voluntary giving has continued to 2016 as other acts of terror and
national disasters have continued. According to the survey of the American Associa-
tion of Fund-Raising Counsel Trust for Philanthropy, there is a continued increase
in giving to human services agencies.
Who receives this money? Religion gets the largest share, with the remain-
ing funds divided by education, health, human services, the arts, and other causes.
Not all of this private giving goes to help poor people. Much of the money goes to
groups active in environmental issues, civil liberties, women’s rights, pro- and anti-
abortion issues, museums, and symphony orchestras.
Although private and religious human services agencies are important, govern-
ments (local, state, and federal) have become the major providers of direct and indi-
rect aid to those in need. The scope and purpose of huge federal programs such as
social security will be discussed in the next chapter. State governments play a major
role in education, administer unemployment insurance, and manage most of the
nation’s mental hospitals. Local governments are responsible for actual administra-
tion of welfare programs, and they also provide many other kinds of help, such as
programs for seniors and teens.
■■ Studying Human Services Firsthand

One of the best ways to learn about human services is to identify and study the dif-
ferent agencies and facilities within your geographic area. This kind of study readily
lends itself to a team approach because students can divide the work and share infor-
mation with one another. The information can come from many sources, including
literature available at agencies, on-site visits, and meetings with staff members.
Your class might list all of the human services agencies, programs, and facilities
in your area and provide answers to the following questions:
• What are the stated goals of the agency?
• What needs does the agency attempt to meet?
• What population is served? Roughly how many people does the organization
serve? Hundreds? Thousands?
• What does the service cost the consumers? What are the eligibility criteria?
• Where does the money come from? If several sources are involved, list them in
order of contribution.
• How many and what kinds of human services workers are employed by the
human services agency?
Individuals may also share their subjective impressions of the agencies they vis-
ited. Did they feel welcome? Did the service seem to be well organized? How were
clients treated by staff?
14 Chapter 1
■■ Human Services Workers and Bureaucracy

Students beginning their training in human services rarely express the ambition to
become bureaucrats. Nevertheless, the great majority of them will eventually find
themselves working in the type of organization called a bureau or a bureaucracy.
The fact is that welfare agencies, hospitals, employment services, nursing homes,
and psychiatric clinics are all examples of this kind of organization.
Bureaucracies, which may be small or large, public or private, are defined by
certain formal arrangements including some form of central control and a clear
division of labor among administrators, supervisors, workers, and clerical staff. The
employees are usually arranged in a hierarchy from higher to lower, and exchanges
between the lower and upper levels without “going through channels” are often
discouraged (Macht & Ashford, 1990, p. 227). One of the frustrating features of the
large bureaucracy is that it can make workers feel that their contributions are rela-
tively insignificant. Each person may feel like a small cog in a big machine. Never-
theless, despite the shortcomings of these kinds of organizations, they have adapted
and survived because no one has developed a more efficient means of providing
services on a large scale.
Educators often fail to prepare students to become effective bureaucrats.
When bureaucracy is discussed in class, it is often in terms of the potential con-
flict between agency goals on the one hand and client or worker goals on the
other. Or the discussion may focus on the organization as a cause of low morale
among workers. It is all too easy to lose sight of the fact that specialization of
workers, clear lines of command, and other features of the bureaucracy enable
it to deliver services on a large scale and in an efficient manner. Rather than
focus on the negative aspects, it is more productive to help students develop the
knowledge and skills to work effectively within the bureaucracy. To this end,
the student should be acquainted with the patterns of organization in human
services organizations.
In fact, a course in human services organizations might more appropriately be
taught at the undergraduate college level than at the graduate level. Some of the
topics explored in such a course would be the use of power, funding sources, spe-
cialization, and delivery of services. Particularly important would be a consideration
of how to bring about constructive changes in a large organization.
■■ The Trend Toward Privatization

The process of arranging for private companies to do certain jobs formerly done
by government is called privatizing or privatization. Recent decades have seen
an increase in the trend to privatize government services along with an increas-
ing role for profit-making companies. The push to privatize is, in the opinion of
one observer, a reaction against “the fact that much of government has become
entangled in its own power, stifling creativity and productivity. Government
agencies responsible for serving the people have become muscle bound, almost to
the point of paralysis, when it comes to considering more effective performance”
(Linowes, 1995, p. 86). Linowes adds that government agencies are trying to
solve social problems with outmoded designs and solutions. Clearly, this investi-
gator is giving voice to the dislike of government bureaucracies shared by many
conservatives.
Opposition to the trend to privatize has come from government employees,

including many human services workers. Perhaps the best-organized resistance has
come from the nation’s unions of public employees. Although industrial unions have
declined in influence since the end of World War II, unions of government employ-
ees have increased in size and power. By the end of 1992, and for the first time in
American history, more people were employed by governments than in manufactur-
ing (Peterson, 1994, p. 190). This continues to be the case in 2016. Many govern-
ment workers are organized into civil service employee unions. Like other special
interest groups, these unions lobby state and local legislators contribute to cam-
paign funds, and may deliver a sizable block of votes in elections. The purpose of
this lobbying is, of course, to secure the kinds of benefits unions have always sought
for their members: decent pay, job security, and fringe benefits such as pensions and
medical insurance. During recent years, an increasing number of taxpayers have
begun to resent the favorable contracts won by these unions. By contracting with
private companies to do certain jobs, it has been possible to cut costs while weaken-
ing the power of the unions. How are private companies able to achieve significant
savings? They hire nonunion workers at salaries lower than those of union workers,
and they typically provide limited (or no) fringe benefits.
It is of great importance to the reader for the obvious reason that government
provides most human services. Here is a list of some of the services that have been
privatized in some communities:
• Housekeeping, laundry, and food services for hospitals and prisons
• Transportation services to and from schools and other facilities
• Shelters and housing for the homeless
• Computer services for various human services agencies
• Jails for illegal immigrants
• Halfway houses and day hospitals for persons with mental illness
• Halfway houses for released prisoners
• Recovery homes for alcoholics and drug addicts
• Fire protection
These examples show that parts of larger operations may be privatized by gov-
ernment. More ambitious efforts to privatize may involve entire programs and facil-
ities. For example, Brown County, Wisconsin, has turned over its welfare program
to an outside private organization, and Corrections Corporation of America has
more than $100 million in contracts for prisons and detention centers in nine states
(Linowes, 1995).
There are potential dangers involved in either government-run or privatized
services. Programs run by government are at risk of becoming job programs for
union employees and political appointees. The needs of the workers may take prece-
dence over the needs of recipients. The danger of privatization, on the other hand, is
that the profit motive may come to dominate all other considerations. For example,
one firm providing halfway houses for prisoners was charged with hiring low-paid,
untrained employees and with allowing living conditions in the facility to deterio-
rate markedly. There are even serious discussions today regarding the privatization
of the social security system in spite of the possible problems and dangers to future
recipients.
16 Chapter 1
■■ Suggestion for Class Report or Term Paper

Examine the effects of a specific program or service that has been privatized in your
county or state. What was the effect on the government workers who previously
provided the service? Describe the new workers in terms of salary and qualifica-
tions. Was there any change in the quality of the services provided? Interview some
people who were directly affected by the change, and report their reactions.
Sources of Need Satisfaction

The flowchart in Figure 1.2 illustrates the relationship among needs, primary
sources of help, and human services.
A person in need often seeks help from primary sources such as family and
friends before going to a human services agency. For example, a person with finan-
cial difficulties may seek help from the family before applying for welfare. Similarly,
a person with emotional problems may seek advice from a priest, minister, or rabbi
before going to a psychiatric clinic. It is often more comfortable to appeal to famil-
iar persons than to an impersonal agency for help. The bureaucratic procedures of
some agencies make people hesitate to go to them. Some agencies make clients wait
for hours, require that complicated forms be filled out, and process the claims in a
cold, perfunctory manner.
In some circumstances, however, a person may prefer to go to a human services
agency rather than to a primary source. For example, a woman might want to con-
ceal an unwanted pregnancy from family and friends. Or a person might feel too
Human needs and desires

Nutrition Money Health
Shelter Status Intimacy
Safety Identity Self-actualization
Primary social supports

Family Employer Informal social
Friends Coworkers contacts
Peer groups Church
Human services
Medical care Public housing Mental health
Rehabilitation Criminal justice Intellectual and/or
Recreation Education Developmental Disability
Substance abuse
FIGURE 1.2 ■ The Relationship Among Needs, Primary Social Supports,

and Human Services
embarrassed about certain behaviors to even discuss them with friends or family.
Child abusers, gamblers, and drug addicts may well fall into this category. In these
cases, the human services agency offers the opportunity to deal with the problem
in a confidential manner. And to those lacking primary social supports, the human
services often represent the last defense against personal disaster.
Falling Through the Safety Net

An unknown number of people need help from human services but don’t get it.
These are the people who fall through the safety net provided by basic services.
Some needy people are not eligible for help based on the criteria of the agency in
question. For example, a worker may not be eligible for unemployment benefits if
he or she did not work for a specified number of months during the previous year.
Other needy people may simply be unaware of existing programs. For example,
some illegal immigrants do not know about programs designed to help them. Still
other needy people may be fully aware of programs but are too proud to accept the
help available.
Judith Wagner/Corbis/Getty Images
One of thousands of homeless people living in the

streets of our cities.
18 Chapter 1
What happens to those people who are not helped either by primary social sup-
ports or by human services? Many thousands of them end up in the streets. The
story of America’s homeless is told in detail in Chapter 2. Runaway children, long-
term alcoholics, and former mental hospital inmates may be included in the ranks
of “street people.” During severe weather, some of them try to secure admission to
jails or mental hospitals. Some depend on handouts from passersby, and many take
meals provided by soup kitchens or shelters.
There is continuing debate about what to do with these people, often with each
agency or level of government trying to shift the responsibility to another. This con-
troversy leads us to our next subject for consideration: the factors besides human
needs that influence human services in the United States.
Political Controversy and Human Services

LO5 The magnitude, scope, and purpose of human services are shaped only in part by
people’s needs. Other considerations are the resources available for helping and
the attitudes of various groups toward human services. Unfortunately, there is no
consensus on who should receive what kind of help. The ultraconservative view is
that government support for human services should be cut to the barest minimum.
Liberals see the need for increases in all human services. In our society, there is con-
stant conflict between those who would cut and those who would increase expendi-
tures for human services. This has resulted in an ebb and flow of government support
for human services. One unfortunate consequence is that human services have not
been allowed to develop in an orderly, rational manner. Services are initiated under
one administration only to be limited or eliminated by the next administration.
Although the political forces underlying these conflicts are generally labeled
liberal and conservative, people are not consistent within these frameworks.
A particular individual may take a liberal position about one kind of service but a
conservative position on another. Let’s look more closely at these positions.
■■ A Conservative Point of View

Conservatives wish to preserve traditional American values, including a strict adher-
ence to the Constitution and respect for the rights and property of others. They
profess a deep respect for the values of the American pioneer, with a strong empha-
sis on hard work, perseverance, and self-reliance. Jealous of their personal liberty,
conservatives tend to distrust big government and wish to limit its role to the barest
essentials. This resentment against interference extends into the economic sphere.
Generally, conservatives favor a free market and maintain that free enterprise and
the pursuit of private profit have made the United States the richest nation on Earth.
This was one of the points of view expressed by the Republican candidate in the
2016 presidential election.
The automatic, reflexive opposition to social programs that characterized
many conservatives in the past is less prevalent today. Most conservatives cur-
rently recognize that there are some circumstances when people, through no fault
of their own, require help from government. Few, if any, now favor elimination
of the social security program, although some recommend a reorganization along
the lines of a voluntary insurance program or some other form of privatization.
Conservatives also accept the need for some form of welfare benefits for those who
are unable to meet immediate needs. However, they would like to see built into the
system incentives for individuals to become self-supporting.
Conservatives also generally favor unemployment insurance, partly in recogni-
tion of the fact that workers are often caught up in economic problems beyond their
individual control. It must also be recognized that all of these programs are benefi-
cial to the economy because they help individuals maintain purchasing power. But
conservatives are likely to oppose programs that go beyond meeting basic survival
needs. They express concern that help from the government tends to weaken the ini-
tiative of the recipient, creating an attitude of passive dependence. They also believe
that the federal government has assumed excessive control over our lives through
its massive programs and that some power and control should be returned to the
individual states.
■■ A Liberal Perspective
Liberals see themselves as champions of the disadvantaged. They are convinced that
conservative rhetoric about liberty and self-reliance doesn’t mean very much to a
person who is hungry, broke, and unemployed.
The liberal tradition was carried on by the administrations of Harry Truman,
John F. Kennedy, Lyndon Johnson, Jimmy Carter, Bill Clinton and Barack Obama.
All perceived that government must take a leading role in working for the health,
safety, and welfare of the people.
Mario Cuomo (1994) has contrasted the liberal and conservative positions in
the following way: Liberals accept the idea of collective responsibility, a sense that
we are all in this together, whereas conservatives are more reluctant to get involved
in sharing benefits or burdens. Cuomo argues that people don’t have to love their
needy neighbors, but they should at least consider their own self-interest in regard to
the disadvantaged. “If we bring children into this world and let them go hungry and
uneducated, if we are indifferent to the drugs and squalor that surround them . . . ,
then all of us will share the outcome,” he writes (p. 9), adding that we will all be
obliged to spend more on jails and police while we live in fear.
■■Human Services and the 2008–2016

LO6 Obama Administration
Offering a completely objective assessment of a presidential term of office is almost
an impossible task. First of all, it depends upon who you are. Who we are, of course,
includes a myriad number of factors such as one’s political party affiliation, social
class, level of education and ultimately whether you feel your personal interests
have been helped or hindered by the various legislative actions occurring during the
term of office. In the final analysis, it is only through the passage of time, or through
an historical lens that we can truly measure the impact of a specific Presidency.
President Obama’s political platform centered on five major areas of policy:
(1) enhance human services to improve quality of life and equality of opportunity,
such as universal health care, tax credits for education, and help for America’s cities;
(2) elimination of wasteful government spending; (3) transparency in government
(making government processes accessible for public review); (4) increased utilization of
climate-friendly, “green” technologies and energy; and (5) increased use of diplomacy,
as opposed to military action, in foreign policy, along with an end to the war in Iraq.
20 Chapter 1
Despite a Republican dominated House in Washington, the following list offers

some of President Obama’s significant achievements in regard to human services in
the United States during his two terms of office.
• Health Care Reform to expand health coverage to millions of people and out-
law the denial of coverage for pre-existing medical conditions.
• Expanded funding for the Violence Against Women Act.
• Lowered the Federal Budget deficit by one trillion dollars.
• Allotment of 25 billion dollars to help unemployed people retain their health
care benefits.
• Tax cuts for people with low or moderate incomes.
• Created a National Office of Urban Policy to address inner city housing
problems.
• Poverty rate dropped 1.2%.
• Passed the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act (Stimulus Package) goals
to create/save jobs—rescue auto industry—attempt to halt recession.
• Pulled U.S. Military out of Iraq and began drawdown of troops from
Afghanistan.
• Increased the Veterans Administration budget to recruit and train more mental
health workers.
• Elimination of Osama Bin Laden as worldwide symbol of terrorism.
• New funds for schools construction.
• Created housing rescue plan—Helping Families Save Their Homes Act.
• Extended loan program for small businesses.
• Expanded eligibility for Medicaid.
• Created U.S. financial and banking rescue plan.
• Expanded Schip program to cover health care for four million children.
• Ended the previous policy of offering tax benefits to corporations who out-
source American jobs.
• Lowered drug costs for seniors.
• Authorized construction and opening of additional health centers for Veterans.
• Overhauled the food safety system.
• Passed the Hate Crimes Bill.
• Development of a national energy grid with renewable sources.
• Student Loan reforms.
• Signed the Lily Ledbetter Fair Day Act restoring basic protection against pay
discrimination for women and other workers.
■■Election of 2016: The Trump Administration

After a deeply polarizing and divisive election, which seemingly spotlighted the
LO7 significant political and cultural divides in contemporary America along with an
angry populace, Donald Trump became the 45th president of this country. The former
businessman and reality television personality may have irretrievably altered what
has been considered “normal” politics of the past. Throughout the election process,
it became increasingly difficult to define his political positions on issues because his
descriptions of his beliefs had often changed.
The problems currently existing in our culture are deep and complex. At this
point, it is impossible to know what the future of Trump’s presidency will look
like. Regardless of one’s political view and beliefs, we can only hope that significant
effort and actions to unify and heal the country become a priority of his presidency.
What follows is a current outline of some of President Trump’s most recently
stated priorities and positions regarding the various issues confronting our country.
• Repeal and replace Obamacare/The Affordable Care Act
• Create Affordable Childcare and Eldercare Act
• Propose a constitutional amendment to impose term limits on all members of
Congress
• Impose a hiring freeze on all federal employees to reduce federal workforce
• Impose a lifetime ban on White House officials lobbying on behalf of a foreign
government
• Lift the restrictions on the production of $50 trillion worth of American energy
reserves including shale, oil, natural gas, and clean coal
• Cancel billions in payments to U.N. climate change programs
• Select a replacement for the vacancy on the Supreme Court
• Cancel every unconstitutional executive action and order issued by former Pres-
ident Obama
• Begin removing more than two million criminal illegal immigrants from the
United States and canceling visas to foreign countries that won’t take them back
• Suspend immigration from terror-prone regions
• Withdrawal from the Trans-Pacific Partnership;
• Allow the Keystone Pipeline to move forward
• Overturn Roe v. Wade and return abortion laws to individual states
• Defund Planned Parenthood
• Find “common-ground” with Russia in the fight against ISIS
• Reduce the number of tax brackets from 7 to 3
• End Common Core and privatize public education
• Provide $20 billion in state block grants for a “school-choice” program that
would dramatically expand school vouchers
• Defund or eliminate the U.S. Dept. of Education
• Militarily target and destroy terrorists overseas
■■ The Ebb and Flow of Support

for Human Services
Aside from threats to national security or catastrophes, a major factor that determines
the degree of public support for human services is the state of the economy. In good
times, tax revenues increase, and more money is generally made available for human
services. During economic downturns, funding for services is likely to be reduced.
22 Chapter 1
Changes in the public’s attitude toward government also affect funding for
s ervices. In recent years, the public’s confidence in government seems to have
reached a low point. Some people feel that the less money sent to the government,
the less government will have to waste.
Supporters of human services argue that it is futile to attempt to save money
by cutting funds for human services programs. For example, if we pay less for child
care services now, we will have to spend more later for supporting people in men-
tal hospitals and correctional facilities. If we cut back on funds for probation, we
reduce our chances of rehabilitating offenders. Overcrowding in our prisons cou-
pled with a lack of therapeutic programs is responsible for the high rate of recidi-
vism. By shortchanging human services agencies, we prevent them from reducing
the number of dependent and dysfunctional people.
Human services programs need sufficient funding and an orderly, predictable
flow of funds from one year to the next to fulfill their missions. But the govern-
ment, regardless of economic conditions, seems to provide for human services on
a hand-to-mouth basis with the threat or actuality of significant cutbacks to indi-
vidual program budgets always possible. These variations in funding are most often
related to political and economic factors that have little to do with the needs of the
agency or its clients. It is difficult to do an effective job, maintain employee morale,
and keep the confidence of the clients under such unstable conditions. This is why
human services workers are increasingly seeing the need to organize effective lob-
bying groups. They recognize that well-organized groups such as the gun lobby,
the tobacco lobby, and other special interest groups are often successful in secur-
ing favorable legislation. On a practical level, the political system works through
the application of this kind of direct pressure. Unrepresented groups, no matter
how worthy their cause, are likely to be overlooked. This issue is discussed in more
detail in Chapter 7.
The Impact of Contemporary Problems on Needs

LO8 Human services do not operate in a vacuum; they are shaped by social, environmen-
tal, political, and economic conditions that prevail in a given time and place. The pur-
pose of this section is to pinpoint some problems that affect the ability of Americans
to meet their own needs and, as a result, have an impact on human services.
■■ Natural/Human Caused Disasters

Although disasters have occurred since antiquity, this topic is included in a discus-
sion of contemporary problems because the rate of casualties from such events is
increasing sharply and will continue to go up in the foreseeable future. Natural and
human caused disasters can be defined in several ways. It is a phenomenon that may
have devastating social consequences when the awesome forces of nature come into
contact with people. It overtaxes an individual’s resources and coping mechanisms.
We can also expand this definition by viewing disasters as a natural or human-
caused catastrophe that causes destruction, frequently including loss of life, with
permanent changes to an environment and a community (Halperin & Tramontin,
2007). The Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) describes disasters
as “unforeseen and often sudden events that cause great damage, destruction and
human suffering. Though often caused by nature, disasters can have human origins.
Wars and civil disturbances that destroy homelands and displace people are included
among the causes of disasters. Another alarming event has been the increase in acts
of terrorism and mass shootings. Other causes can be: building collapses, blizzards,
drought, epidemics, earthquakes, explosions, fires, floods, hazardous materials or
transportation accidents, hurricanes, nuclear accidents, tornados or volcanoes.”
In the United States, several trends are serving to increase disaster tolls. One is
the vulnerability brought about by increasing dependence on interlinked computer
systems and surface electrical power lines. Another trend that increases the poten-
tial for disaster in this country is the shift in population. More and more people
are moving into flood plains, seismic risk zones, and coastal areas exposed to hur-
ricane winds, storms, and erosion. There is also an increased risk due to the spread
of population to California, where landslides and earthquakes are serious hazards.
More than half the U.S. population now lives in places highly susceptible to natu-
ral disasters U.S. Census Bureau (2011). Many so-called “natural disasters” such as
floods are actually human caused as a result of poor environmental practices and
the mismanagement of resources.
In the event of a disaster, people usually seek help first from family, friends, and
neighbors. However, if conditions are severe, local service agencies are called on to
help the sick and homeless. The police, fire department, church organizations, social
welfare groups, and medical services may all play important roles, depending on the
nature of the disaster. Restoring communication, effecting evacuations, rescuing sur-
vivors, and providing temporary shelter and emergency first aid are just some of the
important jobs that may need to be done. Obviously, well-trained, well-organized
service workers function more effectively than untrained ones. Many of these obser-
vations apply just as well to disasters for which humans are responsible, such as
mine cave-ins or the collapse of buildings and other structures.
In 2012, Superstorm Sandy swept through the Northeast, causing unprecedented
flooding and destruction, leaving billions of dollars worth of property damaged in its
path. In 2011, a tsunami spawned by one of the largest earthquakes ever recorded,
hit the eastern coast of Japan, killing hundreds of people. Also is 2011 Hurricane
Irene left extensive flood and wind damage as it tracked across the eastern part of
the United States. In 2010, the BP oil drilling disaster wrecked havoc for all the
inhabitants of the Gulf Coast Region of the United States. Most recently in 2016,
Hurricane Matthew caused considerable flooding and devastation to thousands of
people in sections of the United States. Although these events were surely devastating
in nature, it was Hurricane Katrina which, for many Americans, came to symbolize
the interplay between natural and human caused disasters. It is still relevant today to
go back and consider the events and aftermath of this particular storm.
Hurricane Katrina, the third largest, most powerful storm of the 2005 h urricane
season and the sixth strongest storm ever recorded in the Atlantic, breached the levee
system that protected New Orleans from Lake Pontchartrain and the Mississippi
River. Most of the city became flooded, and the coastal regions of Louisiana,
Mississippi, and Alabama made Katrina the most destructive and costliest natural
disaster in the history of the United States (Knabb, Rhome, & Brown, 2005). The
official death toll was 1,322, although only 1,086 bodies were recovered. The esti-
mated damage was from $70 billion to $130 billion, and over one million peo-
ple were displaced. Over 250,000 homes were uninhabitable (Carney, Tumulty, &
Thompson, 2005).
24 Chapter 1
JAMES NIELSEN/AFP/Getty Images

Waiting for aid outside of the New Orleans Superdome after the Hurricane
Katrina disaster.
The mayor of New Orleans ordered the city evacuated on August 28, after
Katrina was upgraded to a Category-5 storm. However, about 150,000 people
were unable to leave because of the inaccessibility of buses, the short supply of
rental cars, the halting of Amtrak and Greyhound service, and a short supply of fuel
(Glaser & Grunwald, 2005). Many of these people were from the poorest neighbor-
hoods of the city where poor African Americans lived in segregated neighborhoods.
These factors limited the most vulnerable of these residents from being able to flee
the city in time. The New Orleans Superdome was available for people who were
unable to leave. During the storm and after, over 60,000 people had been housed in
the Superdome, in deplorable and unsanitary conditions, which included lack of air
conditioning, electricity, or running water. There was no help for these victims until
the fifth day.
These are the scenes of a dying city: an elderly woman dead in a wheelchair outside
the convention center, a note on her lap bearing her name. A horrified family tell-
ing tales of pirates commandeering rescue boats at gunpoint. Corpses left rotting in
broad daylight. Angry crowds chanting for the television cameras, “we’re dying!” or
simply “help!” (Dao, Treaster, & Barringer, 2005).
As plans were made for moving evacuees out of the Superdome to other shelters
and temporary housing in other states, attention became focused on the victims of
Katrina. The U.S. Census Bureau estimates the 2004 New Orleans population to be
20% white and 70% black. Within the city, the poorest tended to live in the lowest
parts that were most likely to flood (Berube, 2005). Members of the Congressional
Black Caucus, Black Leadership Forum, National Conference of State Legislators,
National Urban League, and the NAACP held a news conference criticizing the slow
response to the evacuation and attributing it to the fact that those affected were the
poorest in the region (NAACP, 2005). In addition, many citizens across the United
States criticized the Bush administration’s slow and poor response to the disaster.
Some thought that racial bias played a role in the administration’s indifference,
while others believed that FEMA’s response was inadequate across the board, even
in the mostly white areas of Mississippi and suburban Louisiana.
Those who evacuated were dispersed to cities all across the United States. There
were evacuees living in almost every state, and some were there for the long term.
Many moved in with family; others were housed in hotel rooms and other tem-
porary shelters, until they could find apartments of their own or return to New
Orleans and the surrounding communities.
A Washington Post/Keiser/Harvard survey of evacuees (Morin & Rein, 2005)
found that a large portion, about 50%, did not plan on returning to their communi-
ties. Forty-nine percent of evacuees in the Houston area said that they would not
return to Louisiana.
The most vulnerable and destitute of Hurricane Katrina victims remained stuck
in flophouse motels across the country. Even as the FEMA deadline approached for
the evacuation from this temporary housing, local officials had realized that many
of these victims had no place to go nor any chance of beginning their life anew in
Louisiana. Many victims were the homeless, elderly, disabled, or mentally ill. They
were living in places like Houston, Texas, and Columbia, South Carolina. Local
volunteer organizations have delivered food, obtained furniture, provided medical
services, and offered employment opportunities to those who have been displaced
(Wilgoren, 2005).
The human services implications of this tragedy are great. Many agencies,
including the Red Cross and many other relief agencies, had provided shelter, food,
clothing, and counseling to victims of this crisis. Needing the most assistance were
the economically marginalized, who could no longer count on family members
for help but instead relied on local community agencies to help them resettle, gain
employment, enroll children in schools, and avail themselves and their families of
counseling. Of the 1 million displaced persons, 2,880 children had spent a signifi-
cant amount of time separated from their families in Louisiana, Mississippi, and
Alabama. Even those families that remained together had suffered the ordeal of
being uprooted from their homes, schools, friends, and communities. Many had
gone from shelter to shelter.
Chelsea Jones, 13, has moved four times since Hurricane Katrina had destroyed
her family’s home in Gulfport, Mississippi. Initially, she and her family found refuge
in a skating rink in Gulfport that was set up as a shelter for 119 people, though it
lacked running water and air conditioning. If things were normal, Chelsea would be
attending 7th grade and worrying about what to wear to school, instead of whether
she has enough insulin for her diabetes (Glanton & Bowean, 2005).
However, very little will be normal for the children who have experienced this
hurricane. Dr. Joseph Hagen, Jr., head of the task force on terrorism, said that even
though the catastrophes of Hurricane Katrina resulted from an act of nature and
not a deliberate act of terrorism, the children will have posttraumatic stress disor-
der, anxiety, and depression, and some will have suffered bereavement issues. Many
have lost homes, pets, neighbors, and friends, and some have suffered the profound
loss of parents. Many parents, so devastated themselves, may not be able to meet
their child’s emotional needs. The emotional problems of adults can make a child’s
fears much worse. Dr. Hagen emphasizes the role of communities, family doctors,
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
Dryad, i. 19.
Dryden, John, i. 39, 80, 332, 380; ii. 79; iii. 63, 113, 258, 400, 461; iv.
276, 277, 309; v. 13, 30, 61, 68, 122, 246, 261, 356, 357, 359, 369,
372; vi. 204 n., 218, 222, 254, 336, 351, 363, 371, 425, 455, 464; vii.
17, 36, 93, 102, 105, 124; viii. 43, 68, 159, 190, 191, 192, 235, 503;
ix. 363; x. 68, 118, 204, 205, 416; xi. 132, 186, 226, 256, 269, 270,
272, 535; xii. 3, 32, 207, 208, 244 n., 323, 326, 327, 375.
Dryden and Pope, On, v. 68.
Du Bart, John and Francis, viii. 253.
Du Bartas, Guilaume de Saluste, Seigneur, v. 186.
Du Fresnoy, Charles Alphonse, ix. 477.
Dublin, ii. 56, 61, 64, 65, 181, 188, 202; iii. 405, 420; viii. 203, 466,
478; ix. 415, 416; x. 179; xi. 402.
Dubois, Edward, xii. 276 n.
Duchesnois, Mademoiselle, ix. 154.
Duchess of Malfy (Webster’s), v. 240, 245; vi. 94 n.; vii. 54.
Ducis, Jean François, xi. 283.
—— Louis, ix. 137.
Ducrow, Andrew, xii. 368.
Dudley, Bate, xi. 349.
Duenna, the (Sheridan’s), iv. 159; viii. 164, 165; xii. 24, 332.
Duessa, the false (Spenser), iv. 201; v. 277.
Dugdale, Sir William, vii. 316.
Dughet, Gaspard. See Poussin, Gaspar.
Duke Aranza (in Tobin’s The Honeymoon), v. 345; viii. 229, 263; xi.
409.
—— Hercules of Ferrara (in Manton’s, Parasitaster), v. 226.
—— of Austria (in Shakespeare’s King John), xi. 411.
—— of Brachiano (in Webster’s The White Devil), v. 241, 243.
—— of Milan, The (Massinger’s), viii. 289;
also referred to in v. 266, 267; viii. 292.
—— of Wellington, etc. (Perry Nursey’s), xi. 249.
—— of York, The (in Shakespeare’s Richard II.), viii. 224.
Duke’s Place, ii. 71; iii. 49, 157; x. 164; xii. 363.
Dulcinea (in Mrs Centlivre’s The Wonder), viii. 156.
—— del Toboso (in Cervantes’ Don Quixote), i. 92, 422; v. 140; vi.
238, 287; viii. 110; x. 30; xi. 273 n.; xii. 76.
Dulwich College, vi. 120; ix. 17, 390.
—— Gallery, the, ix. 17; also referred to in vi. 219, 369 n.; ix. 17, 55,
113; xi. 249.
Dumain (in Shakespeare’s Love’s Labour’s Lost), i. 334.
Dumb Savoyard and his Monkey, The (Thompson’s), xi. 363.
Dumbarton Bridge, ii. 328.
Dumbiedikes (in Scott’s Heart of Midlothian), iv. 247; viii. 413 n.; xi.
382.
Dumblain, iii. 415.
Dumple, a pony (in Scott’s Guy Mannering), iv. 248.
Duncan (in Shakespeare’s Macbeth), i. 293; vi. 39; viii. 205; x. 81; xi.
316.
—— Gray (by Wilkie), viii. 141.
Duncan’s fleet, Lord, ii. 250.
—— Victory (by Fittler), ii. 201.
Dunciad, The (Pope’s), v. 76, 80, 359, 373; x. 375; xi. 489.
Dundas, Henry, first Viscount Melville, ii. 158, 169, 204, 223; xii.
293.
Dundee, ii. 252.
Dunkirk, viii. 253; xi. 556.
Dunkley, Mr (in Amory’s John Buncle), i. 54; iii. 142.
Dunlop, John Colin, x. 5.
Dunlop’s History of Fiction, x. 5.
Dunning, xii. 293.
See also Downing, George.
—— John, Lord Ashburton, iii. 418, 423; iv. 237; vi. 367, 397.
Duns Scotus, iv. 217; vii. 199.
Dunster (a town), xii. 272.
—— Mr (the fishmonger in the Poultry), vii. 73, 74, 75.
Duomo, The (at Florence), ix. 211, 212.
Duplicity (Holcroft’s), ii. 89, 100, 101, 102, 163.
Dupre (in Holcroft’s Deaf and Dumb), ii. 235.
Durer, Albert, ix. 35, 95.
Durfey, Tom, viii. 96.
Durham, ii. 79; xi. 311.
Duruset, J. B., vii. 70; viii. 231, 232, 248, 261, 370, 371, 413, 533; xi.
316, 397.
Dutch Fair (Teniers’), ix. 389.
—— School, i. 29; viii. 54; ix. 301, 314, 317, 386, 398, 406; xi. 187,
205 n., 240, 462, 547.
Duties of Children, On the (Channing’s), x. 317.
Du Val, Mr, ii. 181.
Dyches, Family of, iii. 420.
Dyer, George, ii. 177, 180, 217; v. 119, 375; vii. 43, 220; xii. 164 n.
Dying Gladiator (Byron’s), ix. 234.
—— —— (Louvre), viii. 149; ix. 107, 165 n., 166, 350, 491; x. 341; xi.
196.
—— Mother, a Statue (West’s), ix. 322.
Dyot, Sir Thomas, vi. 120.
—— Street, vi. 120; vii. 249.
E.
Earl Delamere (in Ups and Downs), xi. 387.

—— Egbert (in Holcroft’s The Noble Peasant), ii. 110.
—— of Flanders (in Kinnaird’s Merchant of Bruges), viii. 264, 265.
—— of Glenallan (Scott’s Antiquary), iv. 248.
Eastcheap, x. 310; xi. 311.
East India Company, The, ii. 56; vii. 184.
—— London Theatre, The, viii. 404, 412; xi. 370.
Eastward Hoe (Ben Jonson’s), v. 234; vi. 164.
Ecce Iterum Crispinus (Gifford’s), iv. 305.
Ecclesiastical History (Mosheim’s), iii. 276.
—— Polity (Hooker’s), x. 145.
Echard (Eachard, John), viii. 107; x. 27; xii. 148.
Echelles (a town), ix. 189.
Echo (in Ben Jonson’s Cynthia’s Revels), v. 265.
—— (in Kenney’s The World), viii. 229.
Eclogues, The (Collins’), v. 116, 374.
École des Femmes (Molière’s), viii. 29; x. 108; xi. 452.
—— des Maris (Molière’s), xi. 356.
—— Militaire, The, ix. 160.
—— des Vieillards, The (a French Play), xi. 366.
Edelinck, Gerard, ii. 198.
Eden, v. 67, 70.
Edgar (in Shakespeare’s King Lear), i. 293; v. 5; vi. 156; viii. 440, 441,
449, 450.
Edgeworth, Miss, i. 105; viii. 123; x. 41; xii. 65.
Edie Ochiltree (in Scott’s Antiquary), iv. 248; viii. 413; x. 399.
Edinburgh, ii. 59, 188, 304, 308, 314, 394; iv. 320; viii. 290, 315,
425, 478; ix. 98, 178, 233, 324, 326, 336; xi. 560; xii. 91, 219, 253,
256 n., 277, 353, 367.
—— To (in Hazlitt’s Liber Amoris), ii. 314.
—— Encyclopædia, The (Sir David Brewster’s), xii. 316.
—— Magazine (or New Scots Magazine), iv. 420; v. 385, 389; ix. 465;
xi. pp. viii., xi., 430, 433, 437, 442, 450, 454.
—— Review, i. 97, 131, 139, 166, 385, 393 n., 410, 428, 435; iii. 44, 51,
214, 221, 280, 454; iv. 245, 287, 310, 323, 342–3, 399; v. 128, 131,
150, 280, 348; vi. 18, 59, 87, 99, 205, 212, 216, 284; vii. 123, 183,
185, 261, 312, 365, 379, 381; viii. 419, 453, 498; ix. 102 n., 186,
295, 490; x. 5, 135, 243; xi. 162, 437, 484, 501; xii. 163, 169, 255,
316, 320, 327.
—— ——, Contributions to, xi.
—— View of (Hofland’s), xi. 246.
—— View of (Nasmyth’s), xi. 247.
—— Views of (a book), vi. 429–30.
Edith Bellenden (Scott’s Old Mortality), iv. 247.
Edith Elspeith (Scott’s Old Mortality), iv. 247, 248.
Editha (in Arnold’s The King’s Proxy, or Judge for Yourself), viii.
244.
Editors, A Chapter on, xii. 230.
Edmonds (an upholsterer), ii. 198.
Edmonton, xi. 306.
Edmund (in Shakespeare’s King Lear), i. 17, 209, 392; viii. 215, 221.
Education, Treatise on (Locke’s), x. 249.
—— —— (Milton’s), vi. 180.
—— of Bacchus (Poussin’s), ix. 24.
—— of Jupiter (Poussin’s), ix. 24.
Edward the Confessor, x. 335.
—— II. (Marlowe’s), v. 211.
—— III., v. 19; vii. 193.
—— V. (in Shakespeare’s Richard III.), viii. 183.
Edwards, Edward, vi. 346; xi. 590.
—— Jonathan, i. 49 n.; x. 314, 315; xi. 50, 65, 70; xii. 35.
—— Mr (actor), viii. 247, 298.
—— Dr, ix. 246, 247.
Edwin, John, the elder, i. 155; ii. 111; vi. 417; viii. 230, 273.
—— Mrs (Elizabeth Rebecca Richards), viii. 400.
—— and Emma (Mallet’s), v. 375.
Edwitha (in Holcroft’s The Noble Peasant), ii. 110.
Effects of War and Taxes, On the, iii. 243.
Effeminacy of Character, On, vi. 248.
Effie Deans (Scott’s Heart of Midlothian), iv. 247; vii. 339; xi. 534,
556.
Egerton, Daniel, viii. 299, 442; xi. 316, 395.
—— MacSycophant (in Macklin’s The Man of the World), viii. 318,
350.
—— Mrs Sarah, viii. 292.
Eglantine (by Madame de Genlis), ii. 281.
Egmont, Lord, ii. 383.
Egotism, On, vii. 157.
Egremont, Lord, ix. 13, 61; xi. 190.
Egypt, iii. 7; v. 52; xi. 497.
—— Travels in (Nicholas Savary’s), ii. 107.
Egyptian Hall, xi. 472 n.
Ehrenbreitstein (town), ix. 299.
Eiconoclastes Satyrane, iii. 52.
Elba, vii. 96; viii. 466; ix. 355.
Elbe, The, ii. 253, 254, 255, 257.
Elbow (in Measure for Measure), viii. 388; xii. 24.
Eldon, Lord, iv. 325; also referred to in i. 103, 431; ii. 146; iii. 125,
219; iv. 333; vii. 160, 216; xi. 480.
Eleazar, the Moor (in Marlowe’s Lust’s Dominion, or The Lascivious
Queen), v. 207, 208, 209.
Election, The (Miss Baillie’s), v. 147.
—— Dinner, The (Hogarth’s), viii. 137, 140; ix. 81; xi. 252; xii. 364.
Elector of Hanover, i. 427; iii. 284.
Electors of Westminster, The, vii. 7.
Electra (Æschylus), x. 81, 94.
Elegant Epistles, The (Warburton’s), vi. 368 n.
—— Extracts in Verse, The (Dr Knox), v. 367, 368; ix. 222.
Elegy in a Country Churchyard (Gray’s), v. 118, 126, 375; xi. 546; xii.
147.
—— on the Death of Lord Byron, An, vii. 314.
—— —— of Foote (Holcroft’s), ii. 87.
Elephant (a horse), ii. 41.
Elgin, Lord, ix. 327, 381, 490, 492; xi. 227.
—— Marbles, ix. 326;
also referred to in i. 143; vi. 16, 50, 74, 353, 435; vii. 329; viii. 335;
ix. 28, 164, 166, 168, 169, 241, 366, 379, 381, 421, 433, 466, 490;
x. 190, 198, 201, 344, 345; xi. 227, 352, 590.
Elia. See Lamb, Charles.
Eliante (in Molière’s Misanthrope), ix. 149.
Elijah, The Prophet, x. 358.
Elisée (in Rousseau’s New Eloise), x. 75.
Elizabeth, Queen, i. 218, 333; ii. 379; iv. 212; v. 34, 56, 82, 185, 197,
201, 284, 347; vi. 218 n., 367, 393; viii. 55, 69, 162, 391; ix. 217; x.
188, 205, 209, 238, 242, 243; xi. 321; xii. 167, 168.
Ellen, or The Fatal Cave (Holcroft’s), ii. 114.
Ellengowan (Scott’s Guy Mannering), viii. 129.
Ellenborough, Lord, iii. 126, 163; ix. 247 n.; xi. 480.
Elleviou, Mons. and Madame, ii. 234.
Elliott, Sir John, iii. 395.
Ellis, George, x. 24.
—— Mr, ii. 266.
—— (in Miss Burney’s The Wanderer or Female Difficulties), x. 43.
Elliston, R. W., viii. 224, 229, 392, 400, 401, 403, 413, 423, 427, 429,
430, 454, 459, 465, 467, 471, 472, 476, 479; xi. 367, 409; xii. 275.
Elmes, James, vi. 519.
Eloise (Pope’s), v. 75, 76, 373; xii. 165.
—— (Rousseau’s), i. 133; vi. 425; ix. 146.
Eloquence of British Senate, iii. 387;
also referred to in i. 433; iii. 460; xi. 602.
Elphinstone, James, i. 96.
Elshie Elshender (Scott’s Black Dwarf), vii. 207; viii. 129; xi. 531.
Elspith (in The Antiquary, a play), viii. 413.
Elton (a town), x. 356.
Elwina (in Hannah More’s Percy), viii. 256.
Ely, Isle of, ii. 9, 10.
Elymas the Sorcerer (Raphael’s), i. 131; ii. 387; vi. 41; ix. 46, 272 n.
Elysium (Barry’s), ix. 415, 421.
Embassy to China (Gilray’s), vi. 455.
Emblems (Quarles’s), xii. 48 n.
Emery, John, ii. 195, 365; vi. 161, 453; viii. 10, 235, 236, 256, 283,
315, 333, 370, 391, 413, 426, 428, 442, 466; xi. 304–5, 378, 402;
xii. 24.
Emigrants, The (see Adelaide), viii. 308, 530.
Emile (Rousseau’s), ii. 379; vii. 224–5, 401 n., 456 n.; ix. 120; xi. 85,
135, 178 n., 259.
Emilia (in Shakespeare’s Othello), viii. 217.
—— Gauntlet (in Smollett’s Peregrine Pickle), xii. 64.
Emily (G. Colman the younger’s The Poor Gentleman), viii. 319.
—— Tempest (in Cumberland’s Wheel of Fortune), xi. 207, 208.
—— Worthington (in The Poor Gentleman), xi. 376.
Emmaus, v. 184.
Empedocles, v. 122.
Emperor Alexander in his Droschi (Sauerweide’s), xi. 249.
Enchanted Castle (Claude’s), vi. 74; ix. 13; xi. 212.
—— Island (in Shakespeare’s Tempest), v. 187.
Encyclopædia Britannica, ix. 377, 483.
—— Metropolitana, viii. 480.
Endymion, vi. 201; vii. 23.
—— (Girodet’s), ix. 131.
—— (Guercino’s), ix. 224.
—— (Keats’), ii. 302; vi. 254; viii. 478; x. 270.
—— (Lyly’s), v. 197–9, 247.
Enfield, William, v. 90, 147; vi. 294.
Enghien, Duc d’. See D’Enghien.
England, Church of, xii. 386, 402.
—— in 1798 (by S. T. Coleridge), iii. 241.
—— History of—
(1) Mackintosh’s iv. 287;
(2) Oldmixon’s, x. 368 n.;
(3) Turner’s, v. 143.
Englefield, Captain, vii. 92.
English Bards and Scotch Reviewers (Byron’s), iv. 258.
—— Comic Writers, Lectures on the, viii. 1;
also referred to in i. 417, 418, 419, 437; xi. 568.
—— Grammar, xii. 342.
—— Novelists, viii. 106;
also referred to in vii. 300; x. 405.
—— Opera House, New, viii. 314, 327, 463, 464, 474, 476.
—— Poets, Lectures on the, v. 1;
also referred to in i. 395, 419, 420, 421, 442, 458; x. 406.
—— Philosophy, History of (Hazlitt’s Prospectus), xi. 25.
—— Revolution, i. 430; iii. 100, 252; x. 153.
—— School, The, ix. 314.
—— Students at Rome, ix. 367.
—— Traveller, The (Heywood’s), v. 214.
Englishman, The (a newspaper), x. 212.
Enobarbus (in Shakespeare’s Antony and Cleopatra), i. 231–2; v.
253; viii. 191.
Enquiry concerning Political Justice, The (Godwin’s), ii. 163; iii. 126;
vii. 198; x. 385, 394–6, 398, 400; xii. 170.
—— concerning Population (Godwin’s), iv. 297.
Enraged Musician, The (Hogarth’s), viii. 142.
Ensign Hibbert (in Fielding’s Amelia) viii. 114; x. 33.
—— Beverley (in Sheridan’s The Rivals), viii. 508.
Ensor, George (on State of Europe in Jan. 1816), xi. p. vii.
Entombment of Christ (Bird’s), xi. 244.
Entombing of Christ, The, in the Louvre, ix. 112.
Entrance of Christ into Jerusalem, The (Haydon’s), xii. 271.
Envy, xii. 386.
—— (in Spenser), v. 39.
—— On (a dialogue), vii. 97.
E. O. Tables, i. 145; iii. 77.
Epic Pictures, i. 28.
Epicene (in Ben Jonson’s The Silent Woman), viii. 42.
Epicharmus, The Sicilian, x. 100.
Epictetus, x. 16.
Epicurus, iii. 101; iv. 293; ix. 161.
Epistles (Dryden’s), v. 79.
—— (Ben Jonson’s), v. 306.
—— (Pope’s), v. 69, 77.
Epistle to Abelard, The (Pope’s), xi. 505.
Epistles to Arbuthnot and Jervas (Pope’s), v. 78, 373.
Epistle to Lord Byron (Leigh Hunt’s), iv. 361.
—— to the Countess of Cumberland (Daniel), v. 309.
—— to Michael Drayton (Ben Jonson’s), v. 307.
—— (of St Paul), An, xii. 280.
—— to Selden (Ben Jonson’s), v. 307.
—— to Robert Southey, Esq. (Lamb’s), vii. 131.
Epitaph (by W. Gifford), i. 374.
Epithalamion on a Count Palatine of the Rhine (Donne’s), viii. 52.
Epps, Mr (a Strand shopkeeper), iii. 297.
Erasmus, vi. 245; ix. 218; xii. 214.
—— (Holbein’s portrait of), ix. 41.
Eresbourg, The Forest of, xi. 232.
Eriphile (Racine’s Aulis), x. 98.
Eros, i. 231.
Erskine, Lord, ii. 147, 154 n., 185, 214, 228; iii. 44, 425; iv. 319, 335;
vi. 51, 199, 406; vii. 161, 215; xi. 480; xii. 254.
Escapes, The (Holcroft), ii. 235.
Escurial, ix. 349; x. 278.
Espercieux, Jean Joseph, ix. 167.
Esplandian (early romance), x. 57.
Essays (Bacon’s), v. 328, 333.
—— (Hume’s), xi. 323.
—— (Montaigne’s), v. 165.
Essays (Southey’s), v. 165.
Essay Writing, A Farewell to, xii. 321.
Essex (the county), ii. 248; x. 357.
—— Lady, vi. 454.
Establishment of the Enfants Trouvés, ix. 125.
Estcourt, Will, i. 157; viii. 96, 160.
Este, Mr, ii. 205, 214, 225.
Estifania (in Fletcher’s Rule a Wife and Have a Wife), viii. 49, 234.
Estremadura (town), xi. 317.
Etherege, Sir George, i. 53, 155; viii. 68, 70, 82, 152; xi. 276–7.
—— etc., On, viii. 49.
Ethics (Grove’s), xi. 254.
Eton, iii. 421; iv. 199; v. 118; vi. 72; ix. 187 n., 480; xi. 334, 373.
—— College ... Ode on a Distant Prospect of (Gray’s), v. 118; vii. 74.
Etruscan cities, xii. 223.
Eubulides (Landor’s), x. 248.
Euclid, i. 46; vi. 433; vii. 257; viii. 19, 25; x. 179, 347; xi. 45, 273, 288,
491.
Eudemus (in Ben Jonson’s Fall of Sejanus), v. 265.
Eudocia (Godwin’s Cloudesley), x. 391.
Eugene de Biron (in Morton’s Henri Quatre), viii. 443.
Euler, Leonard, vii. 306.
Eumenides (in Lyly’s Endymion), v. 199.
—— (of Æschylus), x. 91.
Euphrasia (in Beaumont and Fletcher’s Philaster), v. 262.
Euphues and his England (Lyly), v. 201.
Euripides, iv. 216; x. 97, 98, 99, 100, 271; xii. 326.
European Child, The (in Campbell’s Gertrude of Wyoming), v. 150.
—— Magazine, The, vii. 74; viii. 12; x. 221.
—— Repository, The, ii. 229.
Eurydice (Nantreuil’s), ix. 127.
Eustace de St Pierre (in Colman’s The Surrender of Calais), viii. 331;
xi. 307, 308.
Eustace, Mr (The story of, in The Tatler), i. 9; viii. 99.
Eutropius, ix. 17.
Evadne (in Beaumont and Fletcher’s Maid’s Tragedy), v. 251–2.
—— The (by Richard Lalor Sheil), v. 345.
Evan Dhu (Scott’s Waverley), iv. 247.
Evangelists (Rubens’), ix. 52.
—— xii. 281.
Evans, Mr (actor), ii. 84.
—— Thomas, iii. 238, 299, 300.
Eve, vi. 397; xi. 517.
—— (Milton’s), i. 38; v. 60, 65–6, 371; vii. 36; viii. 561; xi. 452.
—— (Michael Angelo’s), ix. 363.
—— On the Character of Milton’s, i. 105.
—— (Raphael’s), ix. 240.
—— of St Agnes (Keats’), iv. 304; vii. 225.
Eve’s Apple, xii. 222.
Evelina (Miss Burney), vi. 160; vii. 72; viii. 123, 124; ix. 139 n.; x. 24,
25, 41, 42; xii. 65.
Evelyn, John, vii. 232; x. 287 n.
Evening Scene (in Hogarth’s Marriage à la Mode), i. 30; viii. 137; ix.
80.
—— Ode on (Collins), v. 116, 126, 147, 374.
Every Man in His Humour (Ben Jonson’s), viii. 310;
also referred to in viii. 44; vii. 313.
Evreux (town), ii. 268; ix. 102.
Examination before the Privy Council (Franklin’s), x. 314.
Examiner, The, i. pp. xxx., xxxi., 367 n., 374, 376, 385, 430, 445, 451,
456; iii. 103, 107, 109, 121, 152, 194, 201, 213, 281, 438 et seq.; iv.
302, 362, 401, 432; vi. 86, 286, 496; vii. 16, 123, 378, 379, 381,
507, 515; viii. 174, 224 n., 497, 500, 502, 512; ix. 462, 466; x. 220,
228, 418–21; xi. 253, 258, 269, 274, 277, 282, 284, 290, 297, 299,
301, 303, 305, 307, 309, 315, 317, 323, 328, 334, 343, 348, 352,
356, 358, 362, 366, 369, 373, 377, 381, 384, 389.
Exchange no Robbery, or Diamond Ring (Hook’s), viii. 475.
Exclusion Bill, The, x. 364.
Excursion, The (Wordsworth’s), i. 46 n.; v. 114, 156, 280; vi. 65 n.; xi.
311, 457, 512; xii. 276.
Exeter, ii. 143 n.; vi. 21, 161, 379, 390; ix. 68.
—— Change, iii. 121; iv. 223; vi. 349, 416; ix. 160; xi. 350, 364, 503;
xii. 49, 215.
Exile, Reflections on (Bolingbroke’s), vi. 100.
—— (in Lewis’s The Monk), viii. 127.
Exiles, The (Kotzebue’s), ii. 201.
Exit by Mistake (by Jameson), viii. 321;
also referred to in iii. 304.
Exmoor, x. 416.
Exmouth, Lord, vi. 429.
Expiring Taper, To an (by Peter Pindar), xii. 350.
Eyre, Lord Chief Justice, ii. 146; iii. 75 n.
Eyre’s Charge to the Jury, Remarks on Judge (Godwin’s), iv. 210, 211
n.
Ezekiel, iii. 144, 145; v. 183.
Ezra (Michael Angelo’s), ix. 362.
F.
F——, vi. 390.

F——, Mrs, viii. 406.
Fables (Æsop’s), i. 9, 46; viii. 25, 98; x. 107; xi. 273, 491.
—— (Dryden’s), iv. 102 n.; v. 372.
—— (Gay’s), v. 106, 107.
—— (Northcote’s), vi. 408, 415, 416.
Fable of the Bees (Mandeville), vii. 467; viii. 157 n.; xi. 254.
Fables for the Holy Alliance (Moore’s), ix. 283.
Fable of Salmacis (Albano’s), ix. 34.
Face (Ben Jonson’s Alchemyst), viii. 228.
Fadladeen (in Moore’s Lalla Rookh), v. 152.
Faërie Queene (Spenser), i. 71 n., 138; iii. 113; v. 12, 35, 43, 187, 299,
370; viii. 438; x. 74, 155; xi. 464; xii. 129.
—— (in Midsummer Night’s Dream), i. 63.
Fag (in Sheridan’s Rivals), viii. 510.
Failer (in Etherege’s Wild Gallant), viii. 68.
Fainall (in Congreve’s Way of the World), viii. 74.
Fair, The (Teniers), ix. 35.
—— Deserter, The (a farce), viii. 533.
—— Penitent (Rowe’s), viii. 287;
also in v. 268.
—— Quarrel (Rowley’s), v. 214.
Fairfax, General, iii. 398; vi. 177.
—— (Holcroft’s), ii. 204.
Fairhurst, Richard, ii. 167.
Faithful Shepherdess (Fletcher’s), v. 254, 256; vi. 184; x. 118.
Fakreddin, The two pages of (Beckford’s Vathek), ix. 60.
Falcon, The (in Boccacio), i. 163; v. 82, 347; vii. 227; viii. 558; xi. 501;
xii. 30.
Falconbridge (in Shakespeare’s King John), v. 209; viii. 347; xi. 411.
Falconer, William, xi. 486, 495.
Falcoz, Madame, xi. 356.
—— Mademoiselle, xi. 358.
Faliero (Byron’s), iv. 258.
Falkland (in Godwin’s Caleb Williams), iv. 208; viii. 130, 131, 241,
420; x. 385, 398, 399; xii. 67.
Fall of Nineveh (Martin’s), xi. 381.
—— of Sejanus, The (Ben Jonson), v. 263.
Fallacies, Book of (Bentham’s), xii. 361.
Falling Tower, The, at Bologna, ix. 205.
Falls of the Grenfells, The, xi. 364.
False Duessa (Southey’s), iii. 217.
—— One, The (Beaumont and Fletcher’s), v. 253, 295.
Falsity of Human Virtues, Treatise on, xi. 254.
Falstaff’s Letters (by Jem White), vii. 37.
Fame, The (vessel), ii. 126.
—— On Different Sorts of, i. 93.
Familiar Style, On, vi. 242.
Family of Anglade, The (Payne’s), xi. 304; viii. 279.
—— Instructor, The (Defoe’s), x. 379.
—— Picture, The, etc. (Holcroft’s Tales), ii. 104.
—— Journal, vi. 505, 506.
—— Vandyke, The (a picture), ix. 57.
Fancy, The (by J. Hamilton Reynolds), viii. 480 n.
—— Poems of (Pope’s), v. 69.
Fanning, Mrs, xi. 546.
Fanny, Mademoiselle, ix. 174.
—— (Fielding’s), vi. 236; vii. 223; viii. 107.
Farce of Taste (Foote’s), vii. 216.
—— Writer, The (a play), viii. 523.
Farewell (Byron’s), vi. 210; x. 221.
—— to the Stage (Ben Jonson’s), v. 312.
—— to Tobacco (Lamb’s), v. 378.
Farington, Joseph, ii. 189, 198; vi. 359, 379, 380; x. 172, 173, 175,
180, 181, 189, 192, 195, 201, 202.
Farley, Charles, viii. 251, 253, 281, 416, 465, 468, 469, 535; xi. 207,
208, 305, 384.
Farmer’s Boy, The (Blomfield’s), v. 95, 97.
Farmer’s library (Richard Farmer), ii. 188.
Farnese family, The, vi. 385.
—— the Little, ix. 239, 365.
—— Theatre, The, ix. 204.
Farnham, vii. 126.
Farquhar, George, vi. 434; vii. 227; viii. 14, 163, 285, 552; x. 118; xii.
451.
—— On, viii. 70.
Farren, Elizabeth, Countess of Derby, ii. 160; viii. 165, 268, 291, 389;
ix. 147, 149; xii. 24.
—— William, viii. 154, 412, 426, 466, 480, 484.
—— —— Dr Cantwell (in The Hypocrite), xi. p. viii.
Farrier shoeing an Ass (Berchem’s), ix. 22.
Fashion, On, xi. 437.
—— in High Life (Hogarth’s), viii. 400.
—— (in The Relapse), vi. 414.
Fashionable Tales (Miss Edgeworth’s), ix. 490.
—— World (a newspaper), x. 220.
Fatal Cave. See Ellen.
—— Curiosity (Lillo’s), ii. 212; v. 359.
—— Dowry (Massinger and Field), v. 268; viii. 287.
—— Marriage (a play), viii. 391; xi. 383 n.; xii. 355.
Fate of Calas (a play), viii. 428, 439.
—— The Fiat of (song), ii. 190.
Fates, The (Michael Angelo’s), ix. 220, 363 n.
Father and Daughter, Tale of (Mrs Opie), viii. 268.
Father Paul (in Sheridan’s Duenna), iv. 159.
Fathers of the Church (Rubens’), ix. 52.
Faucit, Helena, Lady Martin, viii. 192, 231, 251, 266, 267, 276, 340;
xi. 316, 403.
Faulkener (not Ferdinand), a play (Godwin’s), iv. 210 n.
Faulkland (in Sheridan’s Rivals), viii. 509.
Faust (Goethe), vii. 313; x. 261, 271.
—— (Lessing), x. 274.
Faustina (a statue), ix. 221.

Ebook Human Services in Contemporary America PDF Full Chapter PDF

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Ebook Human Services in Contemporary America PDF Full Chapter PDF

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Human Services in Contemporary

America - eBook PDF

Human Services in Contemporary America

Engage with your course content, enjoy the flexibility of

TO GET STARTED VISIT

Australia • Brazil • Mexico • Singapore • United Kingdom • United States

Cengage Learning is a leading provider of customized learning solutions

Cengage Learning products are represented in Canada by Nelson

To learn more about Cengage Learning Solutions, visit www.cengage.com.

Printed in the United State of America

Questions for Class Discussion or Special Assignment 36

Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, and Transgender Communities 77

Prison and Correctional Programs 111

Behavior Assessment 183

Environmental Factors 218

Creative Arts Therapy 248

Purpose and Types of Social Policy 277

Summary of Primary Prevention Programs 315

In the chapter on prevention, I demonstrate a strong bias in favor of programs

New to the Tenth Edition

LO1 Understand the nature and scope of human

• Economic and political factors

Human Needs: Focus of Human Services

Need for self-actualization

Belongingness and love needs

FIGURE 1.1 ■ Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

■■ Criticisms of Maslow’s Theory

Role of Primary Social Supports in Meeting Needs

■■ Effects of Social Programs on Primary

Overview of Human Services

services is offered by Alle-Corliss and Alle-Corliss (1998) viewing human services as

Home health aides 145%

■■Human Services Workers

■■ Kinds of Help Provided

Real Life Human Services Work

Johannes Kroemer/Getty Images

Psychotherapy has the general goal of changing a client’s behavior or emotional

■■ Sponsors of Human Services

■■ Studying Human Services Firsthand

■■ Human Services Workers and Bureaucracy

■■ The Trend Toward Privatization

Opposition to the trend to privatize has come from government employees,

■■ Suggestion for Class Report or Term Paper

Sources of Need Satisfaction

Human needs and desires

Primary social supports

FIGURE 1.2 ■ The Relationship Among Needs, Primary Social Supports,

Falling Through the Safety Net

Judith Wagner/Corbis/Getty Images

One of thousands of homeless people living in the

Political Controversy and Human Services

■■ A Conservative Point of View

■■Human Services and the 2008–2016

Despite a Republican dominated House in Washington, the following list offers

■■Election of 2016: The Trump Administration

■■ The Ebb and Flow of Support

The Impact of Contemporary Problems on Needs

■■ Natural/Human Caused Disasters

JAMES NIELSEN/AFP/Getty Images

Earl Delamere (in Ups and Downs), xi. 387.

F——, vi. 390.

You might also like

LO1 Understand the nature and scope of human