Objective Chemistry For Neet and Other Medical Entrance Examinations Vol Ii K Rama Rao Download PDF Chapter

Objective Chemistry for NEET and
Other Medical Entrance Examinations

Vol II K. Rama Rao
Visit to download the full and correct content document:
https://ebookmass.com/product/objective-chemistry-for-neet-and-other-medical-entra
nce-examinations-vol-ii-k-rama-rao/
Volume II
OBJECTIVE CHEM STRY
Volume II
NEET
FOR
OBJECTIVE CHEM STRY
NEET
FOR
(National Eligibility Cum Entrance Test)
and Other Medical

Entrance Examinations
K Rama Rao
The first edition of Objective Chemistry for NEET Vol. II is the second of a two-part series written for
aspiring doctors who seek to crack the medical entrance test. Designed as a one-stop solution to revise topics
in chemistry pertinent to popular medical entrance examinations, it provides a comprehensive and systematic
(National Eligibility Cum Entrance Test) des
coverage of the subject supported by numerous practice questions in every chapter. It covers all key topics, Inclu se I
Pha
beginning with the first principles before delving progressively into the subject’s finer aspects.
NEET 6
Also Available and Other Medical 201 Paper
tion
Ques Answers
Volume I OBJECTIVE PHYS CS OBJECTIVE BIOLOGY

Entrance Examinations with
NEET NEET
OBJECTIVE CHEM STRY FOR FOR
NEET
FOR
w Chapter-wise practice questions for better understanding of concepts
(National Eligibility Cum Entrance Test) (National Eligibility Cum Entrance Test)
w Topic-wise summary points for quick and effective study
and Other Medical
and Other Medical w Over 3900 Class-tested problems for hands-on guidance
es
(National Eligibility Cum Entrance Test) Includ e I es
Includ e I
Phas
Entrance Examinations
NEET
016 Entrance Examinations NEET
Phas
and Other Medical 2 Paper

tion
Ques Answers
16
20 Paper
tion
Ques Answers
with
Entrance Examinations w 4000+ Multiple Choice Questions with answers
w Over 350 'assertion and reason' based questions for the benefit of
with
w Written in accordance with NCERT syllabus for classes XI and XII
w Over 450 'assertion and reason' based questions for the
w Chapter-wise practice questions for better understanding of concepts AIIMS and JIPMER aspirants benefit of AIIMS and JIPMER aspirants
w Topic-wise summary points for quick and effective study w Chapter-wise summary of key concepts along with hints and w Comprehensive pedagogy designed to maximize score
w Over 7000 Class-tested problems for hands-on guidance solutions for better understanding w Solved question papers of the past 6 years arranged
w Solutions to questions from previous years NEET, AIPMT chapter-wise
K Rama Rao
and AIIMS examinations w Six sample test papers for practice
K Rama Rao w Board-Text Drills section based on NCERT syllabus

w Three model question papers for practice
Dr Rajiv Vijay
Abhay Kumar
www.pearson.co.in
Vol. II
Rao
Size: 8”x10”mm Spine: 24mm ISBN: 9789332575431 Title Sub Title Edition Authors / Editors Name With CD Red Band Territory line URL Price mQuest
OBJECTIVE CHEMISTRY
VOLUME II
NEET
Copyright (©) 2016 Pearson India Education Services Pvt. Ltd
Published by Pearson India Education Services Pvt. Ltd, CIN: U72200TN2005PTC057128,
formerly known as TutorVista Global Pvt. Ltd, licensee of Pearson Education in South Asia.
No part of this eBook may be used or reproduced in any manner whatsoever without the
publisher’s prior written consent.
This eBook may or may not include all assets that were part of the print version. The publisher
reserves the right to remove any material in this eBook at any time.
ISBN: 978-93-325-7543-1
eISBN 978-93-325-7824 -1
Head Office: A-8 (A), 7th Floor, Knowledge Boulevard, Sector 62, Noida 201 309,
Uttar Pradesh, India.
Registered Office: 4th Floor, Software Block, Elnet Software City, TS-140, Block 2 & 9,
Rajiv Gandhi Salai, Taramani, Chennai 600 113, Tamil Nadu, India.
Fax: 080-30461003, Phone: 080-30461060
www.pearson.co.in, Email: companysecretary.india@pearson.com
Contents
Preface v
C 1.1–1.28
C 2. 2.1–2.30
C 3. 3.1–3.32
C 4. 4.1–4.26
C 5. 5.1–5.34
C 6.
6.1–6.32
C 7A. 7A.1–7A.38
C 7B. 7B.1–7B.36
C 7C. 7C.1–7C.26
C 7D. 7D.1–7D.12
C 8.
8.1–8.26
C 9. 9.1–9.38
C 10. 10.1–10.32
C 11. 11.1–11.28
C 12. 12.1–12.14
C 13. 13.1–13.26
C 14. 14.1–14.26
C 15.
15.1–15.34
C 16. 16.1–16.22
C 17. 17.1–17.16
C 18. 18.1–18.12
C 19. 19.1–19.32
NEET Phase–1 Solved Question Paper Q1.1–Q1.8
This page is intentionally left blank.
This book aims to help those students who are preparing for competitive examinations after completing higher second-
ary examination. It is divided into two parts: Vol. I is related to the subject being taught at XI standard and Vol. II is
related to the subject being taught at XII standard.
Each chapter is divided into subtopics and a number of questions are given at the end of each topic in every chapter
so that a student can practice well. Each topic is provided with summary points which are helpful for quick and effec-
tive study. Questions involving inter-related concepts of different topics of the same chapter are given at the end of each
chapter as practice exercises. Difficulty level of the questions is graded from lower level to higher level. Lower level ques-
tions are given at the end of each topic within the chapter while the higher level questions are given at the end of each
chapter. Chapter summary, given in a comprehensive and in depth manner, will help the students in revision.
After observing the recent examinations, I have found an important change in the type of questions appearing in
various competitive examinations. Keeping this change in mind, the standard of questions in this book reflects those
that are asked in various competitive examinations. The book provides class-tested course material and problems that
will supplement any kind of coaching or resource the student might be using. The language of this book has been kept
simple and the explanation is clear and point-by-point. The book is packed with exciting new learning tools that help in
smooth grasping of the subject.
I sincerely wish that students enjoy this book and get benefited from it as much as I have enjoyed writing it. I think
students appreciate the manner and care that have been taken in preparing this book. It provides everything a student
needs to complete his course successfully. Many students do not know the basics of chemistry and hence fear the subject;
this book aims to help them overcome this fear.
In spite of my best efforts, there could be some errors in this book. I request all to send their valuable suggestions
and observations for improving the book in the further editions.
I sincerely thank all those who directly or indirectly encouraged me to author this book. I am also very grateful to
the staff of Pearson Education, for their continuous encouragement and hard work in bringing out this book in this
fascinating manner.
K. Rama Rao
This page is intentionally left blank.
1
Chapter
Solid State
Solids, Liquids and Gases • Freeze drying is a process of cooling the substances
containing water to below –10°C at 1 atm, where
• The cooling of liquid molecules leads to the forma- the water molecules freeze to ice. This when sub-
tion of solids. jected to evacuation, water sublimes leaving behind
• In the solid state, intermolecular attractive forces the non-volatile components.
are extremely strong and as a result the molecular • Instant coffee, tea, powdered milk and many medi-
motion is completely stopped. cines are dried by freeze-drying method.
• In solids, the molecules assume fixed positions and
their motion is restricted to just vibration. Types of Solids
• Unlike gases and liquids, the solids possess definite
• Solids are of two types: Crystalline and amorphous
volume and shape.
solids
• The constituent particles in solid are closely packed
• In Crystalline solids, the constituent particles are
and this leads to the properties like incompressibil-
arranged in an orderly manner, for example, NaCl,
ity, rigidity, mechanical strength, slow diffusion and
ZnS, etc.
non-fluidity.
• The solids that do not possess crystalline form are
• Like liquids, solids also evaporate and hence exhibit
called amorphous solids, for example, glass, rubber,
vapour pressure.
many plastics, red phosphorous and amorphous
• The molecules at the surface of solid possess more sulphur.
kinetic energy and break away from the surface to
• Amorphous solids are regarded as super-cooled
enter into vapour state.
liquids or pseudo solids because they do not melt
• The process whereby a solid directly converts into sharply at a definite temperature but tend to sof-
vapour is called sublimation. ten on heating and gradually change into a viscous
• Substances such as ammonium chloride, iodine, liquid.
camphor, solid carbon dioxide sublime at ordinary • Isotropy is that, the physical properties such as
temperature and pressure. refractive index, thermal and electrical conductiv-
• Snow sublimes when the surrounding temperature ity and solubility are same in different directions.
is less than 0°C. Amorphous solids are isotropic.
• The white cloud-like exhaust fumes of high flying • Anisotropy is that, the physical properties as above
jets contain water vapour convert directly into mi- are different in different directions. Crystalline sol-
crocrystalline ice slowly converts into water vapour ids are anisotropic.
without passing through liquid state. • Amorphous solids are characterized by limited in
• The property of sublimation is used in the freeze compressibility, limited rigidity, no definite geomet-
drying of substances containing water. ric shape, no sharp melting point and isotropy.
Objective_Chemistry_V2_Chapter_01.indd 1 3/18/2015 2:07:42 PM

1.2 Objective Chemistry - Vol. II
• Crystalline solids are characterized by incompress- • Metallic solids exhibit metallic lustre, high electri-
ibility, rigidity, mechanical strength, definite geo- cal and thermal conductivity due to free-moving
metric shape, sharp melting point and anisotropy. electrons.
Classification of Crystalline Solids Allotropy and Polymorphism

• The crystalline solids are four types (i) covalent
solids (ii) ionic solids (iii) molecular solids • Allotropy is the phenomenon of existence of a sub-
(iv) metallic solids stance (element or compound) in two or more forms
having different physical and chemical properties.
• Depending on the type of attractive forces between
molecules, the molecular solids are again catego- • Enantiotropy is that type of allotropy where each
rized into three types allotrope will exist independently, that is, stable over
a given temperature range, for example, sulphur,
• Non-polar molecular solids in which atoms such as
tin, ammonium chloride, red and yellow forms of
Ar, Kr, Xe, and so on, or molecules of covalent sub-
mercuric iodide.
stances such as H2, N2, O2, Cl2, and so on are held
together by weak van der Waals forces. These solids • If one allotrope is stable under normal conditions
have low melting points and the particles are widely but the other allotrope is unstable or metastable,
separated than in close packed ionic or metallic then it is known as monotropic allotropy, for ex-
lattices. ample, white and red phosphorous; diamond and
graphite; calcite and aragonite. Under normal con-
• Polar molecular solids in which molecules are held
ditions, the metastable form changes to the stable
together by relatively stronger dipole–dipole inter-
form but never in the reverse direction.
actions. The solids are soft and non-conductors
of electricity. Their melting points are higher than • The phenomenon in which one allotrope changes
those of non-polar molecular solids, for example, into the other at exactly the same rate as the reverse
solid CO2, SO2, NH3, etc. occurs is known as dynamic allotropy. Both allo-
tropes are stable over a wide range of conditions. In
• Hydrogen-bonded molecular solids are those in
liquid state, Sλ and Sμ exhibit dynamic allotropy.
which molecules participate in hydrogen bonding.
In crystals of benzoic acid, hydrogen bonds cause
the association into dimers which are then held to- Isomorphism
gether by van der Waals forces. These are also non-
conductors of electricity. • When two different chemical substances have the
• In ionic solids, the structural units are positive and same crystalline form, they are said to be isomor-
negative ions, each ion being surrounded by a defi- phous. (In Greek, ‘isomorphe’ means ‘equal form’.)
nite number of oppositely charged ions known as • Isomorphism is exhibited by the solids in which the
coordination number. packing in crystal lattice is same which depends on
• In ionic solids, ions are held together by strong elec- the nature of the forces holding the units of struc-
trostatic forces and they have high melting points. ture together and on the relative sizes and shapes.
They are hard and brittle. Since the ions in a solid • Ionic compounds exhibit isomorphism when the
are not free to move they are non-conductors of relative sizes of the ions are same and have simi-
electricity in solid state but in molten state and in lar shape, for example, NaCl and KCl are isomor-
aqueous solution they ionize and become good phous, K 2SO 4, K 2SeO 4 , KMnO4, and BaSO 4; all
conductors of electricity. alums are isomorphous.
• In a covalent or network solid, the atoms are con-
nected to one another by covalent linkages form-
Vapour Pressure and Melting Point
ing giant, network, for example, diamond, graphite,
carborundum, quartz, and so on. • Solids have some vapour pressure but are negligibly
• In metallic solids, the units are positive metallic ions small due to strong forces which have to be over-
surrounded by a sea of mobile electrons, each elec- come to vaporize.
tron belonging to a number of positive ions and each • The temperature and pressure at which the three
positive ion belonging to a number of electrons. states solid, liquid and vapour of a substance are in
• The binding force in metallic solids is metallic bond. equilibrium is called triple point.

Solid State 1.3
10. Amorphous solids

Objective Questions (1) possess sharp melting points
1. Which one is not the property of crystalline solid? (2) undergo clean cleavage when cut with a knife
(1) isotropic (3) do not undergo clean cleavage when cut with a
(2) sharp melting point knife
(3) a definite and regular geometry (4) possess orderly arrangement over long distance
(4) high intermolecular forces 11. Which of the following statement is incorrect
2. The characteristic features of solids are about amorphous solids?
(1) definite shape (1) They are anisotropic.
(2) definite size (2) They are rigid and incompressible.
(3) definite shape and size (4) They melt over a wide range in temperature.
(4) definite shape, size and rigidity (4) There is no orderly arrangement of particles.
3. The constituent particles of a solid have
(1) translatory motion only Answers
(2) rotatory motion only
(3) vibratory motion only (1) 1 (2) 4 (3) 3 (4) 4
(4) all the above type of motions (5) 2 (6) 4 (7) 3 (8) 2
4. Which of the following is not a characteristic of (9) 3 (10) 3 (11) 1
crystalline solid?
(1) They have a regular geometry
(2) They have sharp melting point Crystal Lattices and
(3) They have long range order of arrangements Unit Cells
(4) They cannot be cleaved
• A space lattice is a regular arrangement of constitu-
5. If heat is supplied to a pure substance which is just
ent particles (atoms, ions or molecules) of a crystal-
beginning to melt, the
line solid in three-dimensional spaces.
(1) critical temperature will rise
(2) temperature will remain constant
• The positions which are occupied by the atoms,
(3) temperature will immediately rise ions or molecules in the crystal are called lattice
(4) temperature will fall points or lattice sites.
• The smallest repetitive unit of a crystal lattice which
6. In solids, the constituent particles may be
is used to describe the lattice is called the unit cell.
(1) atoms (2) ions
(3) molecules (4) any of these
• Crystals possess the same symmetry as their con-
stituent unit cells.
7. Which of the following set contains all molecular
• Primitive unit cells are drawn with lattice points
crystals?
at all corners, and each primitive cell contains the
(1) LiF, solid CO2, wax, diamond equivalent of one atom.
(2) ZnS, silicon, I 2, NaCl
(3) Solid CO2, wax, I 2, Ice
• When a primitive cell contains one or more con-
(4) SiC, graphite, caesium chloride, rubber stituent particles present at positions other than
corners in addition to those at corners, it is called
8. A molecular crystalline solid centred unit cell.
(1) is very hard • In the simple unit cell, the particles are present only
(2) is volatile at the corners of the unit cell.
(3) has a high melting point
(4) is a good conductor
• In the body-centred unit cell, there is one particle
present at the centre of the unit cell in addition to
9. Amorphous solids are the particles at the corners of the unit cell.
(1) solid substances in real sense • In a face-centred unit cell, there is one particle pre-
(2) liquids in real sense sent on the centre of each face in addition to the
(3) supercooled liquids particles at the corners of the unit cell.
(4) substances with definite melting points

• In the end-centred cell, there is one particle in the • A crystal system is characterized by the dimensions
centre of two opposite faces in addition to the par- of a unit cell along the three axes (a, b, c) and the
ticles at the corners of the unit cell. size of angles (α , β , γ ) between the three axes.
• The various types of unit cells possible are given in the
Crystal Systems following Table and their shapes shown in the figure
• The total number of three-dimensional lattices are
• There are seven crystal systems, arising due to
14, which are known as Bravais lattices.
different symmetry of the crystal lattices.
The Seven Crystal Systems
Crystal system Axial distance Axial angles Possible types of unit cells Examples
or edge lengths
Cubic a=b=c a = b = g = 90 Primitive body centred, face Copper, KCl, NaCl, zinc blend,
centred diamond
Tetragonal a=b≠c a = b = g = 90° Primitive body centred SnO2, White tin, TiO2, CaSO4
Orthorhombic a≠b≠c a = b = g = 90 Primitive, body centred, face Rhombic sulphur KNO3,
centred, end centred CaCO3, BaSO4
Hexagonal a=b≠c a = b = 90 g = 120 Primitive Graphite Mg, ZnO CdS
Trigonal or a≠b≠c a = b = g ≠ 90 Primitive CaCO3 (Calcite, HgS,
Rhombohedral Cinnabar)
Monoclinic a≠b≠c a = g = 90 b ≠ 90 Primitive, end centred Monoclinic sulphur,
Na2SO4.10H2O
Triclinic a≠b≠c a ≠ b ≠ g ≠ 90 Primitive K2Cr2O7, CuSO4·5H2O, H3BO3
a
a
Primitive (or simple) Body centred Face centred
The three cubic lattices: all sides same length; angles between faces all 90°
a
a
The two tetragonal lattices: one side different in length to the other
two angles between faces all 90°

Solid State 1.5
a
b
The four orthorhombic lattices: unequal sides; angles between faces all 90°
a
b
more
than
90°
c
less
than
90°
Side
view
The two monclinic lattices: unequal sides; two faces have angles differnent to 90°

Number of Atoms per Unit Cell 15. Which one of the following is a primitive unit cell?
(1) simple cubic
• In a simple or primitive cubic lattice, the lattice (2) body-centred cubic
points are located only at the corners. (3) face-centred cubic
• In different cubic unit cells, there are mainly four (4) both body- and face-centred cubic
kinds of lattice points. The four types of lattice
points and the contribution of each particle at the 16. How many basic crystal systems are known?
lattice point to the unit cell are (1) 7 (2) 8 (3) 6 (4) 4
(i) A particle in the body of the unit cell belongs 17. Which of the following systems has/have not been
to that unit cell only and counts 1; correctly characterized?
(ii) A particle on a face is shared by two unit cells (1) cubic a = b = c, α = β = γ = 90°
and contributes 1 2 to the unit cell; (2) cubic a = b ≠ c, α = β = γ = 90°
(iii) A particle at the edge is shared by four unit (3) monoclinic a ≠ b ≠ c, α = γ = 90°, β ≠ 90°
cells and contributes 1 4 to the unit cell; and (4) tetragonal a = b ≠ c, α = β = γ = 90°
(iv) A particle at a corner is shared by eight cells 18. The number of atoms per unit cell in a simple
that share the corner and so contributes 18 to cubic, face-centred cubic and body-centred cubic
the unit cell. are, respectively,
• In a simple or primitive cubic lattice, the lattice (1) 1, 4, 2 (2) 1, 2, 4
points are located at the corners of each unit cell (3) 8, 14, 9 (4) 8, 4, 2
and can contribute only 18 of each particle at the 19. Tetragonal crystal system has the following unit
corner to the unit cell shared by 8 unit cells in space cell dimensions
lattice. So a simple cubic unit cell has 8 × 18 = 1 par-
(1) a = b = c and α = β = γ = 90°
ticle per unit cell
(2) a = b ≠ c and α = β = γ = 90°
• In a body-centred cubic unit cell, particles are lo- (3) a ≠ b ≠ c and α = β = γ = 90°
cated at the centre of the cell as well as at the cor- (4) a ≠ b = c and α = β = 90° and γ = 90°
ners. Therefore the number of atoms per unit cell
in body centred cubic unit cell is 8(at corners) × 20. In a crystal a ≠ b ≠ c and a = g = 90°, b ≠ 90°. It is
1 + 1( at body centre ) × 1 = 2 particles (1) monoclinic (2) rhombic
8
• In a face-centred cubic (fcc) unit cell, atoms (3) trigonal (4) tetragonal
are bound at the centre of the six faces of the 21. Example of a unit cell with crystallographic
cell as well as at each of the eight corners. The dimensions a ≠ b ≠ c, α = γ = 90°, β ≠ 90° is
number of particles per unit cell in a fcc is (1) calcite
6 ( at centre of each face ) × 1 2 + 8 ( at corners ) × 18 = 4 (2) graphite
particles. (3) rhombic sulphur
(4) monoclinic sulphur
Objective Questions 22. For a certain crystal, unit cell axial lengths are found
12. Bravais lattices are to be a = 5.62 Å, b = 7.41 Å and c = 10.13 Å. The
three coordinate axes are mutually perpendicular.
(1) 10 types (2) 8 types
The crystal system to which this crystal belongs is the
(3) 7 types (4) 14 types
(1) tetragonal (2) orthorhombic
13. The three-dimensional graph of lattice points (3) monoclinic (4) cubic
which sets the pattern for the whole lattice is called
23. If the three inter axial angles defining the unit
(1) space lattice (2) simple lattice
cell are all equal in magnitude, the crystal cannot
(3) unit cell (4) crystal lattice
belong to the
14. Which of the following type of cubic lattice has (1) orthorhombic system
maximum number of atoms per unit cell? (2) hexagonal system
(1) simple cubic (2) body-centred cubic (3) tetragonal system
(3) face-centred cubic (4) all have same (4) cubic system

Solid State 1.7
24. A match box exhibits • The void created when four spherical particles are
(1) cubic geometry in contact with each other is called tetrahedral void
(2) orthorhombic geometry or tetrahedral hole.
(3) triclinic geometry • If tetrahedral voids of second layer are covered,
(4) monoclinic geometry hexagonal close-packed (hcp) structure results.
• If octahedral voids of second layer are covered,
Answers cubic close-packed (ccp) structure results.
• In a close-packed structure of N atoms, there are
(12) 4 (13) 1 (14) 3 (15) 1 (16) 1 2N tetrahedral voids and N octahedral voids. The
(17) 2 (18) 1 (19) 2 (20) 1 (21) 4 octahedral voids are larger than tetrahedral voids.
(22) 2 (23) 2 (24) 2 • The radius ratio of different voids is 0.225 for tet-
rahedral void, 0.414 for octahedral void, 0.155 for
triangular void and 0.732 for cubic void.
Packing of Equal Spheres Tetrahedral
(Structure of Metals) hole
• In metals, the atoms in a close-packed layer are

arranged in a regular hexagon.
• In metals, the close-packed layers of atoms can be
staked in two ways. (a)
• In hexagonal close packing (hcp), after arranging Octahedral
the atoms of second layer in the depressions of the hole
first layer, the atoms of third layer are arranged so
that they will be immediately above the atoms in the
first layer. This results in AB AB AB ….. pattern.
• Metals that crystallize in hcp structure are Be, Mg, (b)
Ti, Zn and Cd.
• In cubic close packing (ccp), the atoms in third layer (a) Tetrahedral and (b) octahedral voids.
are not immediately above the atoms in the first
layer. This type of stacking of layers results in ABC Locating Tetrahedral and
ABC …. pattern Octahedral Voids in Cubic Close
• Metals that crystallize in the ccp structure are Al, Packing
Cu, Ag, Au, Pt and Ni.
• In cubic close packing, there are eight tetrahedral
• In hcp and ccp structures, the coordination number,
voids two on each body diagonal at one-fourth dis-
that is, the number of surrounding atoms in contact
tance from each end.
with an atom is 12.
• In cubic close packing or face-centred cubic close
• It is impossible to pack identical spheres (atoms)
packing, there is one octahedral hole at the cube
together with coordination number greater than 12.
centre and 12 octahedral voids on the centres of
12 edges of the cube.
Interstitial Sites or • The octahedral hole at the centre of the cube is
Interstitial Voids surrounded by the atoms belonging to the same
cube. The octahedral hole at the edge centre is sur-
• In a close-packed arrangement of spherical parti- rounded by three atoms belonging to the same unit
cles (atoms/ions/molecules), two types of voids or cell (2 on the corners and 1 on the face centre) and
holes are created. 3 belonging to the adjacent unit cells.
• The void created when six spherical particles are in • Each octahedral hole on the edge centre is being
contact with each other is called octahedral void or shared by 4 unit cells. The number of octahedral
octahedral hole. voids in cubic close packing per unit cell is 4.

the corners of the unit cell and Y atoms at the body

Objective Questions centre. The simplest formula of the compound is
25. Which of the following statement is wrong? (1) X 3 Y (2) X 2 Y
(1) The coordination number of each sphere in (4) XY (4) XY2
hcp arrangement is 12. 32. A Compound contains two types of atoms X and
(2) In a close-packed array of N spheres, the Y. Its crystal structure is a cubic lattice with X at-
number of octahedral holes is N. oms at the corners of the cube and Y atoms are at
(3) In a close-packed array of N spheres, the the face centre. The simplest formula of the com-
number of tetrahedral holes is 2N. pound is
(4) Hexagonal close-packed arrangement of ions (1) X 2 Y (2) XY3
is described as ABCABCABC…. (3) XY2 (4) X 3 Y
26. Identify the false statement 33. A solid has a structure in which X atoms are locat-
(1) In ccp arrangement, the total number of octa- ed at the cube corners of the unit cell, Y atoms are
hedral voids formed will be 13. located at the cube edges and Z atoms at the cube
(2) AB AB AB ….. arrangement represents cubic centre. What is the formula of the compound?
close-packed structure. (1) ZXY3 (2) XYZ
(3) If the coordination number of an element in (3) XYZ3 (4) ZYX3
its crystal lattice is 8, then the packing is bcc.
(4) In an fcc lattice, the number of nearest neigh- 34. CCP is same as
bours for a given lattice point is 12. (1) bcc (2) fcc
(3) hcp (4) None of these
27. When identical spheres in the adjacent rows have
a vertical as well as horizontal alignment in such a 35. A packing consists of a base of spheres, followed
way that each sphere has four nearest neighbours, by a second layer where each sphere rests in the
the type of pattern is called hollow at the junction of four spheres below it and
(1) square close packing the third layer then rest on these in an arrange-
(2) hexagonal close packing ment which corresponds exactly to that in the first
(3) cubic close packing layer. This packing is knows as
(4) body-centred close packing (1) hexagonal close packing
(2) cubic close packing
28. If three spheres of first layer and three of second
(3) square close packing
layer enclose a site at the centre on a closest pack-
(4) body-centred cubic packing
ing arrangement, then this site is called
(1) interstitial site (2) tetrahedral site 36. The two principal types of staking of closest-
(3) octahedral site (4) none of these packed layers in metallic structures are called
(1) body-centred cubic close packing and hexago-
29. In a closest packed lattice, the number of tetrahe-
nal close packing
dral sites formed will be
(2) square based cubic-close packing and cubic
(1) equal to the number of spheres in the lattice close packing
(2) half than that of the number of spheres (3) hexagonal close packing and cubic close
(3) double than that of the number of spheres packing
(4) triple than that of the number of spheres (4) cubic close packing and body-centred cubic
30. The intermetallic compound LiAg crystallizes in packing
cubic lattice in which both lithium and silver have 37. If the spheres in the first and third layers lie in
coordination number of eight. The crystal class is different interstices of the second layer rather than
(1) simple cube in the same interstices, then the staking pattern is
(2) body-centred cube called
(3) face-centred cube (1) cubic close packing
(4) end-centred cube (2) hexagonal close packing
31. A compound contains two types of atoms X and Y. (3) body-centred close packing
Its crystal structure is cubic lattice with X atoms at (4) simple cubic lattice pattern

Solid State 1.9
38. When a sphere fits into the depression formed by 45. On increasing the temperature of a crystalline
three other spheres close packed in two dimensions, compound,
then the void formed is called (1) it decomposes
(1) an octahedral void (2) coordination number increase
(2) a tetrahedral void (3) coordination number decreases
(3) tetragonal void (4) None of these happens
(4) a rhombohedral void
39. The arrangement of the first two layers, one above Answers
the other in hcp and ccp arrangement, is
(25) 4 (26) 2 (27) 1 (28) 3 (29) 3
(1) exactly same in both cases
(30) 2 (31) 3 (32) 2 (33) 1 (34) 3
(2) partially same and partially different
(35) 4 (36) 3 (37) 1 (38) 3 (39) 1
(3) different from each other
(40) 3 (41) 2 (42) 3 (43) 4 (44) 3
(4) nothing definite
(45) 3
40. A tetrahedral void in a crystal implies that
(1) shape of the void is tetrahedral
(2) molecules forming the void are tetrahedral in Efficiency of Packing
shape
(3) the void is surrounded tetrahedrally by four • The atomic radius r is expressed in terms of edge
spheres length ‘a’
(4) the void is surrounded by six spheres a
• r = in the case of simple cubic lattice.
2
41. The octahedral voids in a face-centred cubic (fcc) a
or (ccp) structure are located at • r= in the case of face centred cubic lattice
2 2
(1) 6 at edge centres and 8 along body diagonals
(2) 12 at edge centres and one at body centre 3
• r= a in the case of body centred cubic lattice
(3) 8 along body diagonal and 6 at edge centres 4
(4) all at edge centres only • Ionic radii of an ion ‘r’ in terms of edge length in
different types of ionic crystals can be expressed as
42. The size of an octahedral void formed in a closest-
packed lattice as compared to tetrahedral void is rc + ra = a in the case of simple cubic lattice
a
(1) equal rc + ra = for cubic lattice of NaCl type
(2) smaller 2
(3) larger 3
rc + ra = a for a body-centred lattice of CsCl
(4) not definite 2
type
43. Which of the following statement is wrong?
• Volume occupied in an fcc arrangement is 74.06%
(1) Ag crystallizes in ccp structure
• Volume occupied in body-centred cubic (bcc)
(2) Cobalt crystallizes in bcc structure
arrangement is 68%
(3) In hcp in two layers one above the other, the
coordination number of each sphere will be 9 • Packing efficiency of simple cubic lattice is 52.4%
(4) In a fcc lattice, the number of nearest neigh- • Packing efficiency of hexagonal close packing is 74%
bours for a given lattice point is 8
44. An alloy of copper, silver and gold is found to Calculation Involving Unit Cell
have copper constituting the ccp lattice. If silver Dimensions
atoms occupy the edge centres and gold is present
at body centre, then the alloy has the formula • If the edge length of the unit cell is ‘a’ pm, that is,
(1) Cu 4 Ag 2 Au a × 10 −10 cm
(2) Cu 4 Ag 4 Au Volume of the unit cell = a3 × 10 −30 cm3
(3) Cu 4 Ag3 Au Mass of the unit cell
Density of the unit cell =
(4) Cu Ag Au Volume of the unit cell

• Mass of the unit cell = (No atoms or formula units • When half the tetrahedral voids are occupied by
per unit cell) × (Mass of one atom or one formula cations the crystal will get the zinc blende or sphal-
unit) = Z × m erite structure.
Here Z is the number of atoms present in one unit • If all the tetrahedral voids are occupied by anions
cell and m is the mass of a single atom. while cation adopt cubic close-packed structure, the
M crystal will get the fluorite structure and the formula
m= , where M is gram molecular weight and of the compound will be AB2 as the tetrahedral
NA
voids are double to the ions making cubic close-
NA is Avogadro’s number (6.02 × 1023 ).
packed structure.
ZM • If anions adopt cubic close packing and cations oc-
Density d = g cm −3
N A a3 × 10 −30 cupy all the tetrahedral voids, the crystal will get the
antifluorite structure and the formula of the com-
pound will be A2B.
Radius Ratio: Structure of an • Packing efficiency of rock-salt structure is 79% and
Ionic Compound that of zinc blend structure is 75%
• In ionic solids every ion is surrounded by a number • The type of hole occupied can be determined from
of oppositely charged ions. the radius ratio.
• The number of oppositely charged ions surround- Radius ratio Coordination number Structure
ing an ion is called as the coordination number of
<0.155 2 Linear
that particular ion
0.155–0.225 3 Triangular
• The arrangement of ions in a crystal and the coor- 0.225–0.414 4 Tetrahedral
dination number of an ion depends on the radius 0.414–0.732 6 Octahedral
ratio of the ions or atoms surrounded it. 0.732–1 8 Cubic
• In the case of ionic solids, the ratio of the radius
of cation to the radius of an anion is called limiting
radius ratio.
• In the simple ionic crystals, anions are normally Objective Questions
larger than cations and arranged in a closest-packed
array. 46. If R is the radius of spheres forming closest-pack-
ing lattice and r is the radius of the tetrahedral
• Being smaller in size, cations occupy the voids. If void, then these two parameters are related as
all the octahedral voids are occupied by cations,
(1) r = 0.155R (2) r = 0.225R
the number of cations is equal to the number of
(3) r = 0.414R (4) r = 0.732R
anions. If all the tetrahedral voids are occupied by
cations, the number of cations is twice the number 47. Close packing is maximum in
of anions. (1) simple cubic (2) bcc
• Relatively small cations occupy the tetrahedral (3) fcc (4) None
holes while larger cations occupy the octahedral
48. The edge length of face-centred unit cubic cell is
holes.
508 pm. If the radius of the cation is 110 pm, the
• If cation is too large to fit into the octahedral hole, radius of anion is
the anions make larger cubic holes for cations. (1) 110 pm (2) 144 pm
• Coordination numbers of 5, 7, 9, 10 and 11 do not (3) 618 pm (4) 398 pm
occur because of the impossibility of balancing the
electrical charges. 49. Suppose ‘a’ is the axial length of the body-centred
cubic unit cell, then the distance between nearest
• When the radius ratio becomes equal to 1, ions neighbours is
of the same size are making up the crystal. This is
(1) a 2 (2) a 2
found in the crystals of metals.
• When all the octahedral voids are occupied by the 2 3
(3) a (4) a
cations, the crystal will get the rock-salt structure. 4 2

Solid State 1.11
50. Platinum crystallizes in face-centred cubic crystal Answers

with a unit cell length ‘a’. The distance between
nearest neighbour is (46) 2 (47) 3 (48) 2 (49) 4
3 (50) 3 (51) 4 (52) 3 (53) 4
(1) a (2) a
2 (54) 2 (55) 2 (56) 1
2 2
(3) a (4) a
2 4 Structure of Ionic Compounds
51. Calcium crystallizes in fcc lattice. The axial length
Sodium Chloride Structure
of one unit cell is 556 pm. Calculate the radius of
a calcium atom. • In NaCl, each Na + or Cl − ion is surrounded by six
(1) 278 pm (2) 241 pm (coordination number) other oppositely charged
(3) 481 pm (4) 197 pm ions octahedrally.
52. Lithium crystallizes in body-centred cubic lattice • NaCl structure is regarded as cubic close-packed
of unit cell length 352 pm. The distance between array of Cl − ions with Na + ions occupying all the
nearest neighbours is octahedral holes.
(1) 150 pm (2) 75 pm • The unit cell of NaCl has 4 Na + ions and 4 Cl −
(3) 304 pm (4) 122 pm ions and thus 4 formula units per unit cell.
53. The distance between adjacent oppositely charged • The ionic solids having NaCl-type crystal structure
ion in rubidium chloride is 3.285 Å, in potassium are HgO, CaO, SrO, NaBr, KCl, and so on.
chloride is 3.139 Å, in sodium bromide is 2.981
and in potassium bromide is 3.293. The distance Zinc Blende or Sphalerite (ZnS)
between adjacent oppositely charged ions in Structure
rubidium bromide is
(1) 3.147 Å (2) 3.385 Å • The radius ratio 0.4 of Zn2+ and S2− in zinc blende
(3) 3.393 Å (4) 3.439 Å suggests a tetrahedral arrangement of ZnS.
54. How many unit cells are there in 1.00 g cube-
shaped ideal crystal of AB (MW = 60), which has AY2 Type Ionic Solids
NaCl type lattice?
Fluorite (Calcium fluoride) Structure
(1) 6.02 × 1023
(2) 2.5 × 1021 • In fluorite each Ca 2+ ion is surrounded by eight F−
(3) 1.00 × 1022 ions giving bcc arrangement.
(4) 6.02 × 1024 • Each F− ion in CaF2 is surrounded by four Ca 2+
ions tetrahedrally.
55. Packing fraction (fraction of volume occupied)
(1) depends on the radius of the spheres
• Since the number of F− ions is double the number
(2) depends only on the nature of packing of Ca 2+ ions, the coordination number of Ca 2+ and
(3) depends both on the radius of the sphere and F− are 8 and 4, respectively.
the nature of the packing • Ionic solids having fluorite structure are UO2,
(4) is independent of the nature of the packing ThO2, SrF2.
56. The low density of the alkali metals is due to
(1) their body-centred cubic structure in which A2X Type Ionic Solid
about 32% of the available space is unfilled Antifluorite Structure
(2) their hexagonal close-packed structure in which
about 74% of the available space is unfilled • In antifluorite structure, anions form cubic close
(3) their cubic close-packed structure in which packed arrangement and cations occupy tetrahe-
74% of the available space is filled dral holes
(4) their body-centred cubic structure in which • In antifluorite structure, coordination number of
about 47% the available space is unfilled cation is 4 and that of anion is 8.

• Ionic solids having antifluorite structure are Li2O, • In CsCl, if the ions at the corners are Cl- ions there
Na2O, K2O and Rb2O. will be Cs + ion at the body-centred position or
vice versa.
Structure of Some Solid Crystals • The ionic solids having CsCl structure are CsBr,
CsI, TlBr.
• Rutile is one form of titanium dioxide. Its unit cell
has a tetragonal structure in which titanium ions
Perovskite Structure
are at the corners and at the centre of the cube. The
titanium ion at the centre is surrounded by six oxide • Perovskite is a mineral with formula CaTiO3.
ions. • The Ca2+ ions occupy the corners of the cube, the
• Every titanium ion is surrounded by six oxide ions O2– ions occupy the face centres of the cube and the
and every oxide ion has three titanium ions as their titanium ion lies at the centre of the cube.
nearest neighbours.
• The ratio of titanium and oxide ions is 1:2 and the Structure of Magnetite (Fe3O4)
formula of rutile is TiO2.
• The Fe3O4 contains Fe3+ and Fe2+ ions in the ratio
• In ZnS (zinc blende) each Zn2+ ion is surrounded 2:1 and considering the composition of FeO Fe2O3
by four S2− ions and each S2− ion is tetrahedrally
surrounded by four Zn2+ ions.
• In Fe3O4, oxide ions are arranged in ccp and Fe2+
ions occupy octahedral voids while Fe3+ ions are
• In ZnS the coordination number of Zn2+ and S2− is equally distributed between octahedral and tetra-
4:4 arrangement. hedral holes.
• ZnS is related to cubic close-packed structure and • Mg Fe2 O 4 also has the structure similar to magnet-
Zn2+ ions occupy tetrahedral holes. ite in which Mg 2+ ions are present in place of Fe2+
• Since there are twice as many tetrahedral holes as ion in Fe3 O 4.
there are S2− ions. It follows that to obtain a for- • Magnetite has an inverse spinel structure.
mula ZnS, only half of the tetrahedral holes are oc-
cupied by Zn2+ (that is every alternate tetrahedral
Normal Spinel Structure
site is occupied)
• ZnS has face-centred cubic structure in which • Spinel is a mineral (Mg Al2 O 4)
S2− ions occupy the lattice points and Zn2+ ions • In spinel oxide ions are arranged in ccp with Mg 2+
are at one-fourth of the distance along each body ions occupying tetrahedral voids and Al3+ ions
diagonal. occupy octahedral voids.
• Each unit cell of ZnS consists of four Zn2+ and four • Ferrites such as ZnFe2 O 4 also possess spinel
S2− ions making 4 ZnS formula units. structure.
• Ionic solids having ZnS crystal structure are BeO,
CuCl, Cu, and so on.
Objective Questions
Wurtzite Structure 57. The tetrahedral voids formed by ccp arrangement
of Cl– ions in rock salt structure are
• Wurtzite has hexagonal structure. Sulphide ions
occupy the triangular faces. Four zinc ions make (1) vacant
up the corners of tetrahedron centred on another (2) occupied by Na + ions
sulphide ion at a central point in the cell. (3) occupied by Cl − ions
(4) occupied by both Na + and Cl − ions
• The coordination number of each is 4.
58. The number of Cl − ions required to form ccp lat-
Caesium Chloride Structure tice of NaCl structure will be
(1) 14 (2) 13
• The radius ratio of CsCl is 0.93 which indicates that
(3) 12 (4) 9
CsCl has bcc-type arrangement in which each Cs +
ion surrounded by Cl − ions and vice versa and the 59. The r + / r − value of zinc blende structure is
coordination number of CsCl is 8:8. 0.4.This predicts

Solid State 1.13
(1) C.N. 4 with tetrahedral arrangement occupying the lattice points. What is the coordina-
(2) C.N. 4 with square planar arrangement tion number of the B atoms?
(3) C.N. 8 with b.c.c arrangement (1) 4 (2) 6 (3) 8 (4) 12
(4) C.N. 6 with octahedral arrangement
68. Antifluorite structure is derived from fluorite
60. In fluorite (CaF2) structure all octahedral voids are structure by
(1) occupied by Ca 2+ ions (1) heating fluorite crystal lattice
(2) vacant (2) subjecting fluorite structure of high pressure
(3) occupied by F− ions (3) interchanging the positions of positive and
(4) none of these negative ions in the lattice
(4) None of these
61. In fluorite (CaF2) structure, the Ca 2+ ions are
arranged in 69. In a compound XY2 O 4, Oxide ions are arranged
(1) bcc type structure (2) fcc type structure in cubic close-packing arrangement and cations
(3) hcp type structure (4) none of these X are present in octahedral voids. Cations Y are
equally distributed between octahedral and tetra-
62. Na 2 O has antifluorite structure. The fcc type of hedral voids. The fraction of the octahedral voids
lattice will be formed by occupied is
(1) O2− ions 1 1 1 1
(2) Na + ions (1) (2) (3) (4)
2 4 6 8
(3) Na + and O2− ions
70. The coordination numbers of cation occupying a
(4) None of these
tetrahedral hole and an octahedral hole, respec-
63. For an ionic compound of general formula AX tively, are
and coordination number 6, the value of radius (1) 4, 6 (2) 6, 4 (3) 8, 4 (4) 4, 8
ratio will be
71. The structure of TlCl is similar to CsCl. What
(1) greater than 0.73
would be the radius ratio in TlCl?
(2) in between 0.73 and 0.41
(3) in between 0.41 and 0.22 (1) 0.155–0.225 (2) 0.225– 0.414
(4) less than 0.22 (3) 0.414–0.732 (4) 0.732–1.00
72. The type of structure assumed by an ionic com-
64. The positions of Na + ions in NaCl structure are
pound is determined by
(1) corners of the cube
(1) relative number of each kind of the ions
(2) body centre of the cube
(2) relative sizes of each kind of the ions
(3) edge centres of the cube
(3) both 1 and 2
(4) both 2 and 3
(4) None of these
65. Space lattice of CaF2 is
73. Which one of the following statement is wrong
(1) fcc (2) bcc about rock salt type structure?
(3) simple cubic (4) hcp
(1) it has an fcc structure
66. Which of the following statement is not correct? (2) Na + and Cl − ions have a coordination number
(1) The coordination number of each type of ion 6:6
in CsCl crystal is 8 (3) A unit cell of NaCl consists of four NaCl units
(2) A metal crystallizes in bcc structure has a (4) All halides of alkali metals have rock-salt type
coordination number 12 structure
(3) A unit cell of an ionic crystal shares some of 74. Which one of the following statements is wrong
its ions with other unit cells about zinc blend-type structure?
(4) The edge length of the unit cell in NaCl is 552 pm (1) Each Zn2+ ion is surrounded tetrahedrally by
( RNa + = 95 pm, rCl− = 181 pm ) four S2− ions and each S2− ion by four Zn2+ ions
(2) S 2− ions form an fcc arrangement
67. A mineral having the formula AB2 crystallizes (3) AgBr has zinc blend-type structure
in the cubic close-packed lattice with A atoms (4) cuprous halides have zinc blende-type structure

75. The number of formula units in unit cell of fluorite is Crystallography

(1) 2 (2) 4 (3) 6 (4) 8
• The branch of science which deals with the geo-
76. Among NaCl, ZnS, CaF2 and CsCl, in which case metrical properties and structure of crystals and
the cations form ccp structure crystalline substances is called crystallography.
(1) NaCl (2) ZnS (3) CsCl (4) CaF2 • The law of constancy of interfacial angles states that
77. In the sphalerite (ZnS) structure S ions form 2− for a given substance the corresponding faces or
face-centred cubic lattice. Then Zn2+ ions are pre- planes forming the external surface of crystal inter-
sent on the body diagonal at sect at a definite angle called interfacial angle and
remains always constant no matter how the faces
(1) 13 rd of the distance
develop.
(2) 1 4 th of the distance
• Plane of symmetry is an imaginary plane which
(3) 1 6 th of the distance
passes through the centre of a crystal and divides
(4) 18 th of the distance it into two equal portions, such that one part is the
78. A solid A + B− has the B− ions arranged as below. If exact mirror image of the other.
the A + ions occupy half the tetrahedral sites in the • Axis of symmetry is a line about a crystal may be
structure, then the formula of solid is rotated such that it presents same appearance more
than once during the complete rotation.
• A n-fold (or n-gonal) axis of symmetry is an axis
such that when an ideal crystal is rotated around it,
the crystal occupies the same position in space by
n-times in a complete rotation of 360°.
(1) AB (2) AB2 (3) A2B (4) A3B4
• Centre of symmetry is a point in the body of the
79. For a solid with the following structure, the coor- crystal such that a line drawn through it inter-
dination number of the point B is sects the opposite faces at equal distances in both
directions.
• Only one centre of symmetry is possible for any
crystal.
• The total number of planes, axes and centre of
symmetry possessed by a crystal is known as
(1) 3 (2) 4 (3) 5 (4) 6 elements of symmetry.
80. In a solid AB having the NaCl structure ‘A’ atoms • A cube has three rectangular planes of symmetry,
occupy the corners of the cubic unit cell. If all six diagonal planes of symmetry, three fourfold
the face-centred atoms along one of the axes are axes of symmetry, four threefold axes of symmetry,
removed, then the resultant stoichiometry of the six twofold axes of symmetry thus the total of sym-
solid is metry elements is 23.
(1) AB2 (2) A2B (3) A4B3 (4) A3B4 • The law of rational indices states that intercepts of
the planes of a crystal on a suitable set of axes can
81. In which of the following crystals alternate tetra- be expressed by small multiples of unit distances.
hedral voids are occupied
• The indices used in practice to denote the direction
(1) NaCl (2) ZnS (3) CaF2 (4) Na2O
of a plane of a crystal are called Miller indices.
• For calculating Miller indices, a reference plane
Answers known a parametral plane is selected having inter-
cepts a, b and c along x-, y- and z-axes, respectively.
(57) 1 (58) 1 (59) 1 (60) 2 (61) 2
(62) 1 (63) 2 (64) 4 (65) 1 (66) 2 • The intercepts of the unknown plane are given with
(67) 4 (68) 3 (69) 1 (70) 1 (71) 4 respect to a, b and c of the parametral plane as
(72) 2 (73) 4 (74) 3 (75) 2 (76) 4 a
(77) 2 (78) 1 (79) 4 (80) 2 (81) 2 h=
intercept of the plane along x-axis

Solid State 1.15
b
k= Objective Questions
intercept of the plane along y-axis
c 82. In the Bragg’s equation for the diffraction of
l=
intercept of the plane along z -axis X-rays, ‘n’ represents
• The distance between the parallel planes in crystal (1) number of moles
is designated as d hkl (2) quantum number
(3) Avogadro’s number
• For different cubic lattices, the interplanar spacing
(4) the order of reflection
is given by the general formula:
a 83. Bragg’s law is given by the equation
d hkl =
h + k2 + l 2
2 (1) n λ = 2θ sin θ
(2) n λ = 2d sin θ
where ‘a’ is the length of the cube side while h, k and (3) 2 n λ = 2d sin θ
l are the Miller indices of the plane. θ d
(4) n = sin θ
• The spacings of three planes (100), (110) and (111) 2 2
of simple cubic lattice can be calculated as follows. 84. The second-order Bragg diffraction of X-ray with
a λ = 1.0 Å from a set parallel planes in metal occurs
d(100 ) = =a
12 + 0 + 0 at an angle 60°. The distance between the scatter-
a a ing planes in the crystal is
d(110 ) = = (1) 0.57 Å (2) 1.00 Å
2 2
1 +1 + 0 2
(3) 1.15 Å (4) 2.00 Å
a a
d(111) = = 85. A crystal plane intercepts the three crystallograph-
2
1 +1 +1 2 2 3
ic axes at a, 1 2 b and 3 2 c, where a, b and c are the
• The ratio of three planes for a simple cube is unit lengths along x-, y- and z-axes, respectively.
1 1 The Miller indices of the plane will be
d100 : d110 : d111 = 1 : : = 1 : 0.707 : 0.57
2 3 (1) 1:2:0.67 (2) 1:0.5:15
(3) 3:6:2 (4) 2:1:3
• The d hkl ratio of the face-centred cubic and body-
centred cubic are 86. In a hypothetical solid C atoms are found to form
1 2 cubical close packed lattice, A atoms occupy all
d100 : d110 : d111 ( for fcc ) = 1 : : tetrahedral voids B atoms occupy all octahedral
2 3 voids. A and B atoms are of appropriate size, so
1 1 2
d100 : d110 : d111 ( for bcc ) = : : that there is no distortion in ccp lattice of C atoms.
2 2 2 3 Now if a plane as shown in the following figure
1 is cut, then the cross section of this plane will
= 1: 2 : = 1 : 1.414 : 0.577 look like
3
Determination of Structure of
Solids by X-ray Diffraction
• When X-rays are incident on a crystal face, they are
reflected by the atoms in different planes.
• Bragg’s equation to calculate the distance between
the repeating planes of particles in crystals from the
reflected X-rays is C B C
C C C
n λ = 2d sin θ A
(a) B B
A
B (b) B B B
where n is an integer like 1, 2, 3 and represents order
of reflection, λ is the wavelength of the X-rays used C B C C C C
and d is the distance between the repeating planes.

• The crystal defects are mainly two types: (i) point

C C C C C C defects and (ii) line defects.
A A A A
(c) B B B (d) B B B
• Point defects are due to the irregular arrange-
A A A A ment around a point or an atom in a crystalline
C C C C C C substance.
• Line defects are the irregularities or deviations
87. In an fcc crystal, which of the following shaded from ideal arrangement in the entire rows of lattice
planes contains the following type of arrange- points.
ment of atoms?
Types of Point Defects
• Point defects are classified into three types:
(i) Stoichiometric defects
(ii) Impurity defects
(iii) Non-stoichiometric defects
(a) (b) Stoichiometric Defects

• Stoichiometric defects are also known as intrinsic
or thermodynamic defects.
• The defect due to the vacancy of the lattice sites is
(c) (d) called vacancy defect.
• Due to vacancy defect the density of the substances
decreases
• Vacancy defects can be developed by heating.
88. Crystal is made of particles A and B. A forms fcc • If constituent particles occupy interstitial site extra
packing and B occupies all the octahedral voids. to the lattice points, interstitial defects arise.
If all the particles along the plane as shown in the • Due to interstitial defects, density of substances
fig. are removed, then, the formula of the crystal
increases.
would be:
• Non-ionic solids exhibit vacancy and interstitial
A defects.
B
• The vacancy and interstitial defects exhibited by
ionic solids are known as Frenkel and Schottky
defects.
• Schottky defect consists of a pair of holes in the
crystalline lattice due to the absence of one posi-
tive ion and one negative ion (to maintain electrical
(a) AB (b) A5B7 neutrality).
(c) A7B5 (d) None of these
• In the case of Schottky defect, the density of solid
decreases.
Answers • Schottky defect occurs mainly in the ionic com-
pounds which contain smaller ions of similar size
(82) 4 (83) 2 (84) 3 (85) 4 which have high coordination number, for example,
(86) 3 (87) 1 (88) 1 NaCl, CsCl, KCl and KBr.
• Frenkel defect is created when an ion occupies an
interstitial site instead occupying its correct lattice
Imperfections in Solids
site.
• The imperfections or defects which arise due to • The small cations (compared to anions) occupy the
irregularity in the arrangement of atoms or ions interstitial positions thus causing Frenkel defect.

Solid State 1.17
• Frenkel defect is favoured when there is large differ- • Metal deficiency defect is due to the absence of a
ence in the size between cation and anion and hav- positive ion from its lattice point and the charge
ing low coordination number 4 to 6. can be balanced by an adjacent metal ion having an
• AgCl, AgBr and AgI show Frenkel defect. In these extra positive charge, for example, FeO, NiO, FeS
solids Ag+ions occupy the interstitial sites. and CuI.
• There is no change in density of the solid due to • If one Fe2+ ion is missing from its lattice site in FeO
Frenkel defect but the lattice may be distorted and then there must be two Fe3+ ions somewhere in the
show increase in the unit cell dimensions due to the lattice to balance the electrical charges.
presence of ions in interstitial positions. • Crystals with metal deficiency defects are p-type
• Impurity defects are due to the occupation of other semiconductors.
type of cation in a crystal lattice in the place of nor-
mal cations.
• Occupation of Sr 2+ ion in the place NaCl crystal Objective Questions
lattice two Na + ions is replaced by one Sr 2+ ion to
maintain electrical neutrality, thus creating a site of 89. In Schottky defect
one Na + ion vacant. (1) some of the lattice sites are vacant
• The cationic vacancies created are equal to the (2) an ion occupies interstitial position between
number of M2+ ions, for example, solid solution of lattice points
Cd Cl2 and AgCl. (3) a lattice point is occupied by electron
(4) the radius ratio r + / r − is low
• In non-stoichiometric defects, the ratio of positive
ion to negative ion is not exactly one. 90. Schottky defect generally appears in
• The metal excess defect is due to the absence of (1) NaCl (2) KCl
a negative ion from its lattice point leaving a hole (3) CsCl (4) All
which is occupied by an electron, thereby maintain- 91. Frenkel defect generally appears in
ing the electrical neutrality.
(1) AgBr (2) AgI
• NaCl/Na; KCl/K shows metal excess defect. (3) ZnS (4) All
• The non-stoichiometric NaCl/Na is yellow in colour.
92. In a solid lattice the cation has left a lattice site
• In metal excess defect, the anion site occupied by an and is located at an interstitial position, the lattice
electron is called F-Centre. defect is
• The solids having F-centres have colour and the (1) interstitial defect
intensity of the colour increases with an increase in (2) valency defect
the number of F-centres. (3) Frenkel defect
• Solids containing F-centres are paramagnetic (4) Schottky defect
since the electrons occupying the vacant sites are
93. Ionic solids with Schottky defects contain in their
unpaired.
structure
• When materials with F-centres are irradiated with (1) equal number of cation and anion vacancies
light become photoconductors. (2) anion vacancies and interstitial anions
• Metal excess defects also occur when an extra posi- (3) cation vacancies
tive ion occupies an interstitial position in the lattice (4) cation vacancies and interstitial cations
and to maintain electrical neutrality one electron
is included in an interstitial position for example, 94. Due to Frenkel defect, the density of ionic solids
ZnO, CdO, Cr2O3 and Fe2O3. (1) increases (2) decreases
(3) does not change (4) changes
• The solids with metal excess defect contain free
electrons and behave as n-type semiconductors. 95. Point defects are present in
• ZnO is white at low temperature but yellow at high (1) ionic solids
temperature because it loses oxygen reversibly at (2) molecular solids
high temperature and forms a non-stoichiometric (3) amorphous solids
defect with metal excess. (4) liquids

96. Schottky defects in crystal is observed when (1) renkel and Schottky defects
F
(1) unequal number of cations and anions are (2) Schottky defect
missing from the lattice (3) Interstitial defect
(2) equal number of cations and anions are miss- (4) Frenkel defect
ing from the lattice 104. Metal deficiency defects are shown by
(3) an ion leaves its normal sites and occupies an
(1) alkaline earth metals
interstitial site
(2) alkali metals
(4) density of crystal is increased
(3) transition metals
97. Which of the following solid will not show the (4) None of these
Schottky defect?
105. The electrons trapped in anion vacancies in metal
(1) NaCl (2) CsCl (3) KBr (4) AgBr excess defects are called
98. In which of the following solids, the Frenkel (1) mobile electrons
defects are common? (2) trapped electrons
(1) covalent solids with high coordination number (3) valence electrons
(2) covalent solids with low coordination number (4) F-centres
(3) ionic solids with low coordination number 106. The correct statement regarding F-centre is
(4) ionic solids with high coordination number
(1) electrons are held in the voids of crystals
99. In stoichiometric defects, the ratio of positive and (2) F-centre imparts colour to the crystals
negative ions as indicated by chemical formula of (3) conductivity of the crystal increased due to
the compound F-centre
(1) decreases (2) increases (4) All the above three
(3) remains the same (4) cannot be predicted 107. Non-stoichiometric form of NaCl is
100. In the Schottky defect (1) yellow (2) red
(1) cations are missing from the lattice sites and (3) lilac (4) blue
occupy the interstitial sites 108. Non-stoichiometric metal deficiency is shown in
(2) equal number of cations and anions are missing the salts of
(3) anions are missing and electrons are present in (1) all metals
their place (2) alkali metals only
(4) equal number of extra cations and electrons (3) alkaline earth metals only
are present in the interstitial sites (4) transition metals only
101. As a result of Schottky defect 109. ZnO is white when cold and yellow when hot. It is
(1) there is no effect on the density due to the development of
(2) density of the crystal increases (1) Frenkel defect
(3) density of the crystal decreases (2) Schottky defect
(4) any of the above three can happen (3) metal excess defect
102. Frenkel defect is found in crystals in which the (4) metal deficiency defect
radius ratio is 110. When NaCl crystal is doped with MgCl2, the
(1) low (2) 1.3 nature of the defect produced is
(3) 1.5 (4) slightly less than unity (1) interstitial defect (2) Schottky defect
103. What type of crystal defect is indicated in the (3) Frenkel defect (4) None of these
diagram given below? 111. Mark the false statement in the below:
+ − + − + − (1) CsCl crystal shows Schottky defect
Na Cl Na Cl Na Cl
(2) Crystals having F-centres are coloured and
Cl − Cl − Na + Na + paramagnetic
Na + Cl− Cl− Na + Cl− (3) Photosensitivity of AgBr is due to the pres-
ence of Frenkel defect in its crystals
Cl− Na + Cl− Na + Na + (4) None of these

Solid State 1.19
Answers • The highest occupied energy band is called the

valence band while the lowest unoccupied energy
(89) 1 (90) 4 (91) 4 (92) 3 (93) 1 band is called conduction band.
(94) 3 (95) 1 (96) 2 (97) 4 (98) 3 • In the case of metals, the valence band may be half
(99) 3 (100) 2 (101) 3 (102) 1 (103) 2 filled or there may be an overlapping between the
(104) 3 (105) 4 (106) 4 (107) 1 (108) 4 valence band and conduction bands which makes it
(109) 3 (110) 4 (111) 4 possible for the electrons to go in to vacant bands
and hence responsible for electrical conductivity.
• In the case of insulators, the energy gap is inter-
mediate between those of metals and insulators.
Properties of Solids
The increase in temperature gives thermal energy
Electrical Properties for some electrons in valence band to move into the
conduction band and hence their electrical conduc-
• Good conductors are those which allow the maxi- tivity increases with increase in temperature
mum current to flow through them and their con- • Semiconductors are perfect insulators at absolute
ductivity is of the order 108 Ω −1cm −1 . zero.
• Metallic conductors allow the current to pass through • Silicon and germanium which crystallize in diamond
them without undergoing any chemical change. type network lattice are semiconductors.
• In metallic conductors, the conductance is due to • At room temperature the conductivity of silicon
the movement of electrons under the influence of and germanium is extremely low but at high tem-
an applied electric potential. The stream of elec- perature the bonds begin to break down emitting
trons constitutes the current. the electrons and hence conductivity increases.
• Electrolytic conductors allow the electricity to pass • The conduction introduced in the crystal without add-
through them by undergoing chemical change. ing an external substance is called intrinsic conduction.
• The conductivity of electrolytic conductors is due • Doping is a process of mixing pure silicon or germa-
to the movement of ions in their molten state or in nium with an impurity.
their aqueous solution.
• Doping enhances the conductivity and the products
• Semiconductors are the solids whose conductivity are called extrinsic semiconductors.
lies between those of typical metallic conductors
• n-type semiconductors (‘n’ stands for ‘negative’) are
and insulators. Their conductivity range is 10 −6 to
obtained due to metal excess defect or by adding
10 4 Ω −1cm −1 .
trace amounts of V or 15th group elements (P, As)
• Insulators are those which do not allow electricity to to pure silicon or germanium.
flow through them. Their conductivity is 10-22W-1cm-1.
• When P or As is added to silicon or germanium,
some of the Si or Ge atoms in the crystal are replaced
Electrical Conductivity in Metals by P or As atoms and 4 out 5 electrons of P and As
atom will be used for bonding with Si or Ge atoms
• According to molecular orbital (MO) theory, in while the fifth electron serves to conduct electricity.
a metal crystal the orbitals of valence shell of all
atoms combine to form a large number of MOs
• P-type semiconductors (‘p’ stands for ‘positive’) are
around all the atoms in that metal crystal. obtained due to metal deficiency defect or by dop-
ing with impurity atoms containing less electrons
• Since a large number of MOs having almost equal (i.e. atoms of III or 13th group).
energy are formed, they are very close to each other
and form as a band of MOs.
• When B, Ga or In is added to silicon or germanium,
some of the Si or Ge atoms in the crystal are re-
• Depending upon different types of atomic orbitals placed by B, Ga or In atoms and only three valen-
which overlap, different energy bands are formed. cies of Si or Ge are satisfied leaving an electron at
• The arrangement of electrons in the different ener- Si or Ge because B, Ga or In have one electron less.
gy bands determines the characteristics of a metal. • Due to the shortage of electrons when Si or Ge is doped
• The energy bands formed from different atomic or- with B, Ga or In electron, vacancies commonly known
bital may overlap or be separated from each other. as positive holes arises in p-type semiconductors.

• When electric field is applied to p-type semiconduc- • When electric field is applied, displacement of
tors, flow of current takes place due to migration charges takes place and dipoles are created which
of positive holes due to the movement of electrons results in polarization.
from adjacent site into positive hole. • Crystals in which dipoles may align to produce a
• Unlike metals the conductivity of semiconductors net dipole moment are called piezoelectrics.
increases with increase in temperature because the • When piezoelectric crystals are subjected to pres-
weakly bound extra electron or positive hole be- sure or mechanical stress, electricity is produced
comes free by the increased temperature and can be due to displacement of ions and this is known as
used for conduction. piezoelectricity.
• A superconductor is that whose electrical resistance • In some piezoelectric crystals, the dipoles are
is zero. spontaneously aligned in a definite direction even
• The electrical resistance of a material usually in the absence of electric field and are called fer-
becomes zero near absolute zero. roelectric substances and this phenomenon is called
• The temperature at which a substance starts ferroelectricity.
behaving like a super conductor is called transition • Potassium hydrogen phosphate (K H2 PO 4), barium
temperature. titanate (BaTiO3) and potassium sodium tartrate
(KNa C 4 H4 O6 ⋅ 4 H2 O Rochelle salt) are ferroelec-
Magnetic Properties tric substances.
• The crystals in which alternate dipoles are in op-
• Diamagnetic solids contain paired electrons (↑↓) posite direction and have net dipole moment equal
and repel the external magnetic field. to zero are called anti-ferroelectric substances, for
• Paramagnetic solids contain unpaired electrons and example, lead zirconate (Pb ZrO2).
are attracted into the applied magnetic field. • The polar crystals which attain charges on oppo-
• In ferromagnetic solids there occurs magnetic inter- site faces and produce a small electric current on
actions between the neighbouring centres (domains) heating are called pyroelectric substances and this
and the electrons in these centres interact in parallel phenomenon is called pyroelectricity.
direction (↑↑↑↑↑). This interaction leads to an in-
crease in magnetic moment. Iron, cobalt and nickel
are examples of ferromagnetic substances. Objective Questions
• In anti-ferromagnetic solids, there occurs magnetic 112. Germanium and silicon become semiconductors
interaction between the neighbouring centres and due to
the electrons in these centres interact in an anti- (1) Schottky defect
parallel (↑↓↑↓↑↓) direction, which leads to a (2) Chemical impurity
decrease in magnetic moment, for example, (3) Frenkel defect
[Cu(CH3COO)2 H2O], VO(CH3COO)2, MnO, (4) Schottky defect
MnO2, Mn2O3]
113. On adding a little phosphorous to silicon, we get a/an
• In ferrimagnetic solids there occurs magnetic (1) p-type semiconductor
interactions between the neighbouring centres and (2) n-type semiconductor
the electrons in these centres interact in such a way (3) insulator
which leads to the presence of uncompensated spins (4) metallic conductor
(↑↑ ↓↑ ↑↓) in the opposite direction resulting some
magnetic moment, for example, magnetite ( Fe3 O 4 ) ; 114. On adding a little indium to germanium we get
2+ 2+
Ferrite MFeO 4 (where M = Mg , Cu , Zn , etc.) 2+ (1) rectifier
(2) insulator
(3) n-type semiconductor
Dielectric Properties (4) p-type semiconductor
• A dielectric substance is that which may not allow 115. Which of the following possess zero resistance at 0 K?
electric current throughout it but charges are in- (1) insulators (2) semiconductors
duced on its faces by the application of electric field. (3) conductors (4) superconductors

Solid State 1.21
116. Which of the following magnetism arises due to 126. Some of the polar crystals on heating produce a
spontaneous alignment of magnetic moment of small electric current called
ions or atoms in the same direction? (1) anti-ferroelectricity (2) ferroelectricity
(1) diamagnetism (2) paramagnetism (3) piezoelectricity (4) pyroelectricity
(3) ferromagnetism (4) ferrimagnetism 127. Crystals where dipoles may align themselves in
117. Doping of silicon with P or Al increases the con- an ordered manner so that there is a net dipole
ductivity. The difference in the two cases is moment exhibit
(1) P is non-metal whereas Al is a metal (1) pyroelectricity
(2) P is poor conductor while Al is good conductor (2) piezoelectricity
(3) P gives rise to extra electron while Al gives rise (3) ferroelectricity
holes (4) anti-ferroelectricity
(4) P gives rise to holes while Al gives rise to extra 128. The electricity produced on applying stress on the
electrons crystals is called
118. Ferromagnetism is maximum in (1) pyroelectricity
(1) Fe (2) Ni (2) piezoelectricity
(3) Co (4) None (3) ferroelectricity
(4) anti-ferroelectricity
119. Anti-ferromagnetic substances possess
(1) low magnetic moment 129. On heating some polar crystals, weak electric
(2) large magnetic moment current is produced. It is termed as
(3) zero magnetic moment (1) piezo electricity
(4) any value of magnetic moment (2) pyroelectricity
(3) photoelectric current
120. Which of the following substances shows anti-
(4) superconductivity
ferromagnetism?
(1) ZrO2 (2) CdO 130. Which of the following statement is true?
(4) CrO2 (4) Mn2 O3 (1) piezoelectricity is due to net dipole moment
(2) ferroelectricity is due to alignment of dipoles
121. A diode used a rectifier is
in the same direction
(1) n-type semiconductor (3) pyroelectricity is due to heating polar crystals
(2) p-type semiconductor (4) All are correct
(3) a combination of the above two types
(1) None of the above
122. Which one among the following is an example of Answers
ferroelectric substance?
(112) 2 (113) 2 (114) 4 (115) 4 (116) 3
(1) Quartz (2) Lead chromate (117) 3 (118) 1 (119) 2 (120) 4 (121) 3
(3) Barium titanate (4) Semiconductor (122) 3 (123) 3 (124) 1 (125) 2 (126) 4
123. Which arrangement of electrons decides ferrimag- (127) 2 (128) 2 (129) 2 (130) 4
netism?
(1) ↑↑↑↑↑ (2) ↑↓ ↑↓
(3) ↑↑↑↓↓ (4) None of these
124. Which arrangement of electrons leads to ferro- Practice Exercise Level-I
magnetism?
1. Which of the following statement is false?
(1) ↑↑↑↑↑ (2) ↑↓ ↑↓
(1) The unit cell of highest symmetry is hexagonal
(3) ↑↑↑↓↓ (4) None of these
(2) The unit cell of lowest symmetry is triclinic
125. Which arrangement of electrons leads to anti- (3) The number of planes of symmetry in cubic
ferrimagnetism? crystal is 9
(1) ↑↑↑↑↑ (2) ↑↓ ↑↓ (4) The number of axes of symmetry in cubic
(3) ↑↑↑↓↓ (4) None of these crystal is 13

2. Most crystals show good cleavage because their (3) packing fraction in face centred cubic lattice is
atoms, ions or molecules are 2
π
(1) arranged in planes 6
(2) weakly bonded together (4) The distance between the two nearest neighbours
(3) strongly bonded together in simple cubic lattice of axial length ‘l’ is also ‘l’
(4) spherically symmetrical
10. An element (atomic weight = 100) having bcc struc-
3. In a crystal the atoms are located at the position of ture has unit cell edge length 400 pm. The density
(1) zero potential energy of this element will be
(2) infinite potential energy (1) 5.188 g/mL (2) 16.37 g/mL
(3) minimum potential energy (3) 7.29 g/mL (4) 2.14 g/mL
(4) Maximum potential energy
11. A metallic element exists in bcc lattice. Each edge
4. A big red spherical balloon (radius = 6a) is filled up of the unit cell is 2.88 Å. The density of the metal
with gas. On the balloon six small green spherical is 7.20 g cm −1 . How many unit cells will be present
balloons (radius = a) are stuck on the surface in a in 100 g of the metal?
specific manner. As red balloon is slowly deflated, a (1) 6.85 × 102 (2) 5.82 × 1023
point comes when all these six green balloons touch (3) 4.37 × 10 5
(4) 2.12 × 106
and green balloons arrange themselves in a 3D closed
packing arrangement. At that stage the radius of the 12. The unit cell of a metallic element of atomic mass
red balloon would have reduced by approximately 108 and density 10.5 g/cm3 is a cube with edge
length of 409 pm. The structure of the crystal
(1) 14.5 times (2) 1.414 times
lattice is
(3) 6.0 times (4) 2.42 times
(1) fcc (2) bcc
5. An element occurring in the bcc structure has (3) hcp (4) simple cubic
12.08 × 1023 unit cells. The total number of atoms
of the element in these cells will be α -form of iron exists in bcc form and γ -form of
13.
(1) 24.16 × 1023 (2) 36.18 × 1023 iron exist in fcc structure. Assuming that the dis-
23 tance between the nearest neighbours is the same
(3) 6.04 × 10 (4) 12.08 × 1023
in the two forms, the ratio of the density of γ -form
6. Copper metal has a face centred cubic structure to that of α -form is (Atomic weight of Fe = 56)
with the unit cell length equal to 0.361 nm. The (1) 1.089 (2) 1.25
apparent radius of a copper ion is (3) 0.89 (4) 2.2
(1) 0.128 pm (2) 1.42 nm
(3) 3.2 nm (4) 4.2 nm 14. The most malleable metals (Cu, Ag, Au) have
close-packing of the type
7. A solid PQ has rock salt type structure in which (1) hexagonal close-packing
Q atom are at the corners of the unit cell. If the (2) cubic close packing
body-centred atoms in all unit cells are missing, (3) body-centred cubic packing
the resulting stoichiometry will be (4) simple cubic
(1) PQ (2) PQ2
(3) P3Q 4 (4) P4 Q3 15. The anions (A) form hexagonal closest packing
and atoms (C) occupy 2/3 of octahedral voids in
8. Gold crystallizes in fcc lattice with edge length it, then the general formula of the compound is
4.07 Å. The closest distance between gold atoms is (1) CA (2) CA2
(1) 2.035 Å (2) 8.14 Å (3) C2A3 (4) C3A2
(3) 2.878 Å (4) 1.357 Å
16. The number of tetrahedral and octahedral voids in
9. Which of the following is wrong? hexagonal primitive unit cell is
2 (1) 8, 4 (2) 2, 1 (3) 12, 6 (4) 6, 12
(1) packing fraction in simple cubic lattice is π
6
(2) packing fraction in body centred cubic lattice 17. The number of octahedral voids per unit body
3 centred cubic structure is
is π (1) 12 (2) 4 (3) 8 (4) 6
8

Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
and every time he gave a particularly fervent bite, the bell rang. I
hope it scared him as much as it did me, but if so, his hunger
triumphed over his fear, for he kept returning to the feast.
On another occasion I was out shooting in a desolate place in
Michigan. I was accompanied by my friend, A. K. Merritt, now
Registrar of Yale College, who will vouch for the truth of the story.
Dusk was falling; there was no wind. We had wandered into a scene
of stagnant desolation. Dead trees had fallen in rotten ruin across
the trail, and the swampy pools were covered with a green mantle of
decay. Merritt was walking in front and I close behind him. The gloom
and depression of the scene in the deepening dusk had affected our
spirits, so that we had not spoken for some time. Suddenly I thought
of the scenery of Browning’s poem, Childe Roland. The lines of that
masterpiece of horror would well describe this place, I thought; and I
began to repeat them in my mind without saying a word aloud. Then
methought there was only one thing needed to make the picture
complete. That was the horrible horse, which in the poem stood
alone and sinister in the gathering night. If that horse were here, I
said to myself, this would indeed be the veritable country of Childe
Roland. Something impelled me to look behind my back, and, to my
unutterable surprise and horror, I found myself looking directly into
the eyes of a forlorn old horse. I let out a yell of sheer uncontrollable
terror.
Merritt was as startled by the yell as I had been by its cause. I
asked him if the horse was really there. It was bad to have him there,
but worse if he were not. Merritt reassured me on that point.
I suppose the poor old horse had been pensioned off by some
farmer, and had silently followed us on the spongy ground, either
because he was lonesome or because he wanted salt. But he gave
me the shock of my life.
I have thought much about it since, and I am unable to
determine whether the appearance of the horse at the precise
moment when I was thinking of him was a coincidence—or was I all
the time subconsciously aware of his presence? That is to say, did
the nearness of the horse, even though I had no conscious
knowledge of it, suggest to my subconscious mind the lines from the
poem? I wish I knew.
XLII
TRIAL BY JURY
When I was an undergraduate at Yale, we were fortunate in

having as one of our professors Edward John Phelps, who was
unexpectedly appointed minister to England by Grover Cleveland,
and who, after making a fine impression at the Court of St. James—
do you know why it is called that?—returned to his professorship. He
was fond of making general statements, not only concerned with his
specialty, the law, but on anything that rose to the surface of his
mind; so that to take his course was in itself a liberal education.
I well remember his beginning one lecture by saying
emphatically, “Trial by jury is a good thing which has outlived its
usefulness.”
I believe that when he made that statement, he spoke the truth.
If it was true then, it is certainly true now; nothing has happened
since to improve the situation, or to make jury trials fairer or less
expensive to the state. In America, we have two pieces of obsolete
machinery—the electoral college and trial by jury. When I began
university teaching, one of my freshman pupils made the only
interesting contribution to the workings of the electoral college that I
have ever seen. I gave out as a theme subject, “The Electoral
College,” and the first theme handed in opened with this sentence
—“I do not believe in the Electoral College.” Well, neither did I, so
thus far I agreed with my pupil; I read the next sentence to get his
reasons; it was the next sentence that contained the original
contribution to the subject, “The trouble is,” wrote the freshman, “that
in the Electoral College everybody chooses snap courses.”
Now the original idea on which the scheme of trial by jury was
founded was as good as human ingenuity could devise. Any person
accused of anything involving legal punishment was to be tried by a
jury of his peers—twelve average, common-sensible, fair-minded
men, who, after hearing all the evidence and the pleas of the
lawyers, would bring in a verdict, which presumably would be in
accordance with the facts, and therefore just. But in the course of
time, although human nature has not changed, circumstances have,
and it is difficult to avoid today the conclusion that the chief
qualification for a member of a jury is that he should not be fit to
serve. Unfitness is the only fitness. Anyone who has an opinion is
barred; in order therefore for one to be eligible he must be one who
knows little of the world in which he lives and who is curiously
insensitive to what everybody is talking about. In a recent editorial in
the New Haven Journal-Courier, the point is well made.
An intelligent man even with prejudice would appear to be a

better person to entrust the decision of life or death with, after
the presentation of the evidence and the interpretation of it by
counsel and the judge’s charge, than an ignorant person who
knows too little of current life to form any opinions whatever
upon any subject.
Furthermore, it frequently happens that after a trial lasting for

months the jury disagree, making another trial necessary, and
involving an enormous waste of public money. There ought to be
some better way of reaching a decision.
Then the very fact that the members of a jury are apt to be below
rather than above the average person in intelligence, makes them
particularly susceptible to emotional response when skilfully handled
by a clever criminal lawyer. Only a short time ago a jealous woman
deliberately murdered her husband and the woman she suspected,
although neither then nor at any time were they caught in a
compromising situation; at the trial the evidence certainly looked
black because it was all against the murderess. She was, however,
an attractive physical specimen. Her lawyer stood her up in front of
the jury, put his arm around her, and defiantly asked the jury if they
were going to put to death this beautiful woman whose only offence
was that she was a defender of the ideals of the home, American
ideals. Should she, who stood so nobly and resolutely for family
purity, be slaughtered? The jury acquitted her.
Furthermore, jury verdicts, instead of being in accordance with
the evidence and with the law, are often determined by local
sentiment. I remember two events in America at the same time, only
in widely separated parts of our country. In the first instance, a
husband who had for some time suspected his wife, happened to
stumble upon the unmistakable proof of guilt; in a transport of rage,
he killed his man. He was convicted of murder in the first degree, but
the death sentence was commuted to imprisonment for life. He is in
prison now. In the second instance, a husband hearing that his wife
had gone to a hotel with another man, deliberately armed himself,
went thither and killed both. The local jury instantly acquitted him,
and he was a popular hero.
I do not believe in capital punishment, and should like to see it
abolished. But its sole merit, acting as a deterrent to crime, can be
realised only in a country like England, where trials are conducted
with absolute formality, where a decision is speedily reached, and
where the verdict of guilty is speedily followed by execution. In the
United States the murderer is too often a romantic hero, and has a
long career as a great actor, whether or not he is convicted.
It seems to me that the best judges of any case are those who
by education and training are best qualified to judge. It is significant
that in Connecticut the prisoner may now choose to be tried by three
professional judges rather than by twelve incompetent men. In a
recent famous instance the prisoner did make that choice.
Too often a public trial by jury becomes a public scandal; of
greater harm to the community and to the state than the crime of
which the prisoner is accused.
Mark Twain said: “We have a criminal jury system which is
superior to any in the world; and its efficiency is only marred by the
difficulty of finding twelve men every day who don’t know anything
and can’t read.”
XLIII
ATHLETICS
The whole world, with the exception of India, China, Siberia and
a few other countries, has gone wild over athletics. Although new
stadiums and amphitheatres are in process of construction
everywhere, it is impossible to accommodate the crowds. Millions of
people have apparently the money and the time to devote to these
spectacular contests, and many more millions “listen in” on the radio.
In England last June Wimbledon was not half large enough to hold
the frantic crowd that wished to see the tennis matches; the same is
true of France. At a recent wrestling contest in Austria, after all the
seats were taken, the gates were broken down by the mob of
spectators who wished to enter; about 150,000 people saw a prize
fight in Chicago and it is significant of the times that the only vacant
seats were the cheapest.
Every newspaper devotes an immense amount of space to
sporting news; and all the leading daily journals employ a highly paid
staff of experts on sports, who keep the public agog with excitement
before every contest and who endeavour to satisfy its curiosity after
the battle is over.
Now there are some pessimistic philosophers who look upon all
this athletic fever as a sign of degeneration, as evidence of the
coming eclipse of civilisation. They point out that during the decay of
the Roman Empire there was a universal excitement over sports,
and they draw the inference that European and American civilisation
is headed toward disaster.
No one can read the future, although innumerable fakers are
paid for doing so. But it is at least possible that the ever-growing
interest in athletics, instead of being a sign of degeneration, is in
reality one more proof of the gradual domination of the world by
Anglo-Saxon language, customs and ideas.
Extreme interest in athletics, though it cannot be defended on
strictly rational grounds, is not necessarily accompanied by a lack or
loss of interest in intellectual matters. If one had to name the place
and the time when civilisation reached its climax, one might well
name Athens in the fifth century before Christ. If one compares
Athenian public interest in the tragedies of Sophocles with New York
public interest in musical comedy, the contrast is not flattering to
American pride. Yet that intellectual fervour in Athens was
accompanied by a tremendous interest in track athletics. Every
Greek city was a separate state; their only bond of union was the
track meet held every four years and called the Olympic Games, to
which the flower of youth from every Greek town contributed; and the
winner of each event—a simon-pure amateur, receiving as prize only
a laurel wreath—was a hero for at least four years.
From the strictly rational point of view it is impossible to defend
or even to explain the universal ardour over athletics, but it is best to
regard it as a fact, and then see what its causes are.
The majority of Anglo-Saxons have always had sporting blood,
and the Latin races are now being infused with it. I well remember a
train journey near Chicago during the darkest days of the World War.
We were all awaiting the newspapers. Suddenly a newsboy entered
and we bought eagerly. The man sitting next to me was a clergyman
in Episcopal uniform. He looked not at the front part of the paper, but
turned feverishly to the sporting page, which he read carefully. When
I called on the Very Reverend Dean of Rochester Cathedral, in
England, Dean Hole, I was shown into a room containing several
thousand books. I glanced over these and all I saw dealt exclusively
with sport.
Many excellent men without sporting blood have protested
against the domination of athletics. The famous English novelist,
Wilkie Collins, published a novel, Man and Wife, which was a protest
against the British love of sports, in which both athletes and the
public were ridiculed. Why should thousands pay money to see two
men run a race? What difference did it make to civilisation which
man won?
Yet, although it is easy to overdo excitement about athletics, the
growing interest in sport which has been so characteristic of France,
Germany and Italy during the last ten years is a good thing for the
youth of these countries and for their national and international
temper.
Years ago, the space occupied in England and in America by
fields devoted to various outdoor sports was in Germany and France
used for public gardens, where people sat and drank liquor while
listening to a band or watching some vaudeville. When I first
travelled on the Continent, I found only one tennis court and that was
at Baden-Baden. Today one finds everywhere in France and
Germany tennis courts, golf links and football fields.
It is surely not a change for the worse that a German student
who used to test his physical endurance by the number of quarts of
beer he could drink at a sitting tests it today in tennis, rowing and
football, and that the French students with silky beards, who used to
strain their eyes looking at women, now, clean-shaven and alert, are
looking at the tennis ball.
It is, of course, irrational to take an eager interest in a prize fight,
but if you have sporting blood you cannot help it. My father was an
orthodox Baptist minister. As I had never heard him mention prize
fighting, I supposed he took no interest in it.
But the day after a famous battle, as I was reading aloud the
newspaper to him, I simply read the headline, “Corbett Defeats
Sullivan,” and was about to pass on to something important when my
father leaned forward and said earnestly, “Read it by rounds.”
XLIV
A PRIVATE LIBRARY ALL YOUR OWN
A borrowed book is like a guest in the house; it must be treated

with punctiliousness, with a certain considerate formality. You must
see that it sustains no damage; it must not suffer while under your
roof. You cannot leave it carelessly, you cannot mark it, you cannot
turn down the pages, you cannot use it familiarly. And then, some
day, although this is seldom done, you really ought to return it.
But your own books belong to you; you treat them with that
affectionate intimacy that annihilates formality. Books are for use, not
for show; you should own no book that you are afraid to mark up, or
afraid to place on the table, wide open and face down. A good
reason for marking favourite passages in books is that this practice
enables you to remember more easily the significant sayings, to refer
to them quickly, and then in later years, it is like visiting a forest
where you once blazed a trail. You have the pleasure of going over
the old ground, and recalling both the intellectual scenery and your
own earlier self.
Everyone should begin collecting a private library in youth; the
instinct of private property, which is fundamental in human beings,
can here be cultivated with every advantage and no evils. One
should have one’s own bookshelves, which should not have doors,
glass windows, or keys; they should be free and accessible to the
hand as well as to the eye. The best of mural decorations is books;
they are more varied in colour and appearance than any wall-paper,
they are more attractive in design, and they have the prime
advantage of being separate personalities, so that if you sit alone in
the room in the firelight, you are surrounded with intimate friends.
The knowledge that they are there in plain view is both stimulating
and refreshing. You do not have to read them all. Most of my indoor
life is spent in a room containing six thousand books; and I have a
stock answer to the invariable question that comes from strangers.
“Have you read all of these books?” “Some of them twice.” This reply
is both true and unexpected.
There are of course no friends like living, breathing, corporeal
men and women; my devotion to reading has never made me a
recluse. How could it? Books are of the people, by the people, for
the people. Literature is the immortal part of history; it is the best and
most enduring part of personality. But book-friends have this
advantage over living friends; you can enjoy the most truly
aristocratic society in the world whenever you want it. The great
dead are beyond our physical reach, and the great living are usually
almost as inaccessible; as for our personal friends and
acquaintances, you cannot always see them. Perchance they are
asleep, or away on a journey. But in a private library, you can at any
moment converse with Socrates or Shakespeare or Carlyle or
Dumas or Dickens or Shaw or Barrie or Galsworthy. And there is no
doubt that in these books you see these men at their best. They
wrote for YOU. They “laid themselves out,” they did their ultimate
best to entertain you, to make a favourable impression. You are
necessary to them as an audience is to an actor; only instead of
seeing them masked, you look into their inmost heart of heart. The
“real Charles Dickens” is in his novels, not in his dressing-room.
Everyone should have a few reference books, carefully selected,
and within reach. I have a few that I can lay my hands on without
leaving my chair; this is not because I am lazy, but because I am
busy.
One should own an Authorised Version of the Bible in big type, a
good one-volume dictionary, the one-volume Index and Epitome to
the Dictionary of National Biography, a one-volume History of
England and another of the United States, Ryland’s Chronological
Outlines of English Literature, Whitcomb’s Chronological Outlines of
American Literature, and other works of reference according to one’s
special tastes and pursuits. These reference books should be, so far
as possible, up to date.
The works of poets, dramatists, novelists, essayists, historians,
should be selected with care, and should grow in number in one’s
private library from the dawn of youth to the day of death.
First editions are an expensive luxury, but are more interesting to
the average mind than luxurious bindings. When you hold in your
hand a first edition of the seventeenth century, you are reading that
book in its proper time-setting; you are reading it as the author’s
contemporaries read it; maybe your copy was handled by the author
himself. Furthermore, unless you have paid too much for it, it is
usually a good investment; it increases in value more rapidly than
stocks and shares, and you have the advantage of using it. It is great
fun to search book-catalogues with an eye to bargains; it is exciting
to attend an auction sale.
But of course most of us must be content to buy standard
authors, living and dead, in modern editions. Three qualities are well
to bear in mind. In getting any book, get the complete edition of that
book; not a clipped, or condensed, or improved or paraphrased
version. Second, always get books in black, clear, readable type.
When you are young, you don’t mind; youth has the eyes of eagles.
But later, you refuse to submit to the effort—often amounting to pain
—involved in reading small type, and lines set too close together.
Third, get volumes that are light in weight. It is almost always
possible to secure this inestimable blessing in standard authors.
Some books are so heavy that to read them is primarily a gymnastic,
rather than mental exercise; and if you travel, and wish to carry them
in your bag or trunk, they are an intolerable burden. Refuse to submit
to this. There was a time when I could tell, merely by “hefting” it,
whether a book had been printed in England or in America; but
American publishers have grown in grace, and today many American
books are easy to hold.
Some books must be bought in double column; but avoid this
wherever possible, and buy such books only when economy makes
it necessary to have the complete works of the author in one volume.
A one-volume Shakespeare is almost a necessity; but it should be
used for reference, as we use a dictionary, never for reading. Get
Shakespeare in separate volumes, one play at a time. It is better to
have some of an author’s works in attractive form, than to have them
complete in a cumbrous or ugly shape.
Remember that for the price of one ticket to an ephemeral
entertainment, you can secure a book that will give strength and
pleasure to your mind all your life. Thus I close by saying two words
to boys and girls, men and women: BUY BOOKS.
XLV
THE GREATEST COMMON DIVISOR
Some distinguished novelists are like lofty peaks. Few ascend

them and those who do breathe rarefied air. There are writers whose
fame is apparently secure who have never had many readers, and
there are writers who have an enormous public and no fame. George
Meredith and Henry James were men of genius, and there will
always be enough people of taste to save some of their books from
oblivion; but neither of these authors made much money. Both
Meredith and James would have liked to have a million readers;
perhaps it is to their credit that they made no compromises to
increase the sales of their works, perhaps they could not have
succeeded in such an undertaking had they tried.
While in the long run it is popularity that determines a writer’s
fame—not only Shakespeare, but every first rate English poet has
today many thousands of readers—there are also “trashy” books
which sell like gasolene, and there are trashy books which do not
sell at all. It is a comforting thought that the majority of trashy books
have a smaller sale than masterpieces, and that the best book ever
written has had, has, and will have the largest sale of all.
It won’t do to prefer posterity to popularity; posterity is more cruel
to the average writer than are his contemporaries. Shakespeare was
the most popular Elizabethan dramatist; Ben Jonson, the foremost
press agent of his time, said that his friend Shakespeare had
surpassed all the writers of Greece and Rome, which was exactly
what John Dryden, the foremost press agent of his time, said of his
contemporary, Milton. Gray’s Elegy, Byron’s Childe Harold,
Tennyson’s In Memoriam, Kipling’s Recessional, were popular two
weeks after their publication, and they are popular now. In the long
run the best books have the largest sales.
In every age, however, there are certain novelists of prodigious
vogue, whose works nevertheless are to readers of good taste
negligible. The common people read them gladly and the Scribes
and Pharisees regard them with scorn. When our high school
teachers and junior college professors wish to relieve their systems
of accumulated bile, they pour out before their sceptical pupils bitter
denunciations of Harold Bell Wright, the late Gene Stratton Porter
and Zane Grey. They try to persuade their flocks that the books by
these writers are not interesting; but the flocks know that they are,
and instead of despising these novelists, they lose confidence in
their instructors.
Far be it from me to pretend that Mr. Wright and Mr. Grey are
literary artists, or to enter the lists as a champion of their works.
What I have read of them has not left me with an insatiable appetite
for more. But here is a fact of interest to students of books and of
human nature—of the “works” of Porter and of Wright over nine
million copies have been sold, and as we rate five readers to every
copy, each of these two worthies has an audience of forty-five million
readers. What does this mean? Many will say it means that the
public loves trash. I don’t believe it; the majority of books are trash,
and the majority of books do not sell. Some critics and some
unsuccessful writers say that they could write just the same sort of
thing if they would stoop to it; I don’t believe it. The financial rewards
of popularity are so great that many writers would produce tales of
adventure if they were sure of a million readers.
It is possible that boys and girls read these books because of
their good qualities rather than because of their defects. Why is it
that these authors are Greatest Common Divisors? Why do they
make the largest appeal to the largest number of people?
Well, in the first place they are novelists, and the foremost of
recent novelists, Thomas Hardy, says that the novel should tell a
story. The average school-boy knows that a book by Wright, Porter
or Grey will have a good story. The majority of our novelists either
will not or can not tell a story. All they have is a time-plot, beginning
with the smells the baby had in his cradle, of no interest to any one
except the novelist, going on with his fights and loves at school, etc.,
etc. Most people are like the Sultan in the Arabian Nights, they love
a good story; Wright, Porter and Grey furnish it. The lives of most
boys and girls are not romantic or unusual; in the novel they get an
escape from life, a change of air, a vacation; and there is nothing
boys love more than a vacation. Again, however deficient in conduct
boys and girls may be, they instinctively love courage, honour, truth,
beauty, magnanimity; the novels of the Terrible Three all work for
righteousness. In the eternal conflict between good and evil, these
Greatest Common Divisors are on the right side; even if they do not
know much about style, or much about psychology, or much about
subtlety of motive, they do know the difference between right and
wrong, something that some much bepraised novelists seem to have
forgotten or to think unimportant.
I do not believe the majority of supercilious critics and other
cultivated mature readers began in early youth by reading great
books exclusively; I think they read Jack Harkaway, and Old Sleuth,
and the works of Oliver Optic and Horatio Alger. From these
enchanters they learned a thing of importance—the delight of
reading. Once having learned that having found that a book, easily
procurable, is the key to happy recreation, they obtained a never-
failing resource of happiness.
A similar thing is observable in poetry. If a boy learns to love
highly exciting narrative poetry, or pretty sentiments set to easy
tunes, it is more probable that he will later love great poetry than if
he never caught the lilt of words in youth.
Nothing that I have said is at variance with one of my oft-
expressed beliefs—those parents who are not only interested in the
welfare of their children, but are capable of setting them a good
example, do not need to use the Greatest Common Divisor so often.
They can by sympathetic intercourse with their children, and by
patience, bring them up from the start on the Bible, Shakespeare,
Bunyan, Swift, Defoe and other writers of genius; but a large number
of boys and girls come to our schools from uncultivated homes, and
from parents who are stupid, or selfish, or silly; these children must
learn the magic of books, and it is my belief that the makers of
exciting stories, with sentiment laid on thick, with heroes and
heroines who are brave, honourable and virtuous are performing a
public service.
XLVI
THE GREAT AMERICAN GAME
Baseball is American in its origin, development and area. It is

also American in its dynamic qualities of speed and force, and in the
shortness of time required to play a full game and reach a decision.
Americans do not love serial games like cricket; in literature they are
better at writing short stories than at novels, and they enjoy games
where a verdict is soon reached.
Looking back over the history of this national pastime, I can
remember when the pitcher was allowed nine balls before losing his
man, and one year in the last century it took four strikes to retire the
batsman. I can also remember when a foul ball caught on the first
bound was “out,” when a foul tip—often successfully imitated by
clever catchers—was “out,” and I played the game many years
before an uncaught foul was a strike. In order to have a wider radius
for fouls, the catcher used to stand far back, moving up behind the
bat only after the second strike, or when bases had the tenancy of
opponents. Every advance in the rules has been in the direction of
speed; and at present the game seems unimprovable.
Nearly every game has some inherent defect; as putting is sixty-
five per cent of golf, so pitching is sixty-five per cent of baseball.
Moral: Be a good putter, and see that your nine has a good pitcher.
Pitching seems to be a greater physical and mental strain than in
the last century, although the box artist does not pitch so many balls
in the average game as he used to. In spite of that fact, Radbourne
of Providence, who was the greatest professional pitcher I ever saw,
won the national championship for his team in 1884 by pitching
every day for a long period. And his team-mate, the late John M.
Ward, who afterwards joined New York, told me that in 1879 he
pitched sixty-six consecutive games! The universal disease of
nerves, from which no twentieth century American is exempt, is
probably responsible for the more careful treatment of pitchers today.
On July 23, 1884, the Providence club, then in the National
league, was crippled for pitchers. Radbourne went into the box from
that date until September 26 when he had won the National league
pennant, daily, except August 2, 18, 20. He pitched thirty-six games
during that period, twenty-two on consecutive days, and winning
eighteen. Of the thirty-six, he won thirty-one, lost four, and tied one.
Tim Keefe in 1888 broke Radbourne’s record for straight games
won, by winning nineteen, and Marquard in 1912 equalled Keefe’s.
Next to Radbourne comes Joe Wood, with sixteen straight, won in
1912.
Radbourne’s total feat for the 1884 season of pitching seventy-
seven games (seventy-four National league championships and
three world series, winning three straight in the world series—no
other pitcher was used) is another record that stands.
The greatest baseball player of all time is Tyrus Raymond Cobb,
of Georgia. He not only holds an unexampled batting record, his
speed in the outfield was so great that he was moved from right to
centre, and in his base-running it is not much to say that he raised
the art to a higher plane. Ordinarily, the best of players was content
to steal second, but if Cobb saw that the ball was not going to beat
him to the second bag, he kept right on to third. The bewildered
second baseman, who naturally had a psychological caesura when
the attempted play failed, had to begin all over again in order to
catch his parting guest at third. And, flustered as he was by the
sheer audacity of the thing, he was apt to be wild. Cobb capitalised
his reputation; he knew the basemen were all “laying for him,” and
owing to that curse which has always afflicted humanity, which
makes it more difficult to do a thing in proportion to one’s desire to
do it, they found it more of a task to retire Cobb than to retire anyone
else. If they had not known it was Cobb, they could have got him. Mr.
Cobb told me once that it was largely a matter of mind reading; he
had to out-guess his opponents, he had to know what they were
going to do. Certainly his stealing of bases has been phenomenal;
he would steal first base if he could.
His ambitious, fiery, high-strung disposition, which is largely
responsible for his success, has also caused him to lose his temper
on the field. This is regrettable, and of course, must be punished.
And yet I have some sympathy for these lapses, and do not
condemn them unqualifiedly as some colder judges do. The anxiety
to win is what enrages a player when things go wrong, and I fully
understand it though I recognise its sinfulness. Although I myself
was very carefully brought up by a pious father and mother, and
although I had the unspeakable advantage of being a Yale graduate,
I once threw a bat at an umpire when he called me out on strikes. In
order to atone for this sin, I have often—like Doctor Johnson—stood
unprotected in the rain, when I had no umbrella.
The greatest baseball pitcher in Yale’s history was Amos Alonzo
Stagg, of the class of 1888. He won the championship over both
Harvard and Princeton five successive years, pitching in every
championship game. He headed the batting order, was a fine base-
runner, and in minor games, played behind the bat, on the bases and
in the outfield. He knew baseball thoroughly. He never had great
speed, or wide curves; but he had marvellous control and a memory
that was uncanny. If a batsman faced him once, Stagg never forgot
him, and thereafter never gave that batsman anything he wanted.
Carter, of the class of ’95, was a great pitcher and all-round ball
player, as different in other respects from Stagg as could well be
imagined. Stagg was very short; Carter was six foot four. Carter had
blinding speed with tremendous curves. But if you compare his
record of championships with that of his predecessor, you will see
why I rate him second to Stagg. These two men, are, I think, Yale’s
foremost box heroes.
Baseball is not so spectacular as football, but in one respect it
has a great advantage over its more lusty rival. Everyone sees what
happens in baseball; the spectator sees every play, and he knows
instantly the reason for every success and every failure. In football

Objective Chemistry For Neet and Other Medical Entrance Examinations Vol Ii K Rama Rao Download PDF Chapter

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Objective Chemistry For Neet and Other Medical Entrance Examinations Vol Ii K Rama Rao Download PDF Chapter

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Objective Chemistry for NEET and

Other Medical Entrance Examinations

OBJECTIVE CHEM STRY

and Other Medical

Volume I OBJECTIVE PHYS CS OBJECTIVE BIOLOGY

and Other Medical 2 Paper

K Rama Rao w Board-Text Drills section based on NCERT syllabus

Objective_Chemistry_V2_Chapter_01.indd 1 3/18/2015 2:07:42 PM

Classification of Crystalline Solids Allotropy and Polymorphism

Objective_Chemistry_V2_Chapter_01.indd 2 3/18/2015 2:07:43 PM

10. Amorphous solids

Objective_Chemistry_V2_Chapter_01.indd 3 3/18/2015 2:07:45 PM

The Seven Crystal Systems

Primitive (or simple) Body centred Face centred

Objective_Chemistry_V2_Chapter_01.indd 4 3/18/2015 2:07:48 PM

Objective_Chemistry_V2_Chapter_01.indd 5 3/18/2015 2:07:49 PM

Objective_Chemistry_V2_Chapter_01.indd 6 3/18/2015 2:07:55 PM

• In metals, the atoms in a close-packed layer are

Objective_Chemistry_V2_Chapter_01.indd 7 3/18/2015 2:07:56 PM

the corners of the unit cell and Y atoms at the body

Objective_Chemistry_V2_Chapter_01.indd 8 3/18/2015 2:07:58 PM

Objective_Chemistry_V2_Chapter_01.indd 9 3/18/2015 2:08:00 PM

Objective_Chemistry_V2_Chapter_01.indd 10 3/18/2015 2:08:04 PM

50. Platinum crystallizes in face-centred cubic crystal Answers

Objective_Chemistry_V2_Chapter_01.indd 11 3/18/2015 2:08:10 PM

Objective_Chemistry_V2_Chapter_01.indd 12 3/18/2015 2:08:17 PM

Objective_Chemistry_V2_Chapter_01.indd 13 3/18/2015 2:08:22 PM

75. The number of formula units in unit cell of fluorite is Crystallography

Objective_Chemistry_V2_Chapter_01.indd 14 3/18/2015 2:08:26 PM

Objective_Chemistry_V2_Chapter_01.indd 15 3/18/2015 2:08:32 PM

• The crystal defects are mainly two types: (i) point

(a) (b) Stoichiometric Defects

Objective_Chemistry_V2_Chapter_01.indd 16 3/18/2015 2:08:34 PM

Objective_Chemistry_V2_Chapter_01.indd 17 3/18/2015 2:08:36 PM

Objective_Chemistry_V2_Chapter_01.indd 18 3/18/2015 2:08:37 PM

Answers • The highest occupied energy band is called the

Objective_Chemistry_V2_Chapter_01.indd 19 3/18/2015 2:08:37 PM

Objective_Chemistry_V2_Chapter_01.indd 20 3/18/2015 2:08:40 PM

Objective_Chemistry_V2_Chapter_01.indd 21 3/18/2015 2:08:43 PM

Objective_Chemistry_V2_Chapter_01.indd 22 3/18/2015 2:08:48 PM

When I was an undergraduate at Yale, we were fortunate in

An intelligent man even with prejudice would appear to be a

Furthermore, it frequently happens that after a trial lasting for

A borrowed book is like a guest in the house; it must be treated

Some distinguished novelists are like lofty peaks. Few ascend

Baseball is American in its origin, development and area. It is

You might also like