1 ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

1.1 Introduction

When a plane intersects with a double-napped cone, conic sections (conics) are produced.
Depending on the inclination of the plane to the axis of the cone,
the following curves occur:
(a) Circle (plane perpendicular to cone axis)
(b) Parabola (plane parallel to side of cone)
(c) Ellipse (plane inclined at an angle)
(d) Hyperbola (plane parallel to cone axis)
When the plane passes through the vertex, the resulting figure is a degenerate conic.
Algebraically, conic sections are defined by the quadratic equation
Ax 2  Bxy  Cy 2  Dx  Ey  F  0. (1.1)
In this chapter, we will consider the parabola, ellipse and hyperbola and give polar
equations of these conics.

1.2 Standard form for the equations of Parabola, Ellipse and Hyperbola

1.2.1 The Parabola

A parabola is a locus of points P  x, y  which are equidistant from a fixed point (called
the focus) and a fixed line (called the directrix). The midpoint between the focus and the
directrix is the vertex and the line passing through the focus and the vertex is the axis.
We call the distance p along the axis from the focus to the vertex the directed distance.

F (0, p)
M N
P ( x, y )
x
O

D ( x,  p )

1
Let the focus be the point F (0, p) , the vertex be the point (0,0) and the directrix
the line y   p . If P ( x, y ) be an arbitrary point on the parabola and the point
D( x, p) be on the directrix, then

FP  PD

   
2 2
 x 2  ( y  p) 2  ( y  p) 2

 x 2  y 2  2 py  p 2  y 2  2 py  p 2

 x 2  4 py , (1.2)
which is the standard equation of a parabola which opens upwards. The line MN passing
through the focus of a parabola and has end points on the parabola is called focal chord.
The specific focal chord perpendicular to the axis is called latus rectum.

Similarly, we can show that the standard equation of a parabola which open
downward, with focus F (0, p ) , vertex is (0,0) and directrix y  p is

x 2  4 py (1.3)
y
D ( x, p ) y p

x
O

P ( x, y ) F (0, p )

The standard equation of a parabola which opens to the right along the x – axis
with focus F ( p,0) and directrix on the line x   p is given by

y 2  4 px (1.4)
and the standard equation of a parabola which opens to the left with focus
F (  p,0) and directrix on the line x  p is given by

y 2  4 px (1.5)

2
Example 1.2.1
1. Find the axis, vertex, focus and directrix of the parabolas
(a) y 2  8 x (b) x 2  2 y
2. Find the length of the latus rectum of the parabolas in question 1.
Solution y

1. (a) y 2  8 x  4(2) x
 p2
 axis: x-axis or y  0
vertex: (0, 0) F(-2,0) 0 x=2
focus: (-2, 0)
Directrix: x  2
1
(b) x 2  2 y  x 2   4   y
2
1 1
 p y
2 2
 axis: y-axis or x  0
vertex: (0, 0)
 1
focus:  0,   0
 2
1
Directrix: x 
2
 1
F  0,  
 2
2. (a) When x  2
y 2  8( 2)
 y  4.  Length of latus rectum is 8.
1
(b) When y  
2
 1
x 2  2   
 2  Length of latus rectum is 2.
 x  1.

3
1.2.2 The Ellipse
An ellipse is a locus of points P ( x, y ) such that the sum of the distances from P to two
fixed points (called the foci) is a constant.

P ( x, y )
d1 d2 d1  d 2 is constant

F1 F2
C

 The line through the foci is the ellipse’s focal axis.

 The focal axis intersects the ellipse at two points called the vertices.
 The chord joining the vertices is the major axis, and its midpoint is the centre of
the ellipse.
 The chord perpendicular to the major axis at the centre is the minor axis.
Suppose that the ellipse is centred at the origin and x- and y-axis is the major and minor
axis respectively. Also, suppose that the foci are F1 (c, 0) and F2 (c,0) with vertices at
(  a, 0) and ( a, 0) meaning length of major axis is 2a.

P ( x, y )
( a, 0) (a, 0)
F1 (c, 0) 0 F2 (c,0) x

From the diagram, the locus of points P is an ellipse if

PF '  PF  2a
Thus,
( x  c) 2  y 2  ( x  c) 2  y 2  2a

4
  
( x  c) 2  y 2  2a  ( x  c) 2  y 2 
Squaring both sides and expanding, we have
x 2  2cx  c 2  y 2  4a 2  4a ( x  c) 2  y 2  x 2  2cx  c 2  y 2

 4cx  4a  2 2

  4a ( x  c ) 2  y 2 
2

 
16c 2 x 2  32a 2 cx  16a 4  16a 2 x 2  2cx  c 2  y 2 
which reduces to
(a 2  c 2 ) x 2  a 2 y 2  a 4  a 2 c 2  a 2 (a 2  c 2 )

Since a  c , it follows that a 2  c 2  a 2  c 2  0 . Let  a 2  c 2  b 2 . Then we have

b 2 x 2  a 2 y 2  a 2b 2

x2 y2
   1, (1.6)
a2 b2
where 2b is the length of minor axis.

This is the standard equation of an ellipse whose foci lie on the x – axis.
Similarly, if the major axis is along the y-axis, then the equation of the ellipse is given by
y 2 x2
  1.
a 2 b2 (0.1)

F (0, c )

-b O b x

F ' (0,c)

-a

Example 1.2.2:
1. Write the equation of the ellipse with F1 (1, 0) , F2 (1, 0) and major axis 5.
2. An ellipse has its foci on the y – axis and its centre at the origin. The distance
between the foci is 6 and the major axis is of length 10. Find its equation.

5
3. Find the centre, foci and vertices of the ellipse
x2 y 2
  1,
16 9
and sketch it.

Solutions:

5
1. c  1, 2a  5  a 
2
25 21
Since b 2  a 2  c 2  b2  1  .
4 4
Therefore, the equation of the ellipse is
x2 y2
25
 21  1
4 4
or
4x2 4 y 2
  1.
25 21

2. 2c  6  c  3 . Thus, the foci are F1 (0, 3) and F2 (0,3) .

2a  10  a  5 . b 2  a 2  c 2  25  9  16 .
Therefore, the equation of the ellipse is
x2 y2
  1.
16 25
3. Clearly, the major axis is horizontal.
a 2  16  a  4.
b2  9  b  3
c 2  a 2  b 2  7  c  7.
 centre: (0, 0)
 
foci: - 7, 0 and - 7, 0  
vertices: (-4, 0), (4, 0), (0, -3) and (0,3).
y
(0,3)

(4, 0) (4, 0)

F2  7, 0  0 F2  7, 0 
(0, 3)

6
1.2.3 The Hyperbola
A hyperbola is the locus of points P such that the difference of its distances from
two fixed points F1 and F2 (called the foci) is a constant.

P ( x, y )
d1
d2

F1 C F2

| d1  d 2 | is constant

 The line through the foci intersects a hyperbola at two points called the vertices.
 The line segment connecting the vertices is called the transverse axis (focal axis)
and its midpoint is known as the centre of the hyperbola.

A hyperbola has two asymptotes that intersect at the centre. They are an important aid in
sketching its graph.

asymptote asymptote
P ( x, y )

c
a
vertex
F1 F2
centre transverse axis

7
If the centre is at (0, 0), foci are at F1 (c, 0) and F2 (c, 0) and the constant is 2a, then by
definition any point P ( x, y ) lies on the hyperbola if and only if

| F1P |  | PF2 |  2a.

Simplifying this equation, we get

x2 y2
  1.
a2 a2  c2

Since c  a, a 2  c 2  0, so we write this equation as

x2 y2
 1
a2 c2  a2

so that if we let b 2  c 2  a 2 , we have

x2 y 2
  1. (0.2)
a 2 b2
Similarly, if the transverse axis is vertical, then the equation of the hyperbola is given by

y 2 x2
  1. (0.3)
a 2 b2
y

c F1

0 x

a
c F2

8
If we draw a rectangle with horizontal lines passing through b and b , vertical lines
passing through  a and a (and vice versa for vertical transverse axis), then the
asymptotes pass through the centre and the diagonals of this rectangle.

b
a a
b

So for equation(0.2), the asymptotes are given by

b
y x
a
and for equation (0.3), the asymptotes are given by
a
y x.
b
Example 1.2.3:
1. Find an equation of the curve described by a point moving so that the difference
of its distances from (8,0) and (8,0) is 14.
2. A hyperbola is given by

4 x 2  y 2  16.
Find the centre, foci, vertices and asymptotes and sketch it.

Solution:

1. The curve is a hyperbola with foci on the x – axis. Thus, 2a  14

 a  7 . Further c  8  b 2  c 2  a 2  15 .
Hence, the equation of this hyperbola is
x2 y2
  1.
49 15

9
 x2 y 2
2. 4 x 2  y 2  16   1
4 16
 transverse axis is holizontal
a2  4  a  2
b 2  16  b  4
c 2  a 2  b 2  20  c  20.
 cenre: (0, 0)
foci: (  20, 0) and ( 20, 0)
vertices: ( 2, 0) and (2, 0)
4
asymptotes: y   x
2
i.e y  2 x.
y y  2x

(2, 0) (2, 0) x

F1  20, 0  0 F2  20, 0 
y  2 x

1.3 Eccentricity of a conic section

The eccentricity, denoted e, is a parameter associated with every conic section. It
can be thought of as a measure of how much the conic section deviates from
being circular.
If you let e be a fixed positive number, F a fixed point, L a fixed line, and let PD
denote the distance from a point P to the line L. Then the ratio
PF
e
PD
is called an eccentricity of a conic section.

10
 Theorem 1.3.1
Suppose that the distance | PF | of a point P ( x, y ) from the focus F is a constant
multiple of its distance from a directrix, i.e.
| PF | e. | PD |,

where e is the constant of proportionality. Then, the path traced by P is

(a) A parabola of eccentricity e, if e  1,
(b) An ellipse of eccentricity e, if e  1, and
(c) A hyperbola of eccentricity e, if e  1.
y

D2 P ( x, y ) D1

c x
F2 (c, 0) 0 F1 (c, 0)

x   ae b a x  ae

D2 D1 P ( x, y )

c
a

F2 (c, 0) 0 F1 (c, 0) x
a
e
a a
x x
e e
| PF1 | e. | PD1 |
| PF2 | e. | PD2 |

11
NOTE: The directrices of an ellipse or hyperbola whose foci are (0,  c) and
vertices (0,  a) are given by
a
y
e

Example 1.3.1:
3
1. A conic section has foci (3,0) and eccentricity e  . Find
5
(a) its equation
(b) the equations of its directrices.
3
2. A hyperbola of eccentricity e  has one focus at (1, 3). The corresponding
2
directrix is the line y  2. Find an equation for the hyperbola.

Solutions:

3
1. (a) From the foci, c  3 . Since e   1 , the conic is an ellipse.
5
c c
But e  a   5 . Thus b 2  a 2  c 2  25  9  16 .
a e
Therefore, since the foci lie on the x – axis, the equation of this ellipse is
x2 y2
  1.
25 16
a 5
(b) The equation of the directrices are x   i.e. x   i.e.
e 3/5
25
x .
3

F ' (3,0) O F (3,0) x

25 25
x x
3 3

12
 3
2. It is indeed a hyperbola since e  .
2

y
C (1, y )

y2

x
0 x 1

F (1, 3)

3 c
 e   3a  2c....................................(i)
2 a
a
 The distance from the directrix to the focus is given by c  , and in our
e
case it is equal to 5. Thus,
a 3c 3
c   5   a  5 
e 2 2
 3c  2a  15...............................(ii)
Solving (i) and (ii) simultaneously, we get
3a  2c  0
2a  3c  15
 6 a  4c  0
 6a  9c  45
 5c  45
c9
2
 a    (9)  6.
3

 The centre is 9 units upward from the focus and the vertex is 6 units from the centre.
 Centre: (1, 6)
Vertex: (1, 0)
b 2  c 2  a 2  81  36  45
 The equation of the hyperbola is

13
 ( y  6)2 ( x  1) 2
  1.
36 45

1.4 Translation of Axes

In the previous section, we have considered conic sections centred at the origin. Suppose
we shift the centre to the right to any point say O(h, k ). Then, we may assume that the
axes passing through that point form another coordinate system we shall call the XY
coordinate system.

y Y

P( x, y ), ( X , Y )

X
O’ (h, k )

O x

Then any point P ( X , Y ) in the new system will have the coordinates P( X  h, Y  k ) in
the original x – y system, i.e.
x  X  h, y  Y  k ,
or X  x  h, Y  y  k (1.10)

The equations (1.10) relate the coordinates in one system to the coordinates in the other
system.

Note that in translation of axes, only the axes and the coordinates change, but the
point remain unchanged.

Example 1.3.1

Discuss the conic sections given by

(a) 2 x 2  y 2  6 y  3
(b) 4 x 2  y 2  8 x  4 y  8  0
(c) x 2  2 y  2 x  1.

14
Solution
In each case, we complete the square.

(a) 2 x 2  y 2  6 y  3
 2 x2  ( y 2  6 y)  3
2 x 2  [( y  3) 2  9]  3
2 x 2  ( y  3) 2  6
( y  3) 2 x 2
   1.
6 3
Letting X  x and Y  y  3, we have

Y2 X2
  1,
6 3
which is a hyperbola with vertical transverse axis.

a2  6  a  6
b2  3  b  3
c 2  a 2  b 2  9  c  3.
In the XY coordinate system,
Centre: (0, 0)
Foci: (0, 3) and (0,3)
Vertices: (0,  6) and (0, 6)
6
Asymptotes: Y   i.e. Y   2 X
3
a2
Directrices: Y    2.
c
Using the equations X  x and Y  y  3, we have that

for Y  3, y  0 and y  6,

for Y  6, y  3  6 and y  3  6,

for Y  2, y  5 and y  1

and for the asymptotes Y   2 X , we have that

y  3   2x, i.e. y  3  2 x.

15
Therefore, in the original xy coordinate system,

Centre: (0,3)
Foci: (0, 0) and (0, 6)
Vertices: (0, 3  6) and (0, 3  6)
Asymptotes: y  3  2 x
Directrices: y  1 and y  5.
Y
y

F2 (0, 6)

(0, 3  6) y5

(0,3) X
y 1
(0, 3  6)

0 F1 (0, 0) x

y  3  2x y  3  2x

(b) 4 x 2  y 2  8 x  4 y  8  0
4( x 2  2 x)  y 2  4 y  8  0
4( x  1) 2  4  ( y  2) 2  4  8  0
4( x  1) 2  ( y  2) 2  16
( x  1) 2 ( y  2) 2
  1.
4 16
Letting X  x 1 and Y  y  2, we get
X2 Y2
  1,
4 16
which is an ellipse with vertical major axis.
a 2  16  a  4
b2  4  b  2
c 2  16  4  12  c  12.
In the XY coordinate system

16
 Centre: (0, 0)
 
Foci: 0,  12 and 0, 12  
Vertices: (0, 4), (0, 4), (2, 0) and (2, 0)
a2 16 8
Directrices: Y     .
c 2 3 3
When X  0, x  1
When Y  0, y  2
When X  2, x  3 and x  1
When Y  4, y  2 and y  6
8 8
When Y   , y  2.
3 3
Therefore, in the xy coordinate system,
Centre: (1, 2)
 
Foci: 1, 2  12 and 1, 2  12  
Vertices: (1, 6), (1, 2), (1, 2) and (3, 2)
8
Directrices: y    2.
3
y Y

8
(1, 2) y 2
3
F2 (1, 2  12)

0 x

(1, 2) (1, 2) (3, 2) X

F1 (1, 2  12)

(1, 6)
8
y 2
3

(a) Exercise

17
1.5 ROTATION OF AXES

It was stated at the beginning of this chapter that conic sections can be described
algebraically by equation (1.1). You may have noticed that in the conic sections we have
considered so far, the Bxy - term did not appear because the axes were parallel to the
coordinate axes. To eliminate this xy- term, we rotate the coordinate axes counter
clockwise about the origin through an angle  .

y x

 ( x, y )
p
( x, y)
 M

0 M x

x  oM  (op ) cos(   )
y  Mp  (op) sin(   )
x  oM   (op ) cos 
y  M  p  (op) sin 

 x  (op) cos  cos   (op) sin  sin 

 x cos   y sin 
y  (op) sin  cos   (op) cos  sin 
 y cos   x sin 

Equations for rotating coordinate axes:

x  x cos   y sin  
 (1.11)
y  x sin   y cos  

18
If we solve (1.11) simultaneously for x and y we also get

x  x cos   y sin  
 (1.12)
y   x sin   y cos  

Example 1.5.1

The x- and y-axes are rotated through an angle radians about the origin. Find an
4
equation for the hyperbola
2 xy  9

in the new coordinates.

Solution

Here   so that
4
  x  y
x  x cos  y sin 
4 4 2

  x  y
y  x sin  y cos  .
4 4 2
Thus,

 x  y  x  y 
2 xy  9  2   9
 2  2 
 x2  y2  9
x2 y2
  1
9 9

y y x


4

0 x

19
The task at hand is determining the angle  . We notice that if we apply the equations
(1.11) to the quadratic equation (1.1) with B  0, we get a new equation with B  0, i.e.

A x2  B x y  C y2  D x  E y  F   0,

where

A  A cos 2   B cos  sin   C sin 2 

B  B cos 2  (C  A) sin 2
C   A sin 2   B sin  cos   C cos 2 
D  D cos   E sin 
E   D sin   E cos 
F  F.
AC B
cot 2  or tan 2  (1.13)
B AC
Example 1.5.2
For the equation

2 x 2  3 xy  y 2  10  0,

find the angle  and identify the conic section.

Solution:

Here A  2, B  3, C  1

3
tan 2   3
2 1

 2 
3

 
6
 x 3 y 
 x  x cos  y sin
 
6 6 2 2
  x y 3
y  x sin  y cos  
6 6 2 2
 2 x  3xy  y  10  0
2 2

2 2
 x 3 y   x 3 y  x y 3   x y 3 
 2     3    2  2    2  2   10  0
 2 2   2 2    

20
3 2 1 3 3 3 3 3 1 3 3
x  3x y  y2  x2  x y  x y  y2  x2  x y  y2  10  0
2 2 4 4 4 4 4 2 4
5 1 x 2
y 2
 x2  y2  10 or   1.
2 2 4 20
 The conic section is an ellipse

a 2  20  a  20
b2  4  b  2
c 2  20  4  c  4.
In the x y coordinate system, we have

Centre: (0, 0)

Foci: (0, 4) and (0, 4)

   
Vertices: 0, 2 5 , 0, 2 5 , (2, 0) and ( 2, 0).

Directrices: y  5

For (0, 0), x  0 and y  0.

04 04 3
For (0, 4), x   2 and y  2 3
2 2

04 04 3
For (0, 4), x   2 and y   2 3
2 2

02 5 02 5 3
 
For 0, 2 5 , x 
2
  5 and y 
2
 15

02 5 02 5 3

For 0, 2 5 , x  2
 5 and y 
2
  15

For (2,0), x  3 and y  1

For (2,0), x   3 and y  1.

x 3  y
Since y  , we have that  x 3  y  10.
2
In the xy coordinate system,

Centre: (0, 0)

21
  
Foci: 2, 2 3 and 2, 2 3  

Vertices:  5, 15 ,   5,  15 ,   
3,1 and  3, 1 
Directrices:  x 3  y  10.

y y x

(0, 2 5)

F2 (2, 2 3) ( 3,1)


6
x

( 3, 1) F2 (2, 2 3)

( 5,  15)

Notice that any B  0 leads to a unique value of 2 in the interval 0  2   , and


hence determines a unique  in the interval 0    .
2

Example 1.5.3
Discuss the graph of
6 xy  8 y 2  12x  26 y  11  0
Solution:

A  0, B  6, C  8, D  12, E  26, F  11
AC 4
cot 2  
B 3
4
cos 2  3 5 2
5
-4

22
But cos  1
2 (1  cos 2 )  1
2 (1  54 )  1
10

sin  1
2 (1  cos 2 )  1
2 (1  54 )  3
10

Substituting these in (1.1.18) yields

x' 3 y ' x'3 y '
x   (I)
10 10 10
3 x' y' 3x' y '
y   (II)
10 10 10
Substituting these in (1.1.19) yields
x 3y
x'   (III)
10 10
3x y
y'    (IV)
10 10
Substituting (I) and (II) in the given equation we have
6( x'3 y' )(3x' y ' ) 8(3x' y' ) 2 12( x'3 y' ) 26(3x' y' )
    11  0
10 10 10 10
6
10
 
3x' 2 8 x' y '3 y ' 2 
8
10

9 x' 2 6 x' y ' y ' 2 
12

x'3 y'  26 3x' y'  11  0
10 10

18x '2  48x ' y '18 y '2  72x '2  48x ' y ' 8 y '2 12 10x ' 36 10 y ' 78 10 x ' 26 10 y '110  0

90x' 2 90 10x'10 y' 2 10 10 y'110  0

To identify this conic, we need to translate the axes by suitably rearranging the
terms and completing the square in the usual way. Then we have

  
90 x' 2  10x' 52  52  10 y' 2  10 y' 52  52  110  0 
x'   y' 
10
2
2
10
2
2

1
1 9
X2 Y2
   1,
1 9
where X  x' 10
2 and Y  y ' 210 . This is a standard equation of a hyperbola.
c 10
c  a 2  b 2  10 .  e    10 >1.
a 1

23
In the X – Y coordinate system

Centre: (0,0) ,

Foci:  10,0 , 
Vertices:  1,0
1
Directrices: X  
10
Asymptotes are Y  3X .

To obtain the quantities in the x ' y ' coordinate system, we use the translation of
axes equations. Thus,

 10 10 
Centre:  , 
 2 2 
 3 10 10    10 10 
Foci:   and  
 2 , 2  2
,
2 
 

 2  10 10   2  10 10 
Vertices:  ,  and  , 
 2 2  2 2 
 
10 1
Directrices: x' 
2 10
10  10 
Asymptotes: y '  3 x' .

2  2 
Using equations (I) and (II), we have that, in the xy coordinate system,
Centre: (1,2)
Foci: (0,5) and (2, 1)
 1 3   1 3 
Vertices:  1  ,2  and  (1  ,2 
 10 10   10 10 
We use equations (III) and (IV), to obtain the directrices and asymptotes in the xy
coordinate system.

Directrices: x  3 y  6 and x  3 y  4
Asymptotes: y  2 and 3x  4 y  5 .

24
 asymptotes
Y y X
y' x'

x
O

Directrices

1.6 THE DISCRIMINANT TEST

Sometimes, we do not need to eliminate the xy  term from the quadratic equation to be
able to identify the conic section. We can easily do that by applying the discriminant test.
With the understanding that occasional degenerate cases may arise, the quadratic
equation (1.1) is

(a) A Parabola if B 2  4 AC  0
(b) An Ellipse if B 2  4 AC  0 and
(c) A Hyperbola if B 2  4 AC  0.

Example 1.6.1

(a) 3x 2  6 xy  3 y 2  2 x  7  0
represents a parabola because
B 2  4 AC  (6)2  4(3)(3)  0.
(b) x 2  xy  y 2  1  0
represents an ellipse because
B 2  4 AC  (1)2  4(1)(1)  3  0.
(c) xy  y 2  5 y  1  0
represents a hyperbola because
B 2  4 AC  (1) 2  4(1)(0)  1  0.

25
1.7 Polar Equations for Conics
Let us now consider the relationship between polar and rectangular coordinates.

Definition 1.7.1

Fix an origin O (called the pole) and an initial ray from O. Then each point P can be
located by assigning to it a polar coordinate pair (r ,  ) in which r gives the directed
distance from O to P , and  gives the directed angle from the initial ray to OP.

NOTE: While a point in the plane has only one pair of Cartesian coordinates, it has
infinitely many pairs of polar coordinates. This is because a pair will depend on whether
the directed distance is positive or negative and on whether the initial ray turns clockwise
or counterclockwise to form an angle  .
 
For example, the point P  2,  has the following polar coordinates:
 6

  
when r  2,    ,  2 ,  4 ,...
6 6 6
 5 5 5
when r  -2,    ,  2 ,   4 ,....
 6 6 6

When we use both polar and Cartesian coordinates in the plane, we assume that the polar
axis coincides with the positive x  axis and the pole with the origin.
y

P ( r ,  )  P ( x, y )


0 x

26
Then x  r cos  , y  r sin  which are the parametric equations for a circle centred at the
y
origin with radius r  0 and so tan   . Thus, the equations relating polar and
x
Cartesian coordinates are:
y
x  r cos  , y  r sin  , x 2  y 2  r 2 , tan   .
x

Example 1.7.1
1. Convert the point ( 1,1) and (0, 2) to polar coordinates.
 
2. Convert the polar coordinates (2,  ) and  3,  to rectangular coordinates.
 6
Solution
3
1. For ( 1,1) , tan   1   
4
We choose  in the second quadrant where r  0. So

r  x2  y 2  2
 3 
 One set of polar coordinates is  2, 
 4 


For (0, 2) , since x  coordinate is zero, we choose   and automatically
2
r  02  22  2
 
 One set of polar coordinates is  2,  .
 2

2. For (2,  ), x  r cos   2 cos   2

y  r sin   2sin   0
 Rectangular coordinate is ( 2, 0).
   3
For  3,  , x  r cos   3 cos 
 6 6 2
 3
y  r sin   3 sin 
6 2
3 3
 Rectangular coordinate is  ,  .
2 2 

27
Example 1.7.2
For each of the following polar equations, find their equivalent Cartesian equation and
identify their graphs:

(a) r cos  4
(b) r 2  4r cos 
4
(c) r  .
2 cos   sin 

Solution
(a) Since x  r cos  , we have that x  4 which is a vertical line.
(b) Since x 2  y 2  r 2 and y  r sin  , we have that
2 x  y  4 x, i.e. ( x  2)2  y 2  4, which is a circle centred at (2, 0) with
radius 2.
4
(c) r   2r cos   r sin   4.
2 cos   sin 
Since x  r cos  and y  r sin  , we have that
2 x  y  4, which is a straight line.
Example 1.7.3
Replace the Cartesian equations

(a) y 2  4 x (b) x 2  xy  y 2  1 and (c) x 2  ( y  2) 2  4

by their equivalent polar equations.
Solution

(a) y 2  4 x  (r sin  ) 2  4(r cos  )

 r 2 sin 2   4r cos 
 r sin 2   4 cos 
(b) x 2  xy  y 2  1  x 2  y 2  xy  1
 r 2  r 2 sin  cos 
 r 2 (1  sin  cos  ).
(c) x 2  ( y  2)2  4  x 2  y 2  4 y  4  4
 r 2  4r sin 
 r  4sin  .

28
We now use polar coordinates to describe conics. Suppose one focus of a conic section is
placed at the origin and the corresponding directrix is to the right of the origin along the
vertical line x  k.
y

P(r , )
D
r 
F B xk

Clearly, PF  r and PD  k  FB  k  x

 k  r cos  .

Then, using the ‘focus-directrix’ equation PF  E. PD , we have that

r  e(k  r cos  ).

We can do the same for the other three (3) cases when the directrix is vertical to the left
of the pole, and when it is above and below the pole.
Theorem 1.7.1

Let F be a focus placed at the origin, D be a point along the directrix. Let P be a point
in the plane and e be eccentricity. Then, the polar equations of the conics are as given
below depending on the position of the directrix:

ek
1. Horizontal directrix above the pole: r 
1  e sin 
ek
2. Horizontal directrix below the pole: r 
1  e sin 
ek
3. Vertical directrix to the right of the pole: r 
1  e cos 
ek
4. Vertical directrix to the left of the pole: r  .
1  e cos 

29
Example 1.7.4

Identify and sketch the graph of the polar equations

32 15
(a) r  (b) r  .
3  5sin  3  2 cos 
Solution

32 32
(a) r   3

3  5sin  1  5 3 sin 
5
e  1.
3
 The conic section is a hyperbola with directrix above the pole.
32 32 3 32
ek  k  ´ 
3 3 5 5
32  32   32 
For   0, r   ( r ,  )   , 0   ( x, y )   , 0 
3  3   3 
  
For   , r  4  (r ,  )   4,   ( x, y )   0, 4 
2  2
32  32   32 
For    , r   ( r ,  )   ,    ( x, y )    , 0 
3  3   3 
3  3 
For   , r  16  (r ,  )   16,   ( x, y )   0,16 
2  2 
Thus, length of vertical transverse axis is 16  4  12  2a  12
a 6
and centre is at (0,10). It therefore follows that the hyperbola has been shifted
upwards by 10 units implying that c  10 and b  8. Since one directrix is
32  32  68
y , we should have another directrix given by y  16    4   and
5  5  5
6 3
the asymptotes are y  10   x  y  10  x.
8 4

30
 y

F2 (0, 20)

(0,16)

68
y
5

(0,10)

32
(0, 4) y
5
x

F1 (0, 0)

15 15
(b) r   3

3  2 cos  1  2 3 cos 
2
e 1
3
 The conic section is an ellipse with vertical directrix to the left of the pole.
y

F1 F2 x

15 39
x x
2 2
15 15
For   0 and    , r   3 and r   15
3  2 cos 0 3  2 cos 

31
  x  3cos   3 x  15cos 0  15
y  3sin   0 y  15sin 0  0
 Foci: (0, 0) and (12, 0)
Vertices: (3, 0) and (15, 0).
Centre: (6, 0)
3 15
ek  5  k  5´ 
2 2
15 39
Directrices: x   and x  .
2 2

THE END!

32