Oxford LanguageLearningMotivation 1994

Language Learning Motivation: Expanding the Theoretical Framework
Author(s): Rebecca Oxford and Jill Shearin

Source: The Modern Language Journal , Spring, 1994, Vol. 78, No. 1 (Spring, 1994), pp.
12-28
Published by: Wiley on behalf of the National Federation of Modern Language Teachers
Associations
Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/329249
JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide
range of content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and
facilitate new forms of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact support@jstor.org.
Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at
https://about.jstor.org/terms
National Federation of Modern Language Teachers Associations and Wiley are collaborating with
JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to The Modern Language Journal
This content downloaded from

134.255.25.148 on Sun, 11 Feb 2024 09:50:56 +00:00
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
Language Learning Motivation:
Expanding the Theoretical Framework
REBECCA OXFORD JILL SHEARIN
Area of Teacher Education Area of Teacher Education
College of Education College of Education
Department of English Graves Hall, Box 870231
College of Arts & Sciences Tuscaloosa, AL 35487-0231
University of Alabama Email: jshearin @ualvm.ua.edu
Graves Hall, Box 870231
Tuscaloosa, AL 35487-0231
Email:
roxford @ccmail. bamanet. ua. edu
WHY IS BILL STUDYING SPANISH? WHY The currently prevalent theory (32-36; 38-
does Mary Ellen want to learn French? What motivation emphasizes inte-
42) of L2 learning
motivates Yu Jia to learn English in China?
grative and instrumental aspects and has added
a great and
What is the reason for Maury's interest deal toef-
our understanding of how and
fort in Japanese? Why does Louise work so hard
why students learn L2s. The theory has received
at learning Russian? What does Eyhabmany think
positive he
reviews (e.g., 23) and now pro-
will achieve in studying English in vides
the a solidThe
US? base for constructing a broader
answers to these questions are important,
theory. Otherbe-psychological perspectives may
cause motivation is considered by yield
many toinsights
fresh be for rethinking L2 learning
one of the main determining factors motivation.
in success
in developing a second or foreign Evidence
languagesuggests that the current theory
(34), both referred to as L2. Motivation
mightdeter-
not cover all possible kinds of L2 learning
mines the extent of active, personal involve-
motivation. Let us consider an example. In the
ment in L2 learning. Conversely, unmotivated
fall of 1991, 218 American high school students
were
students are insufficiently involved andasked to write an essay explaining their
there-
fore unable to develop their potential L2 skills.
motivation for studying Japanese. Many wanted
to learn Japanese for future business reasons
IMPORTANCE AND BREADTH OF (an instrumental motivational orientation),
L2 LEARNING MOTIVATION and others were spurred by the desire to make
friends
Research shows that motivation directly in-in Japan (an integrative motivational
orientation). However, more than two-thirds of
fluences how often students use L2 learning
the teenagers also had additional reasons for
strategies, how much students interact with na-
learning Japanese that did not relate well to ei-
tive speakers, how much input they receive in
ther of these two motivations. These reasons in-
the language being learned (the target lan-
cluded: receiving intellectual stimulation, seek-
guage), how well they do on curriculum-related
ing personal challenge, enjoying the elitism of
achievement tests, how high their general profi-
ciency level becomes, and how long they perse-
taking a difficult language, showing off to
friends, developing greater cultural tolerance
vere and maintain L2 skills after language study
is over (30; 32; 91). Therefore, motivation is through language study, aiding world peace,
extremely important for L2 learning, and it is
satisfying curiosity about cultural "secrets,"
crucial to understand what our students' mo- pursuing a fascination with Japanese writing
tivations are. systems, and having a private code that parents
would not know. These reasons for studyingJap-
anese are only a sampling of those stated by
The Modern Language Journal, 78, i (1994)
students for studying Japanese. Most students
0026-7902/94/12-28 $1.50/0 spontaneously listed and explained at least
?1994 The Modern Language Journal three or four reasons-reasons that when an-

134.255.25.148 on Sun, 11 Feb 2024 09:50:56 +00:00
Rebecca Oxford and Jill Shearin 13
lack of knowledge about their students'

alyzed resulted in approximately twenty real rea- di
guishable motivationsons for learning a language. (see 83).
categories
For the last twenty years,
Absence much
of a Consensus research
on a Definition of L2
L2 learning motivation
Learning Motivation.
has focusedThe first issue ison
the ab-int
tive and
instrumental motivation.
sence of a consensus on a definition of L2Recen
questions have beenlearning
raised motivation.
about Sometimes
other the theoretic
pos
kinds of L2 learning definitions
motivation cannot beand easily their
tested or agre
dif
ential importance. uponSeveral articles
by other researchers. (24; Gar
For example, 27
have challenged thener proposed
(34) asserts that motivation
primacy is composed
of i
grative motivation. four elements: a goal, a desire to attain the go
positive attitudes toward learning the languag
PURPOSE AND ORGANIZATION and effortful behavior to that effect. Accordi
OF THIS ARTICLE to Gardner's theory, the goal must be related
L2 learning, yet exactly what constitutes bein
Our article suggests several ways by which the
"related to language learning" is arguable.
notion of L2 learning motivation might be ex-
For instance, studying German to fulfill a lan
tended. The current authors do not intend to
guage requirement would not be an acceptabl
overturn the ideas nor denigrate the major con-
goal and would hence not be classifiable unde
tributions of researchers such as Gardner, Lam-
a proper motivational orientation. On the
bert, Lalonde, and others, who powerfully
other hand, traveling to Germany or communi-
brought motivational issues to the attention of
the L2 field.'
cating with a German relative would be accept-
able goals and would be identifiable under a
We want to maintain the best of the existing
real motivational orientation. The goal thus
L2 learning motivation theory and push its pa-
helps define the motivational orientation of the
rameters outward. Therefore, we offer motiva-
student, which in the best known version of this
tional material that is well known in the fields
model must be either instrumental or integra-
of general, industrial, educational, and cogni-
tive (or more recently, assimilative, a height-
tive developmental psychology but that has not
ened form of integrative in which the person
yet been directly applied to the L2 field. We try
gives up his or her own culture to assimilate into
to integrate this new material where possible
the target culture). It should be noted that
into the current theory base of L2 learning mo-
tivation. This article should stimulate much
Gardner no longer treats the primacy of inte-
grative motivation as essential or meaningful
more interchange on the topic throughout the
(37), but many people in the language field do
L2 field, resulting in the eventual development
not realize this yet.
of a more comprehensive model of L2 learning
Teachers and learners might argue that the
motivation. The article is organized as follows:
kinds of reasons allowable as L2 learning goals
1) current conditions-theoretical and practi-
in this framework are too limited. For example,
cal issues clouding our comprehension of L2
in this model, many students' professed reasons
learning motivation; 2) toward an expansion-
for learning a language (such as fulfilling a re-
exploration of other motivation and develop-
quirement or demonstrating one's intelligence
ment theories and the implications for L2 learn-
by taking a difficult language) could not be de-
ing motivation; and 3) synthesis-a summary of
fined as a goal and would, therefore, not be
some key implications for L2 teachers based on
permitted as the basis of a motivational orienta-
an expanded view of L2 learning motivation.2
tion for L2 learning. Ely's empirical research
findings (29; 30) enlarge this scheme. Ely found
CURRENT CONDITIONS CLOUDING OUR three motivational clusters, the first two corre-
UNDERSTANDING OF L2 LEARNING
MOTIVATION sponding to integrative and instrumental mo-
tivation, and the third clearly centered on the
Four conditions impede our full understand-need to fulfill a language requirement. Thus,
ing of students' motivation for L2 learning: research 1)
demonstrates that fulfilling a lan-
absence of a consensus on a definition of L2 guage requirement can indeed be a goal that
learning motivation; 2) confusion surroundingstimulates student action.
motivation in second vs. foreign language situ- However, motivation is not the same as mo-
ations; 3) L2 research's omission of some keytivational orientation in Gardner's view, be-
motivational and developmental theories takencause a student might demonstrate a particular
from many areas of psychology; and 4) teachers'
motivational orientation but not be highly mo-

134.255.25.148 on Sun, 11 Feb 2024 09:50:56 +00:00
14 The Modern Language Journal 78 (1994)
tivated to implement it. Motivation itself
factors: 1) interest in the L2takes
based on existing
on the same terminology (integrative attitudes, experience, and in-
and background knowl-
strumental) as that used for motivational edge on the learner's part; 2) relevance which
orientation-a situation that causes confusion involves the perception that personal needs
for some consumers of research findings. such Mo-
as achievement, affiliation, and power are
tivation reflects the power to attain the goal
being met by learning the L2; 3) expectancy of
which is reflected in the motivational orienta- success or failure; and 4) outcomes (i.e., the
tion. This power stems from the desire toextrinsic
attain rewards felt by the learner). External,
the goal, positive attitudes toward learning behavioral
the characteristics include the fact that
language, and effortful behavior. This distinc- the learner: 1) decides to choose, pay attention
tion between motivational orientation and mo- to, and engage in L2 learning; 2) persists in it
tivation might explain the difference between over an extended period of time and returns to
registering to take a language course andit then
after interruptions; and 3) maintains a high
actually working hard to learn the L2 when in level.
activity
the course.3 These factors are strikingly similar to empiri-
The old definitional framework (softened cal findings about motivation in the workplace,
now by Gardner, but still used by some practi- as will be shown later. The Crookes and Schmidt
tioners) that limits motivation to instrumental definition is not yet widely known and has yet to
and integrative also might need to be broad-be extensively applied in L2 research, although
ened to allow for complicated changes over it deserves to be. We do not know which ele-
time in a student's reasons for learning a lan- ments of the Crookes and Schmidt definition
guage. Here are two real-life examples of such are most significant in L2 learning, and whethe
motivational changes. The first example in- those elements differ in importance in a foreign
volves one of the authors of this article. As a language vs. a second language setting. Some
light
teenager, she learned the Cyrillic alphabet so may be cast on this subject by discussing
the issue
she and her boyfriend could have a secret codeof environment.
to use while passing notes in church. The Second
next vs. Foreign Language Environments. A
second
year she signed up for Russian in college be-issue of confusion in L2 learning mo-
cause it was challenging and had prestigetivation
value. concerns how L2 learning motivation
works in second vs. foreign language environ-
Later she majored in Russian for instrumental
career reasons and then taught Russian ments.
brieflyA second language is one that is learned
in a location where that language is typically
in two settings, a high school and a university.
After being away from Russian for a long used as the main vehicle of everyday communi-
while,
cation for most people (for instance, French
she saw the language as a valuable commu-
nication tool and renewed her Russian skills being learned by a non-native speaker of that
through individualized telephone tutoring.
language in France, in Francophone Africa, or
Curry provides the second illustration: ainstu- Quebec). The learner of the second language
dent who started out taking a Japanese lan-
is surrounded by stimulation, both visual and
guage course simply to fulfill a requirement, auditory, in the target language and thus has
later became intellectually entranced with many themotivational and instructional advantages.
language and culture, and still later wanted Thistoenvironmental circumstance is con-
live and work in Japan and use the language trasted with the foreign language situation
every day. In these examples, initial participa- foreign language is one that is learned i
tion led to interest, which then led to further place where that language is not typically u
involvement and to changes in the reasons for as the medium of ordinary communication (
L2 learning. For both students, motivation thus example, French as it is usually learned in t
followed developmental paths that were slightly US). Foreign language learners are surround
different from a definitional framework of inte- by their own native language and have to go
grative or instrumental motivation. of their way to find stimulation and input in
Crookes and Schmidt suggest an expandedtarget language. These students typically
definition of L2 learning motivation. Crookes ceive input in the new language only in
and Schmidt, using the work of Maehr, Archer, classroom and by rather artificial means,
and Keller, suggest that motivation to learn a matter how talented the teacher is.
language has both internal and external fea- The question of whether motivations differ
tures. To Crookes and Schmidt, the structure of between learners of second and foreign lan-
motivation includes four internal, attitudinal guages is very important and has been repeat-

134.255.25.148 on Sun, 11 Feb 2024 09:50:56 +00:00
edly raised in recent years
integrative (8; among
motivation, 24; other27; 52;
related as- 78)
Dornyei suggests that pects integrative
of L2 learning motivation.motivatio
According to
some of the
might be far less relevant research,
for integratively motivated
foreign language
students
learners than for those capitalize on all a
learning practice
second oppor- lan-
tunities, volunteer more
guage. According to Dornyei, answers in the language
foreign class-
room, are more precise
learners rarely have sufficient in responses, and arewith
experience
more satisfied by participation
the target language community to have (34; 45). clearly
Inte-
grative motivation
articulated attitudes toward that also relates to Speech Ac-
community,
and they are thereforecommodation
uncommitted Theory (11; 44). Intothisintegrat
theory,
ing with that group. Dornyei
the learner's degreeconcludes that
of identification with the in-
strumental goals contribute
in-group (the significantly
group that speaks the target to
lan- mo
tivation for foreign language learners
guage and is therefore (probably
advantaged socially and
more so than for secondcommunicatively)
language is directly related to the
learners). He
learner's success
also states that integrative in acquiring
reasons the second
are, for lan- for
eign language learners,guage. Schumann's
less Acculturation
specific to Model
a (92;
partic
ular target culture and93) seems
are todetermined
involve integrative motivation.
more by
attitudes and beliefsSchumann
about foreign
(93) suggests language
that second language
and cultures in general.
acquisition isAn inexperienced
only one aspect of acculturation,
learner of German in and
the that US
the degree of acculturation
might havedeter- a gen-
eralized interest in getting mines the levelto know
of second foreigners,
language acquisition.
but might not have a When an individual chooses
powerful urge to acculturate and
to integrat
with the German society itself
experiences success, with which
the motivation to learn he
the o
she has so far had little or no contact. L2 increases; the person continues to try, and
Dornyei also states that instrumental motiva- he or she progresses in L2 learning.
tion and need for achievement (which we dis- However, some reasons for L2 learning are
cuss later) are associated with each other, and not tied to relations between individuals and
that these two factors affect foreign language groups. Motivation has many aspects (e.g., the
students at an intermediate proficiency level nature of the task, the person's attribution of
and below. He suggests that integrative motiva- success, and the kinds of reward involved-all
tion might be necessary to go beyond the inter- mentioned later in this paper) that do not deal
mediate level in foreign language learning. We specifically with such relationships. Moreover,
agree that the motivations of foreign and sec- recent discussions of L2 learning motivation do
ond language learners are often highly dispa- not consistently support the social psychologi-
rate. We also agree that integrative motivation cal emphasis on integrative motivation (8; 24;
is much more meaningful for second language 27; 30; 52; 78), especially in the foreign lan-
learners, who must learn to live in the new cul- guage situation. This might be one reason that
ture and communicate fluently in the target the emphasis on integrative motivation has
language, than for most foreign language been lightened somewhat. Gardner states that:
learners, who are separated in space and atti- "The source of the motivating impetus is rela-
tude from the target culture and who rarely sur- tively unimportant, provided that motivation is
pass intermediate language proficiency. aroused" (34: p. 169). However, while this con-
Omission of Other Potentially Valuable Motiva- clusion might be true for researchers, quite pos-
tional & Developmental Theories in L2 Research. sibly the source of the motivation is very impor-
The third issue of confusion in L2 learning mo- tant in a practical sense to teachers who want to
tivation centers on the need to expand the the- stimulate students' motivation. Without know-
ory beyond the bounds of social psychology, ing where the roots of motivation lie, how can
which, while exceptionally important, cannot teachers water those roots?
answer all questions about motivation for learn- Many articles about L2 learning motivation
ing a new language. The social psychological focus on social psychology as the source of mo-
approach to L2 learning motivation is con- tivation theory, yet they bypass other rich and
cerned with the individual in the context of a useful theoretical offerings from different
group, usually the target culture, and therefore
branches of psychology: general, industrial, ed-
tends to focus on integrative motivation asucational,
a and cognitive developmental psy-
reflection of relations between individuals and chology. Until recently, the social psychological
groups. Gardner and his colleagues (36; 32-36;perspective has seemed more than adequate.
38-41; 45; 57; 58) have painstakingly examinedOnly in the last few years have L2 researchers

134.255.25.148 on Sun, 11 Feb 2024 09:50:56 +00:00
called for inclusion of need-achievement con- into a good college by taking language X," or
"The students in my class are determined to get
cepts or expectancy-value ideas in an enlarged,
to-be-developed theory of L2 learning motiva- to know the people of culture Y, and that's why
tion (e.g., 24; 27), and these concepts havethey're
yet here," or "I know everybody is taking
to be incorporated in most L2 classrooms. language Z because it's the easiest one for na-
These ideas should be discussed, and they tive English speakers." As shown by the investi-
should be expanded, using many varied psycho- gation with students of Japanese described at
logical sources, to produce a broader, more the beginning of this article (see 83), such gen-
comprehensive theory of L2 learning motiva- eralizations are often incorrect, and students'
tion. The expanded theoretical framework motivations for learning a new language are
found later in this article is offered with special individualistic and multifaceted. Teachers need
gratitude to Gardner and his colleagues, who to know what these motivations are and how to
put L2 learning motivation on the map as a very build on them. A simple questionnaire or essay
important issue and provided the current theo- assigned at the beginning of the term could
retical underpinnings. provide valuable information on student
Teachers' Unawareness of Students' Motivations. motivation.
The final issue of confusion is that teachers are
often unaware of their students' specific mo-
TOWARD AN EXPANSION: EXPLORING
tivations for L2 language learning. Optimal
ADDITIONAL RELEVANT THEORIES OF
MOTIVATION & DEVELOPMENT
teaching demands that teachers understand
why their students are studying a new language In the following section we explore sev
and how proficient the students want to additional
be- theories that might helpfully en
come. Nevertheless, based on our combined
the existing concept of L2 learning motivat
seventy-one years as students, teachers, super-Specifically, we discuss four broad class
visors, and consultants in L2 classrooms, we be-motivation theories from general psycholo
lieve that few teachers are knowledgeable about(59): need theories, instrumentality theori
their students' true motivations for L2 learning.equity theories, and reinforcement theorie
Rarely have we seen an L2 teacher administer a also see how industrial psychologists have
motivation survey or discuss students' goals,grated some of these theories with social co
even though this would take only one class pe-tion concepts to produce an enlarged moti
riod. Still less often have we found teachers
tion theory (66). We consider how educatio
tracking the changes in students' motivations psychologists have applied some of these i
over several years. Actual motivations of to stu-
classroom learning (5). Finally, we invest
dents, in our observation, are infrequently the cognitive developmental theories of Pi
employed for establishing the nature of class- (85; 86) and Vygotsky as possible sources of
room activities, especially in the many foreignplanation for L2 learning motivation. Each
language settings where a set curriculum existsory is followed by a section on its implica
for teachers to follow.
for learning motivation. Because each of t
Instead of finding out directly, many teachers
theories has very practical instructional im
make assumptions about students' motivations. cations for the L2 classroom, we share our
Some instructors assume that their students
gestions as we go along and provide a synt
have the same intent they themselves had when of some key implications in the final sectio
learning a new language. Other teachers believe
that students take language courses only to NEED
ful- THEORIES
fill a requirement; while in many cases this
Landy notes two significant types of need t
might be true, it does not explain the motiva-
ories:
tion for choosing a particular language. It is 1) hierarchies of need; and 2) need-
important to find out why students select achievement. These theories are based on
French instead of Russian, or Chinese insteadneeds
of that create tension until satisfied.
Spanish. Nor does the language requirement Hierarchies ofNeed. The best known need hier-
account for later developments, as when stu- archy is formulated by Maslow. According to
dents motivated by requirements "get hooked" Maslow, individuals instigate, direct, and sus-
tain activity to satisfy certain needs that are hi-
on the language and experience a shift in their
primary motivation. erarchical in nature, beginning with biological
Many teachers make broad statements like needs and progressing upward to psychological
"All (or most) of my students are trying to ones.
get Maslow's hierarchy of needs progresses

134.255.25.148 on Sun, 11 Feb 2024 09:50:56 +00:00
through five levels: 1)faction. Following Herzberg, the2)
physiological; workplace
safety re-
and security; 3) belongingness searchers Hackman andandOldham love;
(46; 47) provi-
4) es-
teem; and 5) self-actualization. Alderfer (3; ded a job enrichment model showing that the
4) and Herzberg produced need hierarchies actual responsibilities of a job are capable of
similar to Maslow. Alderfer showed how people motivating certain individuals who have a high
regress if their higher-order needs are not met. need for growth. In order to have motivation
Although research on Maslow's need hierarchy potential for such people, ajob must have these
has raised a number of questions and contradic- qualities: 1) skill variety; 2) clear and signifi-
tions (48; 61; 88; 107), the basic concept is intu- cant tasks; 3) autonomy for the worker; and
itively attractive-fundamental physical needs 4) feedback for the worker.
must be met before more psychological needs Implications. Internally-directed L2 learners
can be satisfied. who have high needs for growth will be moti-
Implications. Assuming that Maslow's vated hier-to learn the target language as long as the
archy has some truth, we can see that foreign process of learning involves enrichment quali-
and second language learners might have some- ties similar to the positive job qualities dis-
what different motivations associated with their cussed above: variety, tasks that are identified
varying needs. In the foreign language setting, and important, self-direction, and frequent and
appropriate feedback. Externally-directed L2
needs do not relate to physiology or physical
learners also respond well to variety, clear and
safety, although they often relate to emotional
or psychological security. Nonphysical safety
significant tasks, and useful feedback, although
they often need more specific guidance from
and security needs may show up in the foreign
language classroom, where risk-taking cannot
the teacher than do internally-directed learners.
occur unless students feel psychologically These-L2 teacher has a clear role in providing a
cure (12; 52; 53; 75; 82; 91; 99). Needs (and thus
learning situation with these characteristics.
motivation) for foreign language learners Specific illustrations of how this environment
would center on the psychological aspects of the can be fostered are found in recent books (18;
second level in the hierarchy and, when those 82; 91).
needs are satisfied, would relate to the third, Need-Achievement, Fear of Failure & Fear of Suc-
fourth, and fifth levels in the hierarchy. Motiva- cess. Another need theory of motivation is based
tion would be differently focused for second on the need for achievement (usually known as
language learners, whose needs would be nego- "need-achievement") and the related "fear of
tiated in the target language from the very low-failure" and "fear of success" tendencies. The
est levels of the hierarchy; even physiological, early work of Murray and of the McClellan
physical safety, and physical security needs group (68; 100) suggested that certain environ
might not be assured without the use of the mental cues motivate people because these cue
target language. are associated with some past success or failure
L2 learners can regress in their needs, mo- Past success in a particular situation would
tivation, and performance if their require- make a person more likely to engage in achieve
ments for psychological security are not met. ment behaviors in a similar situation in the fu-
Insecure L2 learners can be very anxious (forture; past failure would generate fear and stifle
background, see 52; 53; 60; 69; 70). Teachersachievement behavior. Most need theorists
can reduce this anxiety and foster greater psy- agree that the kinds of situations that chara
chological security by noticing signs of anxi-teristically evoke need-achievement are those
ety, developing a nonthreatening classroom which competence of performance is the foc
climate, helping students relax through music (19). Need-achievement was once viewed as a
and laughter, using emotional checklists forrelatively stable, generalized personality trait to
student self-awareness, showing students how strive for success in a situation in which stan-
to use self-encouragement techniques, avoid-dards of success are applicable (68). However,
ing sarcasm and sharp criticism, using praise the Crandall group (19-21) noted that need-
well, and developing peer support networks achievement is not global, applying to all situa-
(52; 53; 60; 75; 82; 91). tions, but instead varies markedly from one
Job Satisfaction. Need hierarchies are closely achievement area to another for a given person.
related to job satisfaction, and job satisfaction Research by Steers and Porter demonstrated
research is directly relevant to L2 learning satis- a correlation between performance and satis-
faction. Herzberg has suggested that jobs canfaction for individuals with a high need for
be enriched to provide greater intrinsic satis- achievement, but not for those whose need to

134.255.25.148 on Sun, 11 Feb 2024 09:50:56 +00:00
achieve is low. Although good
converse performance is,
can be seen in the uncompromising,
by itself, a reward for those individuals
lock-step approach driven who
by the text and syl-
need to achieve, even betterlabusperformance can L2 programs
as used by many university
be created by making theirand in the more
tasks preference of some educators to
challeng-
ing and autonomous. Veroff, limitforeshadowing the language
the first two years of foreign
self-efficacy and attribution
study theories
to only certain of social
language skills.
cognition (discussed later inBecause
this L2 learning can
article), be a highly social
distin-
guished between autonomous achievement
process, mo-
females are often keenly stimulated to
tivation and social comparison achievement
achieve in language courses. One striking fea-
motivation. He establishedturecategories based
of the L2 teaching on
field (as shown in the
an interaction between two factors:
attendance 1)any
rolls of whether
major professional con-
ference
the individual emphasizes the and in employment
process of having figures) is the
achieved or the impact of preponderance
the accomplishment;
of women, at least at particular
and 2) whether the person derives
educational standards
levels. Fear of success can occur
of excellence from within, from some social
when and if achievement in the L2 learni
reference, or from an impersonal task de- field is likely to cause loss of affiliation; but t
mand. Stein and Bailey suggested that need-
is typically not the case for L2 learners (exce
achievement is stimulated by social factors (ex-in the most academically competitive foreig
ternal factors for many females, and internal language environments). Fear of failure (s
factors for many males).4 The controversial con- 53) is more salient for most L2 learners
cept of "fear of success" (50; 51) was found to than fear of success. Even the best L2 learners
apply more often to white females than white have experienced failures in communication.
males because of the former's desire to please Teachers need to make learners feel comfort-
those around them and the desire to avoid loss able even when communication is not perfect.
of social support (affiliation) through too great
a success. Blacks showed the reverse, with fear
INSTRUMENTALITY (EXPECTANCY-VALUE)
of success occurring significantly more often in THEORIES
males than in females. These results were re-
lated to sex-role expectations in various ethnic A second broad class of motivation theories
groups. includes instrumentality theories, which sug-

Implications. Need-achievement theory relates gest that individuals engage in activities instru-
directly to an expanded concept of L2 learningmental in achieving some valued outcome. In-
motivation. Many L2 students feel the need tostrumentality theories are not closely related to
achieve, some feel the need to avoid failure, and Gardner's concept of instrumental motivation
a few might even experience the need to avoidbut are more elaborated and generalized. In-
success (even if they desire success to some de- strumentality theories emphasize cognition
gree). Need-achievement theory implies that L2and the process by which an individual answers
teachers must provide students with work thatthe question, "Should I expend the energy or
leads to success; students must believe that do- not?" Unlike the need theories that create
ing the specified tasks will produce positive re- tension, instrumentality theories focus on
sults and that these results are personally valu- individual's expectation of receiving a val
able. Past success encourages greater effort in reward. Thus they are sometimes called
the future by heightening the need for achieve- "expectancy-value" theories. Also unlike need
ment, as long as the value of success is perceived theories, which are sometimes very specific
as strong. L2 teachers must be aware that the about their hierarchical nature and the means
factors that stimulate the need for achievement
used to satisfy identified needs, instrumentality
might differ among students. They must theoriesfind are rather vague about the nature of
these rewards.
out which aspects of L2 learning are personally
valuable to their students and must design tasks Atkinson's Expectancy-Value Theory. Atkinson
that support those aspects. For example, if asserted
stu- that engagement in achievement-
oriented behaviors is a function not only of the
dents highly value the skill of speaking, class-
room activities must encourage development motivation
of for success, but also of the proba-
bility
this skill and must have positive results (i.e., ac- of success (expectancy) and the incentive
tivities must be designed and paced appro- value (sometimes called valence) of success.
The flip side of this success/satisfaction coin,
priately for the individuals involved). Although
this assertion seems like common sense, the however, is the failure/shame side. Given a pre-

134.255.25.148 on Sun, 11 Feb 2024 09:50:56 +00:00
vious failure experience in which

rants. These learning one
style differences, basedis
on r
culed or punished, there
personal preferences,
is subsequently
are reflected not only in
a t
the selection
dency to avoid failure of goals but also in
by choosing a the behaviors
task so
that one cannot fail, or a achieve
used to taskthose
so goals
hard that
(81; 84; 89). the
is no shame in failure. Implications. Expectancy-value theory helps
VIE Theory. Early instrumentality theories remind us that L2 learners' expectancies of suc-
such as the path-goal theory (43) were later cess
for-
or failure are very important in determin-
malized in the VIE (valence, instrumentality, ingex-their motivation to learn the language.
pectancy) theory (105). According to VIE Other the- important factors include L2 learners'
ory, individuals ask themselves three questions: beliefs about whether their learning perfor-
1) Does the outcome, such as a good grade, mance will lead to something else (e.g., career
have value (valence)? 2) Will the outcome enhancement,
yield general enjoyment, greater cul-
other positive results (instrumentality), such turalas
tolerance), and whether these outcomes
a useful skill, job advancement, or graduation? are meaningful and valuable. If language
3) Are my actions likely to lead to success learners do not believe that their performance
(expectancy)? leads somewhere or is ultimately valuable, their
Goal-Setting Theory. To explain motivated be- motivation will be lowered. Goals should be spe-
havior, instrumentality theory is often com- cific, hard but achievable, accepted by the stu-
bined with goal-setting theory, which proposes dents, and accompanied by feedback about prog-
that performance is closely related to an indi- ress. The goal-setting process is directly
vidual's accepted goals. After reviewing many influenced by learning styles of the people in-
years of goal-setting research, Locke and col- volved, and the subsequent goal-attainment be-
leagues (67) concluded that: 1) goal setting and havior is also partly a reflection of style prefer-
performance are related; 2) goals affect task ences. Learners' goals, along with feedback
performance by focusing attention and action, from the L2 teacher and any other relevant
mobilizing energy, prolonging persistence, and sources, help determine the expenditure of
motivating the development of relevant strate- energy (motivated behavior) that students will
gies for goal attainment; 3) hard, specific goals put forth. Goal setting can have exceptional im-
produce higher performance levels than no portance in stimulating L2 learning motivation,
goals, easy goals, or vague "do your best" goals; and it is therefore shocking that so little time
4) before goal setting will affect an individual's and energy are spent in the L2 classroom on
performance, that individual must have the goal setting.
prerequisite ability for high performance;
5) feedback is necessary for high performance;
EQUITY THEORIES
6) concrete rewards such as money may in-
crease commitment to an accepted goal; 7) as- A third group of motivation theories con-
signed goals, if accepted by the individual, have cerns equity (87), which is characterized by a
the same effect as goals that the individual sets; mathematical ratio of inputs to outcomes (1; 2).
and 8) ability is the only individual difference
Inputs include intellectual ability, personal-
ity traits, experience, psychomotor skills,
variable that has had an effect on goal-setting
behavior, i.e., need-achievement and self-seniority-anything the individual believes he
esteem have not significantly influenced goal-
or she contributes to the work setting. Out-
setting behavior.5 comes include grades, performance ratings,
Based on our own research, we know that money,
in- promotions, praise-anything that re-
dividual differences in learning style-not just
sults from the situation that the individual per-
ceives as having personal value. Once individ-
in ability-directly affect goal-setting behavior
(84). Extroverted, feeling-oriented students uals
are have set up this ratio, they compare the
value of that ratio to their own internal stan-
likely to opt for goals that involve communica-
tion with other people, while introverted, dards or to the value of the ratio for significant
thinking-oriented students are slanted towardothers. If a person perceives a discrepancy, un-
goals that involve heavy analysis and individual
happiness and demotivation result (59).
work. Closure-focused people want set, detailedImplications. Equity theories are related to L2
goals that they know they can reach in a given
learning motivation because the learner must
period of time, while more open individuals believe that the probable results are worth the
want vaguer goals that are not well fixed andeffort expended. If the learner feels that many
that can be readily changed as the situation years
war- of arduous L2 learning are likely to pro-

134.255.25.148 on Sun, 11 Feb 2024 09:50:56 +00:00
late to (in
duce very slender outcomes motivation.
terms Critics
ofhave taken exception
profi-
on two
ciency, enjoyment, social fronts, conceptual and
interaction, orempirical.
lan- On
the the
guage utility on the job), conceptual front, Scott
learner willraised the question
be-
come less motivated to continue. This situation of whether the terms "intrinsic" and "extrinsic"
happens frequently, as witnessed by the belong

high to the task or the individual. The inabil-
drop-out rate as soon as official language ity re-
of psychologists to agree on which of a series
quirements are met and as shown by comments of rewards were intrinsic or extrinsic exacer-
batesI the confusion surrounding the research

like "Learning French isn't worth the energy;
can't even order a cup of coffee or glass of(28).
wine
in French after two years of studying!" In manyOn the empirical front, the basic findings of
some researchers (6; 26; 63; 94; 95) have not
L2 programs students learn about the L2 rather
than learning to use it. Foreign language been
stu- replicated in subsequent studies. The only
dents who graduate from high school after safe conclusion that can be drawn at this point
sev-
eral years of language study typically is that rewards interact in a complex manner
have
with task characteristics and that "More [re-
reached only the 0+ proficiency level (novice
high), at which they can barely communicate ward]atis not always better" (59: p. 371). Among
other researchers, Locke (64) has noted the
all; foreign language majors in college usually
top out at 2+ (advanced-plus), where theylimitations
can of behaviorism in understanding
only talk about concrete subjects and still work
makebehavior and has suggested that a cogni-
many errors (79). To many students, thesetive interpretation, as a broader, more complex
out-
comes often do not seem to be worth the approach,
price; is appropriate.
motivation therefore plummets. Implications. Reinforcement theories are of-
On the other hand, if all the effort is viewed
ten the most widely used motivation theories in
as leading to significant outcomes, that is, the classroom. In fact, although other motiva-
if the
ratio is deemed positive, then the language tions theories are probably more useful, rein-
forcement
learner will feel continuously motivated. For theories are usually the only ones
with which teachers are acquainted. Language
students to be motivated, they need repeated
teachers can reward students extrinsically
evidence-often from teachers but also from
successful users of the target languagethrough
who praise and sometimes through tangi-
ble prizes. However, intrinsic rewards-those
were once in the students' own position-that
the benefits of L2 learning outweigh the that come from within the student or from the
costs.
language task itself-are often more powerful
It is important for L2 teachers to know what
than
students' goals are so that they can provide theteacher-provided rewards. Teachers can
help students see the intrinsic rewards of L2
type of instruction that leads to the expected
outcome. For example, the L2 teacher shouldlearning as well as provide the extrinsic rewards
provide more communicative classroom activ-many students want.
ities if the goal is communicative survival skills
such as ordering in a restaurant, making pur-
EXPANDING SOME OF THESE CONCEPTS
chases, or using the transportation system.& ADDING SOCIAL COGNITION
Industrial psychologists Locke and Latha

REINFORCEMENT THEORIES
(66) have attempted to reconcile several of t
Reinforcement highlights the fourth motivation
set of concepts above and have added so
motivation theories. This set attributes individ- cial cognition theories (e.g., self-efficacy an
ual behavior to the association of stimulus, re- attribution for success or failure) to leaven t
sponse, and reward. Rewards may be contingent mix. Their work has implications for L2 lear
or noncontingent, intrinsic or extrinsic. Con-ing motivation. Locke and Latham describe tw
tingent rewards, those that occur only if certain work stages, the motivation-performance sta
behaviors occur, yield higher levels of effort andand the rewards-satisfaction stage.
production than noncontingent rewards, like Motivation-Performance Stage. In this stag
weekly or monthly pay. By extension, then,Locke and Latham explain the motivation
work by integrating goal-setting theory a
energy expenditure (motivated behavior) re-
sults from contingencies among stimulus, re- expectancy-value theory with yet another t
sponses, and rewards. ory so far not discussed here: self-efficacy.
Much interest and research have been de- order for goals to affect performance, ther
voted to this issue of rewards and how theymust
re- be: 1) commitment to the goals even if

134.255.25.148 on Sun, 11 Feb 2024 09:50:56 +00:00
signed by others; 2)have an initial belief in their

feedback onown self-efficacy.
performan
They feel lost 3)
in relation to one's goals; in theability
language class. L2
ofteachers
the i
vidual to reach or canapproach thea sense
help such students develop goals;
of self- an
4) role modeling; andefficacy sometimes
by providing meaningful tasks 5)at tangi
which
incentives. Without students
goals, can succeed and over which students
feedback is meani
can havethe
less; without feedback, a feeling of control.7 Self-efficacy
person doesn'tcan h
a clear assessment also
ofbe progress
developed by givingtoward students a degree go of
Expectancy-value theory is woven
choice in classroom into
activities from day totheday, a
planation of motivation to perform using shown elsewhere (82).
Vroom's proposal that expectancy (effort will The L2 learning strategies that students use
lead to successful performance) is positively as- are influenced by goals, expectancies, and self-
sociated with performance level when instru- efficacy. If L2 goals (set either by the teacher or
mentality (performance will lead to rewards) the student) are unclear, if the student's expec-
and valence (the perceived value of the out- tancy of success is weak, or if the student's sense
comes of performance) are held constant. The of self-efficacy is low, the student is unlikely to
concept of self-efficacy (a broadened view of use higher-order thinking strategies or any
expectancy) is drawn from social cognition the- other kind of useful learning strategies, because
ory and plays an important role in explaining progress in learning the language just does
motivation to achieve. Self-efficacy is one's not seem possible. Use of appropriate, well-
judgment of how well one can execute courses orchestrated L2 learning strategies is extremely
of action required to deal with prospective situ- helpful to learning performance (18; 62; 80-82;
ations. Self-efficacy involves the idea that per- 103). For this reason alone, L2 teachers should
formance will lead to rewards and focuses on work on improving goal-setting and positive
one's ability, creativity, adaptability, and capac-by students.
self-talk
ity to perform in a particular situationalRewards-Satisfaction
con- Stage. The relationship
text. Self-efficacy results in higher effortbetween
toward motivation to achieve and satisfaction
a goal, even in response to negative feedback

attained, according to Locke and Latham, is re-
(9; 10). High-goal individuals are more likely
vealedto in the rewards-satisfaction stage. Self-
administered rewards and self-satisfaction are
believe that pursuing a goal results in achieve-
ment and skill improvement (66). Finally,important.
higher Individuals compare their perfor-
goals produce higher standards for achievingmance with internal goals or standards, which
self-satisfaction. High-standard individualsthey have either set or accepted from others,
must accomplish more than low-standard and indi-
then self-administer rewards or punish-
viduals to believe they have performed suc-Not unexpectedly, successful perfor-
ments.
cessfully. Thus, high self-efficacy leads
manceto or progress leads to more satisfaction,
pride
setting higher goals and higher personal stan-in performance, and sense of achieve-
dards. Practically speaking, goals, expectancies,
ment than does substandard performance. Peo-
and self-efficacy affect performance because
ple usually credit themselves when successful
they: 1) lead individuals to persist longer at
but blame others when unsuccessful (65).
tasks; 2) lead individuals to exert more effort,
Attribution theory (108) adds the concept
especially on tasks with time limits; 3) direct
that higher satisfaction occurs when success is
attention toward goal-relevant action, 4)self-attributed
stimu- than when success is attributed
late individuals to develop plans for attaining
to external factors. When people believe they-
goals, and 5) enhance the quality of analytic
rather than luck, fate, the teachers, or an easy
strategies used. test-have created the successful performance,
Implications. L2 learners with established
they are happier with themselves and their
goals and a sense of self-efficacy will focus
skills.on
This positive relationship between goal
learning tasks, persist at them, and develop
success and satisfaction raises a dilemma:
strategies to complete tasks successfully whereas so they easy goals produce more satisfa
can meet their goals.6 than difficult goals, difficult goals yield h
L2 learners must believe that they have some
performance than easy goals.
control over the outcomes (failure or success) Locke and Latham offer a number of solu-
because of their performance; they must feeltoa this dilemma, including moderating
tions
sense of effectiveness within themselves so that goals and defining goal difficulty in terms of
they will want to continue learning the targettime, thought, effort, and resources. Via their
language. However, many L2 students do not
solutions, difficult goals would be achievable

134.255.25.148 on Sun, 11 Feb 2024 09:50:56 +00:00
yet still motivate high performance mastery is the goal, levels.
students Re-like the class more
wards and punishments (leading and believe either
that efforttowardand success go together.
or away from satisfaction) This can also be
constellation adminis-
of attitudes is highly
tered by others. Equity theory motivating. argues that peo-
ple evaluate their rewards and On the other hand, when relative perfor-
punishments in
terms of fairness or equity manceby is the comparing out-
goal, learners are concerned with
puts to inputs. If the person perceives
being judged inequita-
able, they value normatively high
ble rewards, he or she becomes dissatisfied and outcomes, and they believe that ability is shown
tries to restore equity by modifying perfor- by success, outperforming others, and achiev-
mance or directly protesting. Thus, satisfaction ing success with little effort. When relative per-
is most likely to be achieved when an individual formance is the primary goal, students judge
is successful in reaching goals and is rewarded their ability lower and implicate their low ability
fairly for high performance. Such action, in as a cause of failure; such a perspective reflects
turn, leads to a higher level of commitment to a maladaptive motivational pattern. Ames and
the goals. Archer conclude that a mastery structure, not a
Implications. Fair rewards and personal satis- relative performance framework, is likely to de-
faction are directly related to L2 learning. velop long-term use of learning strategies. A
These factors strengthen the learners' commit- mastery structure also helps students form real-
ment to the L2 class and the established goals istic but challenging goals and encourages
and thus lead to continued motivation. L2 them to hold the helpful belief that success is
teachers can ensure that the rewards they related to one's own efforts.
give
are fair and can stimulate students to seek per-
Implications. The L2 classroom must focus on
sonal satisfaction in their learning. Students' using clear criteria (goals, standards) for stu-
satisfaction can also be associated with self- dents to master rather than on comparing one
reward, a long-neglected area of research student's
in L2 performance against the perfor-
learning. Self-reward is discussed elsewhere mance of others. This mastery approach sup-
(82) along with the necessary, concomitant, ports theac- importance of goal-setting as a mo-
curate self-evaluation that precedes self-reward. tivational factor. The mastery approach is much
L2 teachers can also apply this theory by more positive than the relative performance ap-
provid-
ing instructional activities, exercises, and proach tests
in terms of students' beliefs in their own
by which students will be challenged yet abilities
suc- and in their use of L2 learning strate-
cessful, so that the students can attribute their gies. It also fosters risk-taking, participation,
success to their own effort and hard work. and involvement, all of which lead to greater
proficiency in the target language. Serious
competition (fostered by repeated comparisons
EXTENDING MOTIVATION THEORIES INTO
THE CLASSROOM: THE MASTERY MODEL
of student performance) is not a particularly
useful vehicle for L2 learning, although enter-
So far we have described various motivation taining games and other forms of light competi-
theories and have made our own creativetion can be good. The key lies in the classroom
appli-
cations to language learning situations. climate,
Edu- which should be nonthreatening and
cational psychologists Ames and Archer have at all times.
positive
extended several motivation theories into class- Nondevelopmental motivation theories have
rooms in general. Ames and Archer have exam- been the focus of our discussion to this point.
ined the relationship between motivation Now and let us move to cognitive developmental
goal setting in the classroom, particularly theory, where Piaget and Vygotsky enlighten
in terms of mastery vs. relative performance. our understanding of motivation.
Mastery is a criterion-referenced concept in
which student performance is compared against
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENTAL THEORY
a clear criterion or objective. In contrast, rela-
tive performance is a norm-referenced concept Motivation from a developmental viewpoin
involving comparing one student's perfor- benefits chiefly from contributions of Piag
mance against that of other students. Ames and Vygotsky. The Swiss psychologist Piaget (
and Archer state that when mastery is the86) determined through case studies that ch
goal,
learners are concerned with developingdren new are motivated to develop their cognitive
skills, they value the learning process, andmental
they abilities in a predictable set of stages
believe that mastery depends on effort. Whensensorimotor, preoperational, concrete opera

134.255.25.148 on Sun, 11 Feb 2024 09:50:56 +00:00
tional, and formal operational. not usually the kind of In stimulating
theseplace stag that
children move to accommodate Piaget had in mind; ontheir the other hand, innova
cogniti
structures (schemata) tive,
tocommunicative
new stimuli foreign language
or assim class
late the new stimuli rooms into offer a their
quantum leap existing sc
in terms of richnes
mata. Motivation, then, is a built-in, uncon- and variety of language stimulation. By their
scious striving toward more complex and very nature, second language environments ar
differentiated development of the individual's much better at providing exceptionally rich in-
mental structures. A rich, stimulating environ- put for learners, and foreign language teachers
ment enables the learner to develop cognitively, should, whenever possible, draw ideas, mate
and a deprived environment stunts this devel- rials, and inspiration from second language
opment. Piaget underscored the importance of settings.
the earliest stages of cognitive development; if Another concept arises from considering Pia-
these were not achieved successfully, the person get's research: the importance of early develop-
could not move ahead intellectually. Fulfillment ment in infancy and childhood. Learners of a
of the previous stage, according to this model, is new language-if expected to attain fluency
necessary for advancement to the next stage. and natural pronunciation-would be far bet-
Vygotsky, the Russian cognitive developmen- ter off to start the language in their early years,
tal psychologist, implied that learners need rather than waiting until adolescence or adult-
assistance from the teacher in order to move hood (91). Young students are often highly mo-
from their current stages of language tivated, especially because they can see clear
profi-
ciency to where they could potentiallyprogress be (101;in development of fluency and pro-
106). The distance between the learner's actual nunciation. Vygotsky's work implies that L2
developmental level and the level of potential learning goals must be clearly based on learners'
development is called the Zone of Proximal De- needs and interests for motivation to occur, and
velopment. The learner progresses through the input from the teacher must be both rele-
three stages: 1) assistance is provided by the vant and demanding. If these stipulations are
teacher or more capable peers; 2) assistance is not met, progress through the Zone of Proximal
provided by oneself (self-correction, self- Development will be stunted. The great signifi-
direction); and 3) there is no need of assistance cance of the teacher as the provider of assis-
at all and the language is internalized, auto- tance to language learners is emphasized in the
matic, and fluent. first stage of L2 learning.
The scaffolding is gradually removed in
Stages Two and Three. Tharp and Gallimore
state that clear, valued goals are essential in SYNTHESIS: SUMMARY OF IMPLICATIONS
FOR TEACHERS OF A BROADER FRAMEWORK
moving students through the Zone of Proximal
FOR L2 LEARNING MOTIVATION
Development toward their best proficiency: "It
is only the goal-driven activity that makes the We have not presented a fully articula
maximum contribution of each individual de-
model of L2 learning motivation, because s
a model
sirable to the entire group, thus motivating as-will demand further debate and devel-
sistance .. ." (p. 73). Students' goals and inter-among many experts. However, we are
opment
offering
ests must be the starting point if motivation is to here the important start of an ex-
be high and developmental progress is topanded
occur. model that enhances and enlarges the
Moreover, for motivation and progress to exist, L2 learning motivation theory in useful
current
instructional input to students must beways.
chal- The basis for an expanded theory comes
lenging and relevant. from the principles discussed throughout this
Implications. Piaget's work suggests that learn- drawn not just from social psychology
article,
ing a new language, like learning one'sbut native
also from general, industrial, educational,
and cognitive
language, is part of the individual's progress to- developmental psychology. The
ward cognitive development. Language devel-
broader framework toward which we are work-
opment (in the native language or a second or a not obviate the current theory of L2
ing does
foreign language) deserves and requires learning
a stim- motivation. Instead, the broader
ulating environment; without this kindframework
of en- includes other possible motivations
vironment, the individual's inborn, motivated
and additional mechanisms by which these moti-
quest for cognitive growth will be hindered.
vations become reflected in students' behaviors.
The typical foreign language classroom,Thein following is a summary of practical impli-
which communication is teacher-to-student, isfor L2 teachers based on a synthesis of
cations

134.255.25.148 on Sun, 11 Feb 2024 09:50:56 +00:00
all the relevant theories of motivation men- students establish and meet their goals based o
tioned here. Some implications might seem like
differences in learning styles: visual, auditory
common sense, and others might appear hands-on; quite reflective, impulsive; extroverted, in
new to many teachers. These implications do
troverted; closure-oriented, open. Because stu
not contradict Gardner's model; in fact, these dents' aims and means of achieving those aim
implications would fit all the models, including are variable, variety is to be encouraged in in
Gardner's, to some degree. structional content, pacing, grouping, and
First, teachers can identify why students are materials.
studying the new language. Integrative and in- Third, teachers can help students heighten
strumental reasons are likely to be among the their motivation by demonstrating that L2
frequently mentioned motivators, but the lan- learning can be an exciting mental challenge, a
guage requirement is also a definite motivator. career enhancer, a vehicle to cultural awareness
Other possible reasons are many and varied: and friendship, and a key to world peace.
cultural curiosity, travel interests (which might Teachers can provide evidence that the benefits
not always involve integrative motives), altru- of L2 learning are truly worth the costs.
ism, and intellectual challenge. Teachers can Teachers can invite former students to the class
recognize that foreign and second language to show the rewards of L2 learning. Teachers
learners probably have different clusters of mo- can also invite visitors who are native speakers
tivations, although they share the same basic of the L2 to share cultural information and to
emotional needs for comfort, acceptance, and confirm that the students can really use the lan-
esteem. Teachers can be aware that over time, guage communicatively.
students' motivations might change in kind and Fourth, teachers can make the L2 classroom a
degree, so asking students periodically aboutwelcoming, positive place where psychological
their motivations is a good idea. Informationneeds are met and where language anxiety is
on motivation (as well as language perfor- kept to a minimum. Teachers can provide ap-
mance) can be passed along in an individual propriate instructional frameworks. Some char-
portfolio to the next language teacher for plan-acteristics of optimal L2 instruction, according
ning purposes. To encourage the highest possi-to our expanded theory, include variety, clear
ble motivation, each teacher can determine and important activities, appropriate feedback,
which parts of L2 learning (for example, speak- L2 assistance tailored to learners' specific
needs, and-especially for internally-directed
ing conversationally, listening to lectures in the
L2, reading L2 newspapers) are especially valu- learners-the chance for self-direction. L2
able to the students and can include activities tasks can lead to success and must be perce
that include those aspects. as valuable and relevant. They can offer ri
Second, teachers can help shape their stu-
ness of stimulation by recreating realistic s
dents' beliefs about success or failure in L2 tions where use of the language is essen
(e.g.,
learning. Teachers can inculcate the belief thattraveling, ordering meals, findin
success is not only possible but probable,doctor,
as long going shopping, solving a probl
Teachers
as there is a high level of effort. This positive set can go beyond survival commu
tion through ingenious language tasks (
of attitudes is related to the setting of challeng-
ing goals and subgoals. Students can learn to
surveying native speakers in the communit
an opinion poll, inviting native speakers to
have realistic but challenging goals regarding
ticipate
their eventual proficiency and can develop im- in class discussions and debates, ta
field atrips involving use of the language, u
mediate, achievable subgoals that give them
increasingly challenging information-gap a
sense of progress. Teachers can help students
ities andin
meet these aims through learner training simulations).
goal-setting and self-assessment. Teachers can extrinsic rewards provided by the
Fifth,
also learn to accept varied student goals
teacherandare part of the L2 instructional design,
provide appropriate feedback on those butgoals.
teachers can also urge students to develop
Some students have more ambitious goals their own intrinsic rewards through positive
than
others. Some students want and expect self-talk
to de- and through guided self-evaluation.
Teachers can help students build their own in-
velop high levels of proficiency in speaking,
others simply want to develop passable trinsic
readingreward system by emphasizing mastery
skills, and still others just want to meet of specific
the lan- goals, not comparison with other
students. Teachers can thus enable students
guage requirement and turn to other subjects.
to have
Teachers can also accept diversity in the way an increased sense of self-efficacy,

134.255.25.148 on Sun, 11 Feb 2024 09:50:56 +00:00
whereby they attribute the outcome of the
study to their own efforts
BIBLIOGRAPHY rather than to t
behaviors of teachers or other students. Greater
self-efficacy increases motivation to continue

learning the L2. 1. Adams, J. Stacy. "Inequity in Social Excha
Motivation and Work Behavior. Ed. Richard M.
Steers & Lyman W. Porter. New York: McGraw-
CONCLUSION
Hill, 1975: 115-35.
2. -. "Inequity
L2 learning is a complex process is which mo- in Social Exchange." Advances in
Experimental Social Psychology. Ed. Leonard Berko-
tivation plays a major role. The current concept
witz. New York: Academic, 1965: II, 267-99.
of L2 learning motivation, while important and
3. Alderfer, Clayton P. Existence, Relatedness, and
extremely useful, can be expanded to include a
Growth: Human Needs in Organizational Settings.
greater number of kinds of motivations present
New York: Free Press, 1972.
in learners. Contributions from many 4. aspects of
. "An Empirical Test of a New Theory of
psychology-general, industrial, educational,Human Needs." Organizational Behavior and
and cognitive developmental-are helpful for
Human Performance 4 (1969): 142-75.
5. Ames, Carole & Jennifer Archer. "Achievement
an expanded vision of L2 learning motivation.
We offer here the beginnings of an expanded Goals in the Classroom: Students' Learning
theory but not yet a full model. L2 learners and and Motivation Process." Journal of
Strategies
Educational Psychology 80 (1988): 260-67.
we, as teachers, alike will benefit from develop-
6. Arnold, HughJ. "Effects of Performance Feedback
ing of these beginnings into a complete model
and Extrinsic Reward upon High Intrinsic Mo-
through wide-ranging discussion, debate, and
tivation." Organizational Behavior and Human
modification by ourselves and others. Performance 17 (1976): 275-88.
7. Atkinson, John W. An Introduction to Motivation.
Princeton, NJ: Van Nostrand, 1964.
NOTES 8. Au, Shun Y. "A Critical Appraisal of Gardner's
Socio-Psychological Theory of Second-Lan-
guage (L2) Learning." Language Learning 38
(1988): 75-100.
1 Gardner's latest book (34) is particularly valuable;
9. Bandura,
see also 33; 35; 36; 38; 39; 57; and 58 for other impor-Albert. "Self-Efficacy Mechanism in Hu-
tant resources that reveal the complexity of L2 man Agency." American Psychologist 37 (1982):
learn-
122-47.
ing motivation, attitudes, beliefs, and other affective
variables. 10. & D. Cervone. "Differential Engagement
2 Thanks are due to C. Beth Burch and to anony- of Self-Reactive Influences in Cognitive Motiva-
mous Modern LanguageJournal referees for their help-tion." Organizational Behavior and Human Deci-
ful comments on an earlier draft, to Kim Young and sion Processes 38 (1986): 92-113.
11. Beebe, Leslie M. Issues in Second Language Acquisi-
Jane Butler for their contributions in early discus-
sions of this paper, and to Tami Barron for her excep-tion: Multiple Perspectives. New York: Newbury
tional production assistance. House/Harper & Row, 1988.
12. Brown, H. Douglas. Principles of Language Learning
- See Clement and Kruidenier (16) for a study re-
lated to varied motivational orientations. and Teaching, 2nd ed. Englewood Cliffs, NJ:
4 According to Scarcella and Oxford (91), this Prentice Hall, 1987.
could relate to documented differences in female and 13. Celce-Muria, Marianne & Sharon Hilles. Tech-
male learning styles-specifically, differences be- niques and Resources in Teaching Grammar.
tween field dependent and field independent. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press, 1988.
14. Cl6ment, Richard. "Second Language Profi-
5 Several motivational experts have directly inte-
grated the two instrumentalist theories of VIE and ciency and Acculturation: An Investigation of
goal setting. See Mento, Cartledge, and Locke; Mat- the Effects of Language Status and Individual
sui, Okada, and Mizuguchi; and Johoda. Characteristics." Journal of Language and Social
6 See Cl6ment (14; 15), Cl6ment and Kruidenier (16; Psychology 5 (1986): 271-90.
17), and Labrie and Clement (56) for a link with the 15. - . "Ethnicity, Contact and Communicative
concept of self-confidence that is related to self- Competence in a Second Language." Language:
efficacy. Social Psychological Perspectives. Ed. Howard
7 Examples of relevant, clear-goaled, success-en- Giles, W. P. Robinson, & P. M. Smith. Oxford:
gendering language tasks can be found in 13; 18; 22; Pergamon, 1980.
31; 77; 79; 90; 91; 96; and 102. 16. &8& Bastian G. Kruidenier. "Aptitude, Atti-
tude and Motivation in Second Language Pro-
ficiency: A Test of Clement's Model." Journal of
Language and Social Psychology 4 (1985): 21-37.

134.255.25.148 on Sun, 11 Feb 2024 09:50:56 +00:00
17. - & Bastian G. Kruidenier. "Orientations in ing: The Role of Attitudes and Motivation. London,
Second Language Acquisition: The EffectsOntario: of Arnold, 1985.
Ethnicity, Milieu, and Target Language 35. .on
"Social Psychological Aspects of Second
Their Emergence." Language Learning 33 Language Acquisition." Language and Social Psy-
(1983): 273-91. chology. Ed. Howard Giles & R. St. Clair. Oxford:
18. Cohen, Andrew. Language Learning: Insights for Blackwell, 1979: 193-220.
Learners, Teachers, and Researchers. New York: 36. . "Motivational Variables in Second Lan-
Newbury House/Harper & Row, 1990. guage Acquisition." Diss., McGill Univ., 19
19. Crandall, Vaughn J. "Achievement." Child Psychol- 37. & Peter D. MacIntyre. "An Instrumental
ogy: Sixty-Second Yearbook of the National Society for Motivation in Language Study: Who Says It Isn't
the Study of Education. Ed. H. W. Stevenson. Chi- Effective?" Studies in Second Language Acquisition
cago: Univ. of Chicago Press, 1963: 126-34. 13 (1991): 57-72.
20. & E. S. Battle. "The Antecedents and 38. - , R. N. Lalonde, R. Moorcroft, & E T. Evers.
Adult Correlates of Academic and Intellectual
"Second Language Attrition: The Role of Mo-
Achievement Effort." Minnesota Symposia on
tivation and Use." Department of Psychology,
Univ. of Western Ontario Research Bulletin 638.
Child Psychology. Ed. J. P. Hill. Minneapolis, MN:
Univ. of Minnesota Press, 1970: IV, 212-217. Ontario, Canada: 1985.
21. -, Rachel Dewey, Walter Katovsky & Anne 39. - & R. N. Lalonde. "The Socio-Educational
Preston. "Parents' Attitudes and Behaviors and Model of Second Language Acquisition: A
Grade-School Children's Academic Achieve- vestigation Using LISREL Causal Modelin
Journal of Language and Social Psychology 2 (
ments." Journal of Genetic Psychology 104 (1960):
53-66. 1-15.
22. Crookall, David & Rebecca Oxford. Simulation, 40. - & Wallace E. Lambert. "Second Language
Gaming, and Language Learning. New York: New- Acquisition: A Social-Psychological Approach."
bury House/Harper & Row, 1990. Department of Psychology, University of Western
23. & Rebecca Oxford. "Review Essay: Social Ontario Research Bulletin No. 332. Ontario,
Psychology and Second Language Learning: The Canada: 1975.
41.
Role of Attitudes and Motivation by Robert C. - & Wallace E. Lambert. Attitudes and Motiva-
Gardner." Language Learning 38 (1988): 127-40. tion in Second Language Learning. Rowley, MA
24. Crookes, Graham & Richard Schmidt. "Motiva- Newbury House, 1972.
tion: Reopening the Research Agenda." Univ.42. - & Wallace E. Lambert. "Motivational Vari-
of Hawaii Working Papers in ESL 8 (1989): 217-56. ables in Second Language Acquisition." Cana
25. Curry, Beverly. Motivation for Learning a Second dian Journal of Psychology 13 (1959): 266-72.
or Foreign Language. Unpub. ms., Univ. of Ala-43. Georgopolous, B. S., G. M. Mahoney, & N. W
bama, Tuscaloosa, 1990. Jones. "A Path-Goal Approach to Productivity.
26. Deci, Edward L. "The Effects of Contingent and Journal of Applied Psychology 41 (1951): 345-53.
Noncontingent Rewards and Controls on In- 44. Giles, Howard & J. L. Byrne. "An Intergroup A
trinsic Motivation." Organizational Behavior and proach to Second Language Acquisition." Jour
Human Performance 8 (1972): 217-29. nal of Multicultural and Multilingual Development 3
27. Dornyei, Zoltan. "Conceptualizing Motivation in (1982): 7-40.
Foreign-Language Learning." Language Learn- 45. Gilksman, L., R. C. Gardner & P. C. Smythe. "T
ing 40 (1990): 45-78. Role of the Integrative Motive on Students' Par
28. Dyer, Lee & Donald E Parker. "Classifying Out- ticipation in the French Classroom." Canadia
comes in Work Motivation Research: An Exam- Modern Language Review 38 (1982): 625-47.
ination of the Intrinsic-Extrinsic Dichotomy." 46. Hackman,J. Richard & Greg R. Oldham. "Motiv
Journal of Applied Psychology 60 (1975): 455-58. tion Through the Design of Work: Test of a The-
29. Ely, Christopher. "An Analysis of Discomfort, ory." Organizational Behavior and Human Perfor-
Risktaking, Sociability, and Motivation in the mance 16 (1976): 250-79.
47. & Greg R. Oldham. "Development of the
L2 Classroom." Language Learning 36 (1986): 1-25.
30. . "Language Learning Motivation: A De- Job Diagnostic Survey." Journal of Applied Psychol-
scriptive and Causal Analysis. Modern Language ogy 60 (1975): 159-70.
Journal 70 (1986): 28-35. 48. Hall, Douglas T. & Khalil E. Nougain. "An Exam-
31. Frank, Christine & Mario Rinvolucri. Grammar in ination of Maslow's Need Hierarchy in an
Action: Awareness Activities for Language Learning. Organizational Setting." Organizational Behavior
Oxford: Pergamon, 1983. and Human Performance 3 (1968): 12-35.
32. Gardner, Robert C. "Second Language Learning in49. Herzberg, Frederick. Work and the Nature of Man.
Adults: Correlates of Proficiency." Applied Lan- Cleveland: World Publishing, 1966.
guage Learning 2 (1992): 1-28. 50. Horner, Matina S. "The Motive to Avoid Success
33. -. "Attitudes and Motivation." Annual Review and Changing Aspirations of College Women.
of Applied Linguistics 9 (1988): 135-48. Readings on the Psychology of Women. Ed.Judith M.
Bardwick. New York: Harper & Row, 1970: 62-67.
34. -. Social Psychology and Second Language Learn-

134.255.25.148 on Sun, 11 Feb 2024 09:50:56 +00:00
Rebecca Oxford and fill Shearin 27
51. "Sex Differences in Achievement Motiva- 66. & Gary Latham. "Work Motivation and
tion and Performance in Competitive and Satisfaction:
Non- Light at the End of the Tunnel."
Psychological Science 1 (1990): 240-46.
competitive Situations." Diss., Univ. of Michigan,
1968. 67. - , Karyll N. Shaw, Lise M. Saari & Gary P.
52. Horwitz, Elaine K. "Attending to the Affective Do- Latham. "Goal Setting and Task Performance:
main in the Foreign Language Classroom." Shift- 1969-1980." Psychological Bulletin 90 (1981): 125-
ing the Instructional Focus to the Learner. Ed. Sally 52.
Sieloff Magnan. Middlebury, VT: Northeast Con- 68. McClelland, David C., John W. Atkinson, Russell
ference on the Teaching of Foreign Languages, W. Clark & Edgar L. Lowell. Achievement Motive.
1990: 15-33. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1953.
53. & Dolly J. Young. Language Anxiety: From 69. MacIntyre, Peter D. & Robert C. Gardner.
Theory and Research to Classroom Implications. En- "Methods and Results in the Study of Anxiety
glewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1991. and Language Learning: A Review of the Liter-
54. Johoda, Marie. "Work, Employment, and Unem- ature." Language Learning 41 (1991): 85-117.
ployment: Values, Theories, and Approaches in 70. & Robert C. Gardner. "Anxiety and Sec-
Social Research." American Psychologist 36 (1981): ond Language Learning: Toward a Theoretical
184-91. Clarification." Language Learning 39 (1989):
55. Keller, John. "Motivational Design of Instruction." 251-75.
Instructional Design Theories and Models. Ed. 71. Maehr, M. L. & Jennifer Archer. "Motivation and
Charles M. Reigeluth. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum, School Achievement." Current Topics in Early
1983: 289-320. Childhood Education. Ed. Lilian G. Katz. NJ:
56. Labrie, N. & Richard Clement. "Ethnolinguistic Ablex, 1987: 85-107.
Vitality, Self-Confidence and Second Language
72. Maslow, Abraham H. Motivation and Personality.
Proficiency: An Investigation." Journal of Multi- New York: Harper & Row, 1970.
73. Matsui, Tomao, Akinori Okada, & Reiji Mizu-
lingual and Multicultural Development (1986): 269-
82. guchi. "Expectancy Theory Prediction of the
57. Lalonde, R.N. & Robert C. Gardner. "On the Pre- Goal Theory Postulate, 'The Harder the Goals,
dictive Validity of the Attitude/Motivation Test the Higher the Performance."' Journal of Ap-
Battery." Journal of Multilingual and Multi- plied Psychology 66 (1981): 54-58.
cultural Development (1985): 403-12. 74. Mento, Anthony J., Norman D. Cartledge & Ed-
58. Lambert, Wallace E., Robert C. Gardner, H. C. win A. Locke. "Maryland vs Michigan vs Minne-
Barik, & K. Tunstall. "Attitudinal and Cogni- sota: Another Look at the Relationship of Ex-
tive Aspects of Intensive Study of a Second Lan- pectancy and Goal Difficulty to Performance."
guage." Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology Organizational Behavior and Human Performance
66 (1963): 358-68. 25 (1980): 419-49.
59. Landy, Frank. Psychology of Work Behavior Home-75. Moskowitz, Gertrude. Caring and Sharing in the
wood, IL: Dorsey Press, 1985. Foreign Language Classroom. Rowley, MA: New-
60. Lavine, Roberta Z. & Rebecca Oxford. "Address- bury House, 1978.
ing Affective Factors in the Second and Foreign
76. Murray, Henry A. Explorations in Personality. New
Language Classroom." Paper, Modern Lan- York: Oxford Univ. Press, 1938.
guage Association Annual Meeting, Chicago, 77. Nunan, David. Designing Tasks for the Communica-
1990.
tive Classroom. Cambridge: Cambridge Univ.
61. Lawler, Edward E. & J. Lloyd Suttle. "A Causal Press, 1989.
Correlational Test of the Need Hierarchy Con- 78. Oller, John. "Research on the Measurement of
cept." Organizational Behavior and Human Per- Affective Variables: Some Remaining Ques-
formance 7 (1972): 265-87. tions." New Dimensions in Second Language Acqui-
62. Learner Strategies in Language Learning. Ed. Anita sition Research. Ed. Roger W. Anderson. Rowley,
Wenden & Joan Rubin. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: MA: Newbury House, 1981: 114-27.
Prentice-Hall, 1987. 79. Omaggio Hadley, Alice. Teaching Language in Con-
63. Lepper, M. R. & D. Greene. "Turning Play into text: Proficiency- Oriented Instruction. Boston:
Work: Effects of Adult Surveillance and Extrin- Heinle, 1993.
sic Rewards on Children's Instrinsic Motiva- 80. O'MalleyJ. Michael & Anna U. Chamot. Learning
tion." Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
Strategies in Second Language Acquisition. Cam-
31 (1975): 479-86. bridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1990.
64. Locke, Edwin. "Latham versus Komani: A Tale of 81. Oxford, Rebecca. "Language Learning Strategies
Two Paradigms." Journal of Applied Psychology 65 in a Nutshell." TESOL Journal 2 (1992-1993):
(1980): 16-23. 18-22.
65. . "The Nature and Causes of Job Satisfac- 82. -. Language Learning Strategies: What Every
tion." Handbook of Industrial and Organizational Teacher Should Know. New York: Newbury
Psychology. Ed. Marvin D. Dunnette. Chicago: House/Harper & Row, 1990.
Rand McNally, 1976. 83. -,Jill Shearin & Kathleen Barnard. "Motiva-

134.255.25.148 on Sun, 11 Feb 2024 09:50:56 +00:00
tions of High School Students 96. Slavin, Robert.
Learning Cooperative
Japa- Learning. New Y
nese." (submitted for consideration) Longman, 1983.
84. -, Madeline Ehrman & Roberta Lavine. 97. Steers, Robert M. & Lyman W. Porter. Motiva
and Work Behavior. New York: McGraw-Hill,
"Style Wars: Teacher-Student Style Conflicts in
the Language Classroom." Challenges in the 1975.
98. Stein,
1990s for College Foreign Language Programs. Ed. Aletha H. & Margaret M. Bailey. "The So-
Sally Sieloff Magnan. Boston: Heinle, 1991: cialization
1- of Achievement Orientation in Fe-
25. males." Psychological Bulletin 80 (1973): 345-66.
99. New
85. Piaget, Jean. The Development of Thought. Stevick, Earl W. Memory, Meaning, and Method:
York: Viking, 1979. Some Psychological Perspectives on Language Learn-
86. -. The Language and Thought of the Child. ing. Rowley, MA: Newbury House, 1976.
New York: Meridian, 1955. 100. Studies in Motivation. Ed. David C. McClelland.
87. Pritchard, Robert D. "Equity Theory: A Review New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1955.
and Critique." Organizational Behavior and Hu- 101. Tharp, Roland G. & Ronald Gallimore. Rousing
man Performance 4 (1969): 176-211. Minds to Life: Teaching, Learning, and Schooling in
88. Rauschenberger, John, Neal Schmitt & John E. Social Context. Cambridge: Cambridge Univ.
Hunter. "A Test of the Need Hierarchy Concept Press, 1988.
by a Markov Model of Change in Need Strength." 102. Ur, Penny. Teaching Listening Comprehension. Cam-
Administrative Science Quarterly 25 (1980): 654- bridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1984.
70. 103. Vann, Roberta & Roberta Abraham. "Strategies
89. Reid, Joy M. "The Learning Style Preferences of of Unsuccessful Language Learners." TESOL
ESL Students." TESOL Quarterly 21 (1987): 87- Quarterly 24 (1990): 177-99.
111. 104. Veroff, Joseph. "Social Comparison and the
90. Richard-Amato, Patricia. Making it Happen. Lon- Development of Achievement Motivation."
don: Longman, 1980. Achievement-Related Motives in Children. Ed.
91. Scarcella, Robin & Rebecca Oxford. The Tapestry Charles P. Smith. New York: Russell Sage, 1969:
of Language Learning: The Individual in the Com- 46-101.
municative Classroom. Boston: Heinle, 1992. 105. Vroom, Victor H. Work and Motivation. New York:
92. Schumann,John. "Research on the Acculturation Wiley, 1964.
Model for Second Language Acquisition." Jour- 106. Vygotsky, Leonid S. Mind in Society: The Develop-
nal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development ment of Higher Psychological Processes. Trans. and
7 (1986): 379-92. Ed. Michael Cole, V. John-Steiner, Sylvia
93. . "The Acculturation Model for Second- Scribner & E. Souberman. Cambridge: Har-
vard Univ. Press, 1978.
Language Acquisition." Second Language Acqui-
107.Rosario
sition and Foreign Language Teaching. Ed. Wahba, Mahmoud A. & Lawrence G. Bridwell.
"Maslow Reconsidered: A Review of Research
C. Gingras. Washington: Center for Applied
Linguistics, 1978: 27-50. on the Need Hierarchy Theory." Organizational
Behavior
94. Scott, W. E. "The Effects of Extrinsic Rewards on and Human Performance 15 (1976): 212-
40.
Intrinsic Motivation." Organizational Behavior
108. Weiner, Bernard. An Attributional Theory of Mo-
and Human Performance 15 (1976): 117-29.
tivation and Emotion. New York: Springer-Verlag,
95. - & J. A. Erskine. "The Effects of Variations
1986.
in Task Design and Monetary Reinforcers on
Task Behavior." Organizational Behavior and Hu-
man Performance 25 (1980): 311-35.

134.255.25.148 on Sun, 11 Feb 2024 09:50:56 +00:00

Oxford LanguageLearningMotivation 1994

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Oxford LanguageLearningMotivation 1994

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Language Learning Motivation: Expanding the Theoretical Framework

Author(s): Rebecca Oxford and Jill Shearin

Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/329249

This content downloaded from

roxford @ccmail. bamanet. ua. edu

This content downloaded from

lack of knowledge about their students'

This content downloaded from

This content downloaded from

This content downloaded from

This content downloaded from

This content downloaded from

groups. includes instrumentality theories, which sug-

This content downloaded from

vious failure experience in which

This content downloaded from

happens frequently, as witnessed by the belong

batesI the confusion surrounding the research

Industrial psychologists Locke and Latha

This content downloaded from

signed by others; 2)have an initial belief in their

a goal, even in response to negative feedback

This content downloaded from

This content downloaded from

This content downloaded from

This content downloaded from

self-efficacy increases motivation to continue

This content downloaded from

This content downloaded from

This content downloaded from

This content downloaded from

You might also like