SIBUGAY TECHNICAL INSTITUTE INCORPORATED

Lower Taway, Ipil, Zamboanga Sibugay

www.sibugaytech.edu.ph
alface01@yahoo.com

School President: 0917-1271826/0917-1217190 Academic Dean: 09064393454

Registrar: 09353420564 Guidance Coach: 09497510953
DSA: 0935119087

AGRI. 39 LIVELIHOOD &

POULTRY SANITATION AND
PEST MANAGEMENT,
DISEASE TREATMENT AND
CONTROL

LEARNER’S MODULE
UNIT TEST TO FINAL
SECOND SEMESTER
S.Y. 2021-2022
TEACHER/S CONTACT NO.
RAMIL B. ENTANA JR. 09532866420

STUDENT’S NAME

STUDENT’S NAME
 Hi! Welcome to the second semester. This is your learning module for
Agri. 39 – Livelihood and Poultry Sanitation and, Pest and Disease
Treatment, and control. This module will be subdivided into 5 period
parts. Different periods will tackle different lessons. At the end of every
period is examination to test your learning regarding the topics being discussed
through this learning module. Below are the topics to be discussed on the course of
this subject.
Basic concepts related to starting and managing a
Course/Subject Overview poultry farm production with emphasis on Sanitation,
Pest and Diseases Management and Control.
Course Objectives At the end of the course the learners should be able
to;
1. Discuss and understand concept of livelihood
in connection to poultry production.
2. Identify factors related to sanitation, pest and
diseases control and management in poultry
production.
3. Familiarize with the steps and processes
poultry production in connection to livelihood,
sanitation, pests and disease, treatment and
control.
4. Validate concepts on livelihood and poultry
production in relation to sanitation, pest and
disease treatment and control.
Unit Coverage (week 1 to week 3): Module 1
Introductory concepts in livelihood education
(Lesson 1-4) Pages 5-102
Lesson 1: Defining Livelihood in an agricultural
context
Week 1. (February 01, 2021 – February 5, 2022)
Topics and Contents Lesson 2: Principles of Livelihood Education
Week 2. (February 07, 2022 – February 12, 2022)
Lesson 3: Livelihood Education in Agriculture
Week 3. (February 14, 2022 – February 19, 2022)
Lesson 4: Poultry Production as a livelihood source
in the Philippines
Week 3 – Unit Examination
Unit Test Examination (February 21, 2022 –
February 26, 2022)
Prelim Coverage (week 4 to week 8)
Module 2 Poultry Sanitation and Management
(Lesson 1- Lesson 4)
Pages 11-35
Week 4. (February 21, 2022 – February 26, 2022)
Lesson 1: Defining Poultry as an animal species and
as an agricultural commodity
 Week 5. (February 28, 2022 – March 05, 2022)
Lesson 2: Importance of Sanitation in Animal
Production and Poultry, and Housing Management
Week 6. (March 07, 2022 – March 12, 2022)
Lesson 3: Maintaining a clean and healthy animal
environment
PRELIM EXAM: MARCH 16-18, 2022
Week 8 – Prelim Examination
Midterm Coverage (week 9-12): Pests Infesting
Poultry Farms (Lesson 1- Lesson 3)
Page 36-43
Week 9. (March 14, 2022 – March 19, 2022)
Lesson 1: Common Pest Infesting Poultry Species
Week 10. (March 21, 2022 – March 26, 2022) -
Week 11. (March 28 – April 02, 2022)
Lesson 2: Other Non-insect Pests Affecting Poultry
Production
Week 11. (March 28 – April 02, 2022)
MIDTERM EXAM: APRIL 11 – 13, 2022
Week 12 – Midterm Examination
Pre-final Coverage (week 13-15) : Diseases
Infecting Poultry Species and its Production
(Lesson 1- Lesson 4)
Pages 44-56
Week 13. (April 14, 2022 – April 19, 2022)
Lesson 1: Immunosupresive Diseases
Week 14. (April 20, 2022 – April 25, 2022)
Lesson 2: Respiratory Diseases
Week 15. (April 26, 2022 – May 03, 2022)
Lesson 3: Multifactorial Condition
Lesson 4: Systematic Diseases
PREFINAL EXAM: MAY 11 – 13, 2022
Week 15 – Pre-final Examination
Final Coverage (week 16-18): Module 5 Factors
causing backlogs and losses in poultry production
Pages 57-64
Week 16. (May 16, 2022 – May 21, 2022)
Lesson 1: Enteric Disease
Week 17. (May 23, 2022 – May 28, 2022)
Lesson 2: Locomotory Abnormalities
Lesson 3: Integumentary Condition
Week 18. (May 30, 2022 – June 04, 2022)
Lesson 4: Miscellaneous Conditions
FINAL EXAM: JUNE 15 – 17, 2022
Week 18 – Final Examination
Course/ Subject 1. Students or Learners are expected to submit all
Requirements the learning activities inside this learning module
on time. Adjustments such as late submission are
allowed to occur but provided with enough and
valid reason.
2. Students are expected to pass all the major
exams.
3. Students are expected to construct and submit
their own printed compiled list of pests and
diseases affecting poultry species, with their
treatment and control measures (with pictures).
Note: Failure to meet all these requirements will
affect the student’s grades.
Pages
Rubrics 65
References - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 66
CHED Courses - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 67
STII SHS & JHS- - - - - - - - - - - 68
STII Assessment Center - - - - - - - - - - - 69
 Module-1, Week 1-3 February 02 – February 12, 2022

1 Introductory Concepts in Livelihood Education

Reference: Gordon, R.C. - Sustainable Rural livelihoods: Practical
concepts for the 21st century

Module Overview:
Module 1 is all about the introductory concepts to Livelihood and Livelihood
education. This introductory module identifies the importance of livelihood in the
development of rural communities, agriculture production and enforcing
technology through promoting sustainable livelihood programs towards the target
community especially to the farmers and people who lived in rural areas. It
describes the important roles of extension worker, ―extensionist‖ or other technical
working groups that support local association and such, to alleviate certain
problems in the community in connection to poverty.

Objectives / Desired Learning Outcomes

1. Understand what livelihood and livelihood education.
2. Enhance understanding of the importance of livelihood education in a
community.
3. Analyze the significance of livelihood and educating rural communities on
sustainable livelihoods.

Lesson 1: Defining Livelihood in an agricultural context

Sustainable Livelihoods as an Integrating Concept

Capabilities, equity, and sustainability combine in the concept of sustainable
livelihoods. A livelihood in its simplest sense is a means of gaining a living.
Capabilities are both an end and means of livelihood: a livelihood provides
the support for the enhancement and exercise of capabilities (an end); and
capabilities (a means) enable a livelihood to be gained.
Equity is both an end and a means: any minimum definition of equity must
include adequate and decent livelihoods for all (an end); and equity in assets
and access are preconditions (means) for gaining adequate and decent
livelihoods.
I. Definition of Livelihood;
Sustainability, too, is both end and means: sustainable stewardship of
1. Livelihood
resources is a value (or end) in itself; and it provides conditions (a means) for
 An adequate to
livelihoods stocks and flows
be sustained foroffuture
food and cash to meet basic needs.
generations.
 A set of activities essential to everyday life that are conducted over one's life
span. Such activities could include securing water, food, fodder, medicine,
shelter and clothing. An individual's livelihood involves the capacity to
acquire aforementioned necessities in order to satisfy the basic needs of
themselves and their household. The activities are usually carried out
repeatedly and in a manner that is sustainable and providing of dignity. For
instance, a fisherman's livelihood depends on the availability and
accessibility of fish.
2. Sustainable Livelihood
 An attempt to go beyond the conventional definitions and approaches to
poverty eradication.
 The SL concept offers a more coherent and integrated approach to poverty.
The sustainable livelihoods idea was first introduced by the Brundtland
Commission on Environment and Development, and the 1992 United Nations
Conference on Environment and Development expanded the concept,
advocating for the achievement of sustainable livelihoods as a broad goal for
poverty eradication.
 In 1992 Robert Chambers and Gordon Conway, proposed the following
composite definition of a sustainable rural livelihood, which is applied most
commonly at the household level: "A livelihood comprises the capabilities,
assets (stores, resources, claims and access) and activities required for a
means of living: a livelihood is sustainable which can cope with and recover
from stress and shocks, maintain or enhance its capabilities and assets, and
provide sustainable livelihood opportunities for the next generation; and
which contributes net benefits to other livelihoods at the local and global
levels and in the short and long term."

3. Livelihood in Agricultural Context

 A rural livelihood is defined as: ―the capabilities, assets and activities that
rural people require for a means of living." It is considered sustainable ―when
it can cope with and recover from stresses and shocks, and maintain or
enhance its capabilities and assets-- both now and in the future-- while not
undermining the natural resource base."

I. Poverty within the community

1. Today, poverty is one of the main causes of food insecurity and civil conflict;
it also represents a barrier for the achievement of sustainable economic and
social development. It is characterised by large inequalities in wealth
distribution between rural and urban areas, which restrict the growth of
domestic markets and contribute to the stagnation of agriculture.
2. Rural men and women, especially in poor households, engage in diverse and
multiple activities to improve their livelihoods by maximising income-
generating activities, while minimising vulnerability and risk, and achieving
other household objectives (improved health, nutrition and education, etc.).
 These activities may include farm and non-farm actions, many times
linked with other activities carried out by rural, as well as non-rural
households. The effectiveness and profitability of these diverse livelihood
systems will vary depending on the general development environment,
each household member‘s access to and control of the asset base, their
productive and reproductive roles and responsibilities, their capabilities
and their linkages with other rural and urban actors.
3. Hence, improving rural people‘s livelihoods in a sustainable manner
involves:
• viewing poor rural people as primary actors in the development process;
 • generating a favourable macro environment for rural and agricultural
development in accordance with specific comparative advantages;
• promoting positive micro-macro linkages;
• promoting grassroots participation, in a practical and democratic way;
• improving access by the poor to different forms of capital (human, social,
financial, physical, natural) to enhance their livelihoods;
• increasing the flexibility and dynamism of responses and projects;
• adopting an interdisciplinary approach; and
• Ensuring that interventions promote activities that will be socially,
economically and environmentally sustainable.
II. The Role of Agriculture in Livelihood Systems
 For the developing countries like Philippines, where a majority of families, in
both the farm and non-farm sectors, derive their livelihoods from agriculture,
sustainability of agriculture cannot be discussed or even defined in isolation
of the issue of livelihoods.
 Livelihood security then means secured ownership of, or access to, resources
and income-earning activities, including reserves and assets to offset risks,
ease shocks and meet contingencies.
There are four principal ways of acquiring livelihoods by the rural households;
1. The Production-based Livelihood.
 A large proportion of the small and marginal farmers gain livelihoods
through production on small pieces of land.
 For these households, availability or access to inputs and improved
methods of production are quite critical for their livelihoods.
2. The Labor-based Livelihood
 Most of the small landholders and landless rural households derive
livelihoods by selling their labour.
 For their livelihoods, demand for labour, wage rates and prices of food are
the critical factors.
3. Exchange or Market-based Livelihood
 Those rural households which produce surplus food and non-food
agricultural products or non-farm goods earn their livelihoods by selling
these surpluses in the market.
 The marketing system for these products and relative prices of what
they sell and what they buy, affect their livelihoods.
4. Transfer-based entitlements
 The households without any income-earning asset or able-bodied person
to work depend for their livelihoods on transfers from the government or
other social organizations.
 Government‘s social security and food assistance programmes are
relevant for this group of rural households in fulfilling their livelihood
requirements. The rural livelihood systems in the developing countries
thus encompass a broad range of factors and depend on several macro
subsystems of the economy
Lesson 2. Principles of Livelihood Education
 Since we already had tackled the definition of livelihood and its connection to
agriculture, and how it is important to the community. So, let us now tackle the
different principles in inculcating livelihood in the secular or education platform.
Are you ready? Since, you are now ready, let us begin with . . .
I. Defining Livelihood Education
The definition of livelihood education can be broken down into two;
1. By defining livelihood
 So in our previous lesson we defined livelihood as a set of activities
essential to everyday life that are conducted over one's life span.
2. By defining education
 Education is being defined as; the process of facilitating learning, or the
acquisition of knowledge, skills, values, morals, beliefs, and habits.
As we can see with these ways we can distinguish that, livelihood education,
basically means as the education where students will learn how to have the
basic necessities and the means to improve upon them in order to have a
better life.
Students will be taught things like as how to be innovative with current
technology so that they can find solutions to problems they may face in
everyday life.
Lesson 3. Livelihood Education in Agriculture
 Agriculture plays an important role in livelihood and sustainability. In the
since that it provides food and also it greatly affects a developing economy
like us – the Philippines.
I. Importance of Agriculture in Livelihood
 Three quarters of the world‘s poorest people (the 1.2 billion living on less
than a dollar a day) live in rural areas with their livelihoods one way or
another dependent on agriculture.
 Agriculture provides more than food. It contributes to economic growth, to
better livelihoods and to provision of environmental services important to
poor people in urban and rural areas.

Agriculture is important in livelihood establishment because of these matters;

1. Its role in poverty eradication
 Over 1.2 billion people continue to live in absolute poverty below the level of
one dollar a day.
 Double those numbers survive on less than two dollars a day. These figures
define a world characterised by persistent inequality and poverty, co-existing
with increasing affluence and progress.
 The causes of poverty are complex. Concerted action is needed to address it
and to provide opportunities for the millions facing lives of desperation and
uncertainty. There is growing recognition, supported by strong empirical
evidence, that agriculture has a major part to play in these efforts.
Agriculture plays four fundamental roles in poverty eradication:
a. Through contributing to economic growth and the "quality" of that growth in
terms of its benefits to the poor;
b. As a key basis of livelihood strategies for hundreds of millions of the world‘s
poorest people;
c. As a provider of locally available staple foods for the poor; and
d. Through the sustainable management of natural resources.
2. Agriculture as a source of pro-poor growth
 In order to reduce poverty, economies must grow substantially faster than
population. Agriculture remains a sizeable part of most developing countries‘
economies.
 Employment in agriculture (% of total employment) (modeled ILO estimate)
in Philippines was reported at 22.52 % in 2020, according to the World Bank
collection of development indicators, compiled from officially recognized
sources.
 In South Asia, despite rapid urbanisation and economic diversification,
agriculture continues to provide employment for over 60 per cent of the
population and generate 27 per cent of GNP. Although less in relative terms
than the 43 per cent a quarter of a century ago, it remains a significant source
of wealth and an important influence on overall economic performance.
A number of reasons help to explain agriculture’s particular importance to
growth and development:
 Agricultural growth has increased (in the short to medium term) the incomes
that poor people receive from their agricultural production and processing
enterprises, and/or has raised the wages that poor people receive from
agricultural employment. A recent survey in India concluded that the average
real income of small farmers rose by 90 per cent and that of the landless by
125 per cent due to increases in agricultural productivity. Given that
agriculture remains the most important source of employment for poor people
in developing countries these gains can translate into widespread impact on
levels of poverty.
 Early industrial development is frequently based on the processing of
agricultural products. The rising incomes of small farmers and agro-
processors are typically spent on locally provided goods and services, many
of which are supplied by -- or employ -- poor people. Estimates of the
multiplier effect of increases in farm output on other sectors range from 1.3
to 1.95. In India a 10 per cent addition to the agricultural growth rate has
been shown to stimulate a five per cent increase in industrial output growth.
This in turn boosts the demand for agricultural produce and hence increases
rural incomes -- the so-called virtuous circle of rural-urban development.
 A further effect of agricultural growth on poverty is through its impact on
food prices. Food is a major part (over 70 per cent) of both urban and rural
poor people‘s expenditure (including rural labourers and food-deficit
farmers). Local staple food production in areas that are otherwise difficult to
reach through markets can have a marked impact on food security. Elsewhere
market mechanisms that foster delivery of regular food supplies at lower and
more stable prices help create food security and reduce hunger.
 Agricultural trade has an important role to play in poverty reduction through
more equitable redistribution of the benefits of global economic growth7.
 Millions of people, mostly living in developing countries, depend in some
way on commodities such as cotton, coffee, tea and cocoa for a livelihood.
Agricultural trade generates foreign exchange needed for public services e.g.
drugs, information technology. Formal and informal cross-border trade in
food crops, livestock and fish contribute to regional food security, economic
growth and stability.
 Agriculture provides the primary and major source of domestic savings
crucial to investment and innovation in other sectors.
3. Agricultural growth benefits the poorest.
 Strong agricultural growth has been a feature of countries that have
successfully reduced poverty such as India, Bangladesh, Indonesia and
China.
 A recent study covering 58 developing countries concluded that a one per
cent increase in agricultural productivity was associated with a reduction by
between 0.6 and 1.2 per cent in the proportion of people living on less than
$1 a day.
4. Agricultural growth is not a panacea
 Its relative importance declines as economies grow. As poor people‘s
livelihood strategies diversify -- for whatever reason -- agriculture becomes
just one of the opportunities open to them, but this is often because higher
agricultural productivity has stimulated broader development.
 The rural ‗non-farm‘ economy is providing more and more employment,
household income security, alternatives to migration and potential for
reducing poverty and inequality.
Livelihoods strategies of poor people are complex. A livelihoods perspective
provides further insight into the ways in which agricultural growth can reduce
poverty and vulnerability:
 Poor people in rural areas, including those with no land14, typically derive
half their household income from farming. This includes working on the
farms of others. The relative importance of agriculture varies with location
and wealth, although there are no hard and fast rules as to how. In West
Africa and some developing countries in Asia the rural poor depend more on
agriculture than do the rural non-poor. In contrast studies conducted in South
Asia indicate that poorer households in both favoured and marginal areas
depend more heavily on non-farm income, particularly remittances from
abroad15;
 Agriculture can provide both income (either from wage employment on
farms, or through the sale of produce) and food for home consumption.
Households that rely on agriculture for self-provisioning represent a
particular case in the food security debate ‗where consumption is
production‘16. Home farm production contributes a greater share of food
consumption in Africa than it does in Asia17;
 Women play a particularly important role in agriculture. They produce 60 to
80 per cent of the food in developing countries, with the highest proportions
in Africa;
  Agriculture can help stabilise livelihoods and provide families with a safety
net during economic downturns. Many poor people in Indonesia, for
example, were able to endure the economic crisis because of family links
with agriculture;
 Agricultural growth generates demand for the services of others. The fortunes
of local traders, brick-makers, carpenters and food vendors in villages and
small towns are closely tied to those of local agricultural enterprises18; and
 For the urban poor agriculture has become a significant activity -- in response
to declining employment opportunities and inadequate urban food systems.
Agriculture provides other opportunities: much processing of agricultural
materials takes place in and around small towns.
Lesson 4: Poultry Production as a livelihood source in the Philippines
Since we already knew the different aspects, concepts and principles of
livelihood, and the importance of agriculture in a country‘s livelihood, let
us now learn about, the Poultry Farming or Poultry Production as source
of living in the Philippines.
 Livestock and poultry make up two of the most important subsectors in the
Philippines' agricultural sector.
 Of all the animals reared for human consumption, hogs and chickens were the
most common, making up a majority of the production volume of livestock in
the Philippines.
 Livestock and poultry were the only agricultural sectors in the Philippines
with positive growth in gross value added in 2018, with poultry growing by
nearly six percent and livestock by almost two percent compared to the
previous year. The fishery and crop sectors, in comparison, contracted by
almost one percent in 2018.
I. Poultry Farming
 Poultry farming is one of the important research areas in poultry science
which deals with egg and meat production systems, industry structure,
processing, product development, egg and meat quality and economics.
(PSA, 2021)
 Rising domesticated birds such as chickens, turkeys, ducks, and geese,
domestically or commercially for the purpose of farming meat and eggs for
food but also for feathers is called poultry farming.
 Poultry farming classification focuses on the principles and practices of
poultry production and also discusses about food value and processing of
poultry products.
 Poultry farming has become one the most important aspects of agriculture.
Poultry production is an important and diverse component since egg and meat
are part of health and diet for larger population all over the world.
 Thus many researchers strive to advance knowledge and understanding in the
diverse sector of poultry farming such as Intensive and alternative poultry
farming, Egg-laying chickens - husbandry systems, Meat-producing chickens
- husbandry systems, Issues with poultry farming and world chicken
population.
  The largest proportion of poultry meat and eggs were found to be produced
by intensive poultry farming. Now-a-days free-range farming using lower
stocking densities is practiced as an alternative to intensive poultry farming.
 Research is carried on to resolve the issues rose due to agitation between the
supporters of intensive farming and alternate farming methods. The important
issues with poultry farming include Humane treatment, Beak trimming,
Antibiotics used on poultry, Poultry feed including arsenic, Avian influenza,
Efficiency in farming and Economic factors.
II. Situation of Poultry Industry in Philippines amidst this COVID-19
Pandemic
A USDA report anticipates that the Philippines will produce 1.33 mmt of chicken
meat this year, down from its earlier forecast of 1.36 mmt, noting that chicken
production was 11% lower year-over-year in the first quarter of 2021, according to
the Philippines Statistics Authority.
1. Chicken imports forecast down
 Chicken import forecasts were also adjusted from 350,000 mt to 330,000
mt based on ―increasingly stressed supply chains‖, adding that Philippine
meat processors, which account for the majority of poultry meat imports,
have stressed difficulties sourcing mechanically deboned meat as long as
European supplies remain restricted.
2. A struggling poultry industry
 The Manila Bulletin reported that the president of the United Broiler Raisers
Association (UBRA), Bong Inciong, said the country‘s poultry industry is
struggling to recover from the impacts of the Covid-19 pandemic, which is
negatively impacting farmgate prices and demand, noting that importers are
losing money because of low demand.
3. Chicken Inventory in 2021
 As of 01 July 2021, the total chicken inventory in the country was estimated
at 183.99 million birds. This was -1.3 percent lower than the previous year‘s
same period count of 186.49 million birds.
 Of the total chicken inventory, native/improved chicken contributed 45.2
percent, followed by broiler chicken with 31.1 percent share and layer
chicken with 23.7 percent share. Population of native/improved chicken and
broiler chicken lessened by -2.7 percent and -6.7 percent, respectively. On the
other hand, layer chicken inventory improved by 10.0 percent.
 Among the regions, Central Luzon reported the highest total chicken
inventory with 31.35 million birds. This was followed by Northern Mindanao
with 23.85 million birds and CALABARZON with 22.79 million birds.
These three (3) regions accounted for 42.4 percent of the total chicken
inventory in the country.
 Western Visayas reported the highest inventory of native/improved chicken
with 13.16 million birds. Broiler chicken inventory was highest in Central
Luzon with 15.63 million birds while CALABARZON shared the highest
inventory of layer chicken with 15.44 million birds.
 4. Production of Chicken in the Philippines
 The total chicken production from April to June 2021 was estimated at
433.11 thousand metric tons, liveweight. This was -1.6 percent lower than the
previous year‘s same quarter level of 440.00 thousand metric tons,
liveweight.
 Among the regions, Central Luzon was the top producer of chicken during
the quarter with a production of 140.40 thousand metric tons, liveweight.
This was followed by CALABARZON with 87.90 thousand metric tons,
liveweight, and Northern Mindanao with 36.92 thousand metric tons,
liveweight. These regions shared 61.2 percent to the country‘s total chicken
production.
 Compared with their levels in the same quarter of 2020, six regions exhibited
decrements in production during the quarter. Caraga posted the biggest
annual decline of -11.2 percent, from 3.68 thousand metric tons, liveweight in
the second quarter of 2020 to 3.27 thousand metric tons, liveweight this
quarter of 2021.
5. Prices of Chicken Meat in the Philippines
 The average farmgate price of broiler chicken in commercial farms during the
quarter was PhP 100.69 per kilogram, liveweight. This was 17.9 percent
higher than the previous year‘s same quarter average price of PhP 85.39 per
kilogram, liveweight.
 During the period, the highest farmgate price was recorded in April at PhP
101.95 per kilogram, liveweight, while the lowest was quoted in June at PhP
98.43 per kilogram, liveweight.

Learning Acitvities for Unit Test Period

Activity 1. Think slowly but surely!

General Direction: As we have already finished the topics in Unit Test Period,
revisit the importance of livelihood and how agriculture relates to livelihood. Write
your answers in bullet forms following this format given below.
Example:
Importance of Livelihood Agriculture’s Relation to
Livelihood
 Sustain daily live Poverty eradication

Activity 2. Consult the World Wide Web!

Instruction: Poultry industry has been a large part of the Philippine Economy,
search for the following year, its total poultry production, the price during the year,
the region or place of massive production and the amount of produce per region.
Follow the table below.
Total Major Quantity of Farm gate
Year Production Producer produce price
(Poultry) (Region)
1. 2015
2. 2016
3. 2017
4. 2018
5. 2019
6. 2020
7. 2021

END OF UNIT TEST PERIOD

Note: All answers should be written in a short bond paper and hand written.
All questions must be answered out of your own cognition. Plagiarism is an
illegal act according to laws, therefore copy pasting of answers are prohibited
in any forms. Anyone who is caught doing so, will be penalized with demerit
of points.
Unit Exam: FEB. 16-18, 2022
 Prelim Period: Feb. 21 – Mar. 12, 2022
Module-2, Week 4-8
2 Poultry Sanitation and Management
Reference: Shane, S. 2005, Handbook on Poultry Diseases

Module Overview:
Module 2 will tackle the preparation needed in poultry sanitation and
management. This Self Learning Module will explain the science and the reasons
behind keeping the poultry houses clean, properly manage and sanitize to meet the
maximum satisfaction of poultry production – meat supply and profit.
Objectives / Desired Learning Outcomes
1. Evaluate the key factors to be considered poultry sanitation and management.
2. Understand the steps and processes to be done to keep poultry pen and house
clean and sanitize.
3. Analyse the effects of well sanitize and clean poultry environment.

Lesson 1. Defining Poultry as an Animal species and as an Agricultural

Commodity

Since we have already learned about the basic concepts of livelihood as well
as the importance of poultry production in the Philippine Economy, now let us
learn about Poultry as an Animal Species and as an Agricultural Commodity.

1. What is Poultry
 Are domesticated birds kept by humans for their eggs, their meat or their
feathers. These birds are most typically members of the superorder
Galloanserae (fowl), especially the order Galliformes (which includes
chickens, swans, quails, and turkeys).
 The term also includes birds that are killed for their meat, such as the young
of pigeons (known as squabs) but does not include similar wild birds hunted
for sport or food and known as game. The word "poultry" comes from the
French/Norman word poule, itself derived from the Latin word pullus, which
means small animal.
 The domestication of poultry took place around 5,400 years ago in Southeast
Asia. This may have originally been as a result of people hatching and
rearing young birds from eggs collected from the wild, but later involved
keeping the birds permanently in captivity.
 Domesticated chickens may have been used for cockfighting at first and quail
kept for their songs, but soon it was realised how useful it was having a
captive-bred source of food. Selective breeding for fast growth, egg-laying
ability, conformation, plumage and docility took place over the centuries, and
modern breeds often look very different from their wild ancestors. Although
some birds are still kept in small flocks in extensive systems, most birds
available in the market today are reared in intensive commercial enterprises.
2. Animals in Poultry Species

Bird Wild ancestor Domestication Utilization Picture

Chicken Red junglefowl Southeast Asia Eggs and meat

Turkey Wild turkey Mexico Meat

Duck Mallard Various Eggs and meat

Goose Greylag Various Eggs and meat

Guinea fowl Helmeted guinea fowl Africa Eggs and meat

Pigeon Rock dove Middle East Meat

Those are the examples of poultry species domesticated by civilizations for

consumption and other usage. Now let us learn how they were utilized over the
years.
3. Poultry Species and their usage

a. Chickens
 Chickens are medium-sized, chunky birds with an upright stance and
characterised by fleshy red combs and wattles on their heads. Males,
known as cocks, are usually larger, more boldly coloured, and have more
exaggerated plumage than females (hens). Chickens are gregarious,
omnivorous, ground-dwelling birds that in their natural surroundings
search among the leaf litter for seeds, invertebrates, and other small
animals.
  They seldom fly except as a result of perceived danger, preferring to run
into the undergrowth if approached. Today's domestic chicken (Gallus
gallus domesticus) is mainly descended from the wild red junglefowl of
Asia, with some additional input from grey jungle fowl. Domestication is
believed to have taken place between 7,000 and 10,000 years ago, and
what are thought to be fossilized chicken bones have been found in
northeastern China dated to around 5,400 BC.
 Archaeologists believe domestication was originally for the purpose of
cockfighting, the male bird being a doughty fighter. By 4,000 years ago,
chickens seem to have reached the Indus Valley and 250 years later, they
arrived in Egypt. They were still used for fighting and were regarded as
symbols of fertility. The Romans used them in divination, and the
Egyptians made a breakthrough when they learned the difficult technique
of artificial incubation. Since then, the keeping of chickens has spread
around the world for the production of food with the domestic fowl being
a valuable source of both eggs and meat.
 Since their domestication, a large number of breeds of chickens have been
established, but with the exception of the white Leghorn, most commercial
birds are of hybrid origin.In about 1800, chickens began to be kept on a
larger scale, and modern high-output poultry farms were present in the
United Kingdom from around 1920 and became established in the United
States soon after the Second World War. By the mid-20th century, the
poultry meat-producing industry was of greater importance than the egg-
laying industry.
 Poultry breeding has produced breeds and strains to fulfil different needs;
light-framed, egg-laying birds that can produce 300 eggs a year; fast-
growing, fleshy birds destined for consumption at a young age, and utility
birds which produce both an acceptable number of eggs and a well-fleshed
carcase. Male birds are unwanted in the egg-laying industry and can often
be identified as soon as they are hatch for subsequent culling. In meat
breeds, these birds are sometimes castrated (often chemically) to prevent
aggression. The resulting bird, called a capon, has more tender and
flavorful meat, as well.
 A bantam is a small variety of domestic chicken, either a miniature version
of a member of a standard breed, or a "true bantam" with no larger
counterpart. The name derives from the town of Bantam in Java[21] where
European sailors bought the local small chickens for their shipboard
supplies. Bantams may be a quarter to a third of the size of standard birds
and lay similarly small eggs. They are kept by small-holders and hobbyists
for egg production, use as broody hens, ornamental purposes, and
showing.
b. Ducks
 Ducks are medium-sized aquatic birds with broad bills, eyes on the side of
the head, fairly long necks, short legs set far back on the body, and
webbed feet. Males, known as drakes, are often larger than females
(known as hens) and are differently coloured in some breeds.
  Domestic ducks are omnivores, eating a variety of animal and plant
materials such as aquatic insects, molluscs, worms, small amphibians,
waterweeds, and grasses. They feed in shallow water by dabbling, with
their heads underwater and their tails upended. Most domestic ducks are
too heavy to fly, and they are social birds, preferring to live and move
around together in groups. They keep their plumage waterproof by
preening, a process that spreads the secretions of the preen gland over their
feathers.
 Clay models of ducks found in China dating back to 4000 BC may
indicate the domestication of ducks took place there during the Yangshao
culture. Even if this is not the case, domestication of the duck took place in
the Far East at least 1500 years earlier than in the West. Lucius Columella,
writing in the first century BC, advised those who sought to rear ducks to
collect wildfowl eggs and put them under a broody hen, because when
raised in this way, the ducks "lay aside their wild nature and without
hesitation breed when shut up in the bird pen". Despite this, ducks did not
appear in agricultural texts in Western Europe until about 810 AD, when
they began to be mentioned alongside geese, chickens, and peafowl as
being used for rental payments made by tenants to landowners.
 It is widely agreed that the mallard (Anas platyrhynchos) is the ancestor of
all breeds of domestic duck (with the exception of the Muscovy duck
(Cairina moschata), which is not closely related to other ducks). Ducks
are farmed mainly for their meat, eggs, and down. As is the case with
chickens, various breeds have been developed, selected for egg-laying
ability, fast growth, and a well-covered carcase. The most common
commercial breed in the United Kingdom and the United States is the
Pekin duck, which can lay 200 eggs a year and can reach a weight of 3.5
kg (7 lb 11 oz) in 44 days.
 In the Western world, ducks are not as popular as chickens, because the
latter produce larger quantities of white, lean meat and are easier to keep
intensively, making the price of chicken meat lower than that of duck
meat. While popular in haute cuisine, duck appears less frequently in the
mass-market food industry. However, things are different in the East.
Ducks are more popular there than chickens and are mostly still herded in
the traditional way and selected for their ability to find sufficient food in
harvested rice fields and other wet environments.
c. Geese
 The greylag goose (Anser anser) was domesticated by the Egyptians at
least 3000 years ago, and a different wild species, the swan goose (Anser
cygnoides), domesticated in Siberia about a thousand years later, is known
as a Chinese goose. The two hybridise with each other and the large knob
at the base of the beak, a noticeable feature of the Chinese goose, is
present to a varying extent in these hybrids. The hybrids are fertile and
have resulted in several of the modern breeds. Despite their early
domestication, geese have never gained the commercial importance of
chickens and ducks.
  Domestic geese are much larger than their wild counterparts and tend to
have thick necks, an upright posture, and large bodies with broad rear
ends. The greylag-derived birds are large and fleshy and used for meat,
while the Chinese geese have smaller frames and are mainly used for egg
production. The fine down of both is valued for use in pillows and padded
garments.
 They forage on grass and weeds, supplementing this with small
invertebrates, and one of the attractions of rearing geese is their ability to
grow and thrive on a grass-based system. They are very gregarious and
have good memories and can be allowed to roam widely in the knowledge
that they will return home by dusk. The Chinese goose is more aggressive
and noisy than other geese and can be used as a guard animal to warn of
intruders. The flesh of meat geese is dark-coloured and high in protein, but
they deposit fat subcutaneously, although this fat contains mostly
monounsaturated fatty acids. The birds are killed either around 10 or about
24 weeks. Between these ages, problems with dressing the carcase occur
because of the presence of developing pin feathers.
 In some countries, geese and ducks are force-fed to produce livers with an
exceptionally high fat content for the production of foie gras. Over 75% of
world production of this product occurs in France, with lesser industries in
Hungary and Bulgaria and a growing production in China.
 Foie gras is considered a luxury in many parts of the world, but the
process of feeding the birds in this way is banned in many countries on
animal welfare grounds.
d. Turkey
 Turkeys are large birds, their nearest relatives being the pheasant and the
guineafowl. Males are larger than females and have spreading, fan-shaped
tails and distinctive, fleshy wattles, called a snood, that hang from the top
of the beak and are used in courtship display. Wild turkeys can fly, but
seldom do so, preferring to run with a long, straddling gait. They roost in
trees and forage on the ground, feeding on seeds, nuts, berries, grass,
foliage, invertebrates, lizards, and small snakes.

 The modern domesticated turkey is descended from one of six subspecies

of wild turkey (Meleagris gallopavo) found in the present Mexican states
of Jalisco, Guerrero and Veracruz. Pre-Aztec tribes in south-central
Mexico first domesticated the bird around 800 BC, and Pueblo Indians
inhabiting the Colorado Plateau in the United States did likewise around
200 BC. They used the feathers for robes, blankets, and ceremonial
purposes. More than 1,000 years later, they became an important food
source. The first Europeans to encounter the bird misidentified it as a
guineafowl, a bird known as a "turkey fowl" at that time because it had
been introduced into Europe via Turkey.
 Commercial turkeys are usually reared indoors under controlled
conditions. These are often large buildings, purpose-built to provide
ventilation and low light intensities (this reduces the birds' activity and
 thereby increases the rate of weight gain). The lights can be switched on
for 24 h/day, or a range of step-wise light regimens to encourage the birds
to feed often and therefore grow rapidly. Females achieve slaughter weight
at about 15 weeks of age and males at about 19.
 Mature commercial birds may be twice as heavy as their wild counterparts.
Many different breeds have been developed, but the majority of
commercial birds are white, as this improves the appearance of the dressed
carcass, the pin feathers being less visible.[35] Turkeys were at one time
mainly consumed on special occasions such as Christmas (10 million birds
in the United Kingdom) or Thanksgiving (60 million birds in the United
States). However, they are increasingly becoming part of the everyday diet
in many parts of the world.
e. Other Poultry Species
 Guinea fowl originated in southern Africa, and the species most often kept
as poultry is the helmeted guineafowl (Numida meleagris). It is a medium-
sized grey or speckled bird with a small naked head with colorful wattles
and a knob on top, and was domesticated by the time of the ancient Greeks
and Romans. Guinea fowl are hardy, sociable birds that subsist mainly on
insects, but also consume grasses and seeds. They will keep a vegetable
garden clear of pests and will eat the ticks that carry Lyme disease. They
happily roost in trees and give a loud vocal warning of the approach of
predators. Their flesh and eggs can be eaten in the same way as chickens,
young birds being ready for the table at the age of about four months.
 A squab is the name given to the young of domestic pigeons that are
destined for the table. Like other domesticated pigeons, birds used for this
purpose are descended from the rock pigeon (Columba livia). Special
utility breeds with desirable characteristics are used. Two eggs are laid and
incubated for about 17 days. When they hatch, the squabs are fed by both
parents on "pigeon's milk", a thick secretion high in protein produced by
the crop. Squabs grow rapidly, but are slow to fledge and are ready to
leave the nest at 26 to 30 days weighing about 500 g (1 lb 2 oz). By this
time, the adult pigeons will have laid and be incubating another pair of
eggs and a prolific pair should produce two squabs every four weeks
during a breeding season lasting several months.
Lesson 2: Importance of Sanitation in Animal Production and Housing
Management

After defining all the species involved in the huge family of poultry, let us
now tackle about sanitation in animal production and how does these practices
affect the health and harvest of food animals.
I. Importance of Sanitation in Animal Production
1. What is Sanitation?
 Addresses the cleaning—and disinfection when necessary—of people,
equipment, animals and material entering a farm.
 Routine farm operations such as feeding, milking, animal handling,
medical treatments, contact with vehicles and equipment, interactions with
 service providers and outside visitors, are all possible contact points for
the transfer of diseases and pests.
 Entry and exit routes from buildings and a property have the potential to
bring and take away disease-causing organisms.
2. Why Sanitation is important in animal production?
 Sanitation is an important part of the plan, for the prevention of diseases in
your herd, and to know what to do when diseases are present.
 Ensuring proper clean and sanitary conditions are not only good practices
for animal treatment in animal production. It is also necessary to ensure
that animal and animal by-products are not contaminated with food-borne
pathogens.
3. Basic Cleaning and Disinfection Considerations
Sanitation practices of cleaning and disinfection are intended to stop the
transmission of infectious agents. It involves inactivating or destroying
disease-causing microorganisms on the farm premises, equipment,
vehicles and personnel.
a) Cleaning - removes germs, dirt and impurities from surfaces or objects.
Cleaning works by using soap (or detergent) and water to physically remove
germs from surfaces. This process does not necessarily kill germs, but by
removing them, it lowers their numbers and the risk of spreading infection.
Areas that are determined to be a low risk for disease transmission may only
require cleaning.
b) Sanitizing - lowers the number of germs on surfaces or objects to a safe
level, depending on the requirements. This process works by either cleaning
or disinfecting surfaces or objects to lower the risk of spreading infection.
c) Disinfecting - kills germs on surfaces or objects. Disinfecting works by using
physical or chemical agents to kill germs on surfaces or objects. This process
does not necessarily clean dirty surfaces or remove germs, but by killing
germs on a surface after cleaning, it can further lower the risk of spreading
infection.
d) Sterilization - kills all forms of microbial life. Steam under pressure, dry
heat and liquid chemicals are used in this process.
The life span of infectious agents/disease-causing microorganisms varies.
Many viruses and bacteria have short life spans outside of a host, from
hours to days.
However, others can live a long time with the right environmental
conditions for them (anthrax, foot and mouth disease). Removing organic
material such as dirt, feed and manure is the first step in the sanitation
process, no matter if you are cleaning boots, floors, buckets, water troughs,
equipment or vehicles.
The general order for the sanitation process is:
 Dry clean (remove solids)
 Wet wash
 Rinse
 Dry
 Disinfect
 4. Cleaning and Disinfection Steps
Step 1. Surface Type
 Porous, uneven, cracked, or pitted surfaces, especially wooden surfaces and
earthen floors, are difficult to disinfect. Some chemical disinfectants may
also be incompatible with or corrosive to certain materials or surface types
(e.g., metal, rubber, plastic). Due to the construction and presence of uneven
surfaces on equipment, equipment cleaning and disinfection procedures can
be difficult. Heat may be a more effective method for inactivating the virus
on these surfaces.
Step 2. pH
 The activity of some disinfectants is also affected by pH because it changes
the degree of ionization of a chemical disinfectant, thereby impacting its
effectiveness. For example, the effectiveness of phenols, acids, and
hypochlorites are decreased as pH increases; in contrast, quaternary
ammonium compounds have greatest efficacy as pH increases.
Step 3. Water Quality
 The water quality used when diluting and applying detergents and
disinfectants is important. Water hardness can inactivate or reduce the
effectiveness of certain disinfectants (e.g., quaternary ammonium
compounds). Be sure to consider any standing water or other water sources
(e.g., rainfall) present that may immediately dilute the disinfectant during
application.
Step 4. Temperature
 Some disinfectants are less effective or ineffective at low temperatures (e.g.,
cold weather conditions). Additionally, disinfectant solutions may freeze
outdoors under low temperature conditions. When possible, buildings and
equipment should be heated to approximately 68℉ (20℃) when applying
disinfectants. Elevated temperatures can aid in microorganism destruction;
however, higher temperatures can also accelerate decomposition or
evaporation of a disinfectant, thereby reducing the necessary contact time and
efficacy. Excessive heat may also damage items being disinfected.
Step 5. Weather
 Inclement weather conditions (e.g., cold, rain, wind) may also make these
procedures difficult.
5. Line of Separation (LOS Technique)
 A Line of Separation (LOS) or the clean/dirty line is an important part of both
sanitation and traffic control in any biosecurity plan and procedures. It is a line,
physical or imagined, that separates the clean from the dirty. The LOS could be
a line or a barrier such as a bench to cross that separates areas. It is site-specific
and may be set up at the farm level (the farm perimeter), the barn level, or
somewhere in between.
 6. The Cleaning-Disinfecting Principle
 Cleaning is done before disinfecting. Cleaning can remove up to 90 percent of
infectious agents. It improves the effectiveness of disinfectants.
I - Cleaning Method
1. Dry Cleaning - remove contamination such as soil, manure, bedding and feed.
 Moisten the area to control dust.
 Air blowers should not be used because of the risk of infectious agent spread.
2. Washing - the most overlooked step.
 Use of detergents - a detergent disperses and removes organic materials from surfaces.
 Washing reduces infectious agents and removes oil, grease, and body fluids such as
blood.
 Shut off, remove or cover electrical equipment before washing.
 High pressure water is very effective but avoid using it if you know that a highly
infectious or zoonotic disease is present.
 Warm to hot water should be used.
 Scrubbing may be necessary.
 Steam is effective for cracks, crevices and pipework.
3. Rinsing - rinse with cold water at low pressure.
 Surfaces should be inspected to make sure there is no beading water.
II4.– Disinfecting Method
Drying - surfaces should be allowed to dry completely, overnight if possible
 1)Fans can be helpful
Disinfection in drying.
is intended to eliminate infectious agents. The process includes
Source:application of a Security
Center for Food processand
or product, the amount
Public Health of contact
presentation, timeand
Cleaning needed to kill
Disinfection
Overview, at https://slideplayer.com/slide/5948067/
infectious agents, and then rinsing and drying if needed. This always comes
after cleaning.
2) General disinfection is useful in preventative biosecurity procedures. When a
disease is present in livestock it is important to determine which disinfectant
 type or method to use. A veterinarian can recommend the right disease
disinfection procedure.
 Disinfection includes the physical use of agents (dry or moist heat,
pasteurization, autoclaving, ultraviolet light, filtration), or chemicals such as
sanitizers, sterilants, disinfectants and antiseptics.
a. Sanitizer – reduces a bacterial population, but does not destroy or eliminate
all bacteria or infectious agents.
b. Antiseptic – kills or inhibits the growth of microorganisms and is applied to
the skin of animals.
c. Disinfectant – destroys or eliminates specific infectious agents.
d. Sterilant – destroys all forms of microbial life.
 The application of any disinfection process requires knowing how long the
product needs to come in contact with a surface in order to be effective.
Reapplication may be necessary in some cases. Make sure to rinse after the
application time is complete.
 Use of a disinfectant needs to be planned ahead of time, especially if animals are
already exposed or infected.
1. Assessment and planning
 Identify the infectious agent if needed.
 Determine what areas and items need disinfecting.
 Select the proper disinfection method.
 Identify and address any hazards and safety issues.
 Determine the personnel, equipment and supplies needed.
 Know that there will be "downtime", when disinfected area must be free of
animals or any activity.
2. Site selection
 Adjacent to entrance points.
 Two scales – small scale for personnel/small equipment, or large scale for
vehicles and machinery.
 Location of disinfection station(s) – water supply and waste water
containment.
3. Disinfectant preparation
 Only use federally registered products.
 Use fresh solutions only: old solutions may have reduced efficacy.
4. Evaluation
 Were areas properly cleaned and disinfected?
 Are personnel aware of how to carry out cleaning and disinfecting measures?
 Was the proper disinfectant selected, the right concentration used?
 Was the correct contact time achieved?
 Cleaning and disinfection waste – minimize or avoid environmental impacts.
5. Safety
 Consider possible chemical hazards – exposure to skin, eyes, respiratory
irritation or ingestion by animals.
 Physical hazards such slips, trips and falls.
 Heat injury from a high pressure sprayer.
  Use of Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) including gloves, masks, eye
coverings.
Source: Center for Food Security and Public Health presentation, Cleaning and
Disinfection Overview, at https://slideplayer.com/slide/5948067/
II. Housing Management for Poultry
1. Why there is a need for a poultry house?
 To protect birds from adverse climatic conditions
 To ensure easy and economic operation
 To ensure scientific feeding in a controlled manner
 To facilitate proper micro-climatic conditions in a near vicinity of bird
 For effective disease control measures
 To ensure proper supervision
2. Selecting Location for the poultry house
 Poultry house should be located away from residential and industrial area.
 It should have proper road facilities.
 It should have the basic amenities like water and electricity.
 Availability of farm labourers at relatively cheaper wages.
 Poultry house should be located in an elevated area and there should not be
any water-logging.
 It should have proper ventilation.
3. Layout of poultry farm
A small size poultry farm doesn‘t require any special layout as it involves
construction of only one house. The medium and large size farms require special
considerations for placement of building in the farm premises. The basic
principles to be observed for layout are;
 Layout should not allow visitors or outside vehicles near the birds.
 The sheds should be so located that the fresh air first passes through the
brooder shed, followed by grower and layer sheds. This prevents the spread
of diseases from layer houses to brooder house.
 There should be a minimum distance of 50-100 feet between chick and
grower shed and the distance between grower and layer sheds should be of
minimum 100 metre.
 The egg store room, office room and the feed store room should be located
near entrance to minimize the movement of people around the poultry sheds.
 The disposal pit and sick room should be constructed only at the extreme end
of the site.
4. Different types of poultry houses
a) Brooder / chick house-It is used to brood and rear egg-type chicks from 0 to
8 weeks of age.
b) Grower house-It is used to grow egg-type birds from 9 to 18 weeks of age.
c) Brooders cum grower house-Here, the birds are reared from 0 to 18 weeks
of age (entire brooding and growing period of egg-type chicken).
d) Layer house-In which birds over 18 weeks of age are reared, usually up to
72 weeks of age.
e) Broiler house-In which broilers are reared up to 6 weeks of age.
 f) Breeder house-In which both male and female breeders are maintained at
appropriate sex ratio.
g) Environmentally controlled (EC) house-In which, entire environment is
manipulated in such a way that is optimum for the birds growth.
Factors to be considered in making poultry houses;
1. Optimal environmental conditions for rearing broilers
 Temperature - 22-300C (70-850F)
 Relative Humidity - 30-60 %
 Ammonia level - Less than 25 ppm
 Litter moisture - 15-25%
 Air flow - 10-30 metres/minute
2. House Orientation (Direction)
 The poultry house should be located in such a way that long axis is in east-
west direction. This will prevent the direct sunshine over the birds.
3. Size
 Each broiler require one square foot of floor space while a layer requires two
square feet of floor space under deep-litter system of rearing. So the size of
the house depends on the number of birds to be reared.
4. Length
 The length of the house can be of any extent. The number of birds reared and
availability of the land determines the length of poultry house.
5. Width
 The open sided poultry houses in tropical countries should have a width not
more than 22 to 25 feet in order to allow ample ventilation and aeration at the
mid-portion. Sheds wider than this will not provide adequate ventilation
during the hot weather. If the width of the shed is more than 25 feet, ridge
ventilation at the middle line of the roof top with proper overhang is a must.
Hot air and obnoxious gases which are lighter than air move upward and
escape through ridge ventilation. In environmentally controlled poultry
houses, the width of the house may be even 40 feet or more since the
ventilation is controlled with the help of exhaust fans.
6. Height
 The height of the sides from foundation to the roof line should be 6 to 7 feet
(eaves height) and at the centre 10 to 12 feet. In case of cage houses, the
height is decided by the type of cage arrangements (3 tier or 4 tier).
7. Foundation
 Good foundation is essential to prevent seepage of water into the poultry
sheds. The foundation of the house should of concrete with 1 to 1.5 feet
below the surface and 1 to 1.5 feet above the ground level.
8. Floor
 The floor should be made of concrete with rat proof device and free from
dampness. The floor of the house should be extended 1.5 feet outside the
wall on all sides to prevent rat and snake problems.
9. Doors
  The door must be open outside in case of deep-litter poultry houses. The size
of door is preferably 6 x 2.5 feet. At the entry, a foot bath should be
constructed to fill with a disinfectant
10. Side walls
 The side wall should be of 1-1.5 feet height, and generally at the level of
bird‘s back height. This side wall protects the bird during rainy days or chill
climate and also provides sufficient ventilation. In case of cage houses, no
side wall is needed.

11. Roof
 The roof of the poultry house may be thatched, tiled, asbestos or concrete one
depending upon the cost involvement. Different types of roofs are Shed,
Gable, half-monitor, full-monitor (Monitor), Flat concrete, Gambrel, Gothic
etc. Gable type is mostly preferred in tropical countries like India.
12. Overhang
 The overhang of the roof should not be less than 3.5 feet in order to prevent
the entry of rain water into the shed.
13. Lighting
 Light should be provided at 7-8 feet above the ground level and must be
hanged from ceiling. If incandescent bulbs are used, the interval between
two bulbs is 10 feet. In case of fluorescent lights (tube lights) the interval is
15 feet.
5. Systems of Poultry Housing
Poultry can be housed under different systems based on following factors,
o Availability of land
o Cost of land
o Type of farming activity
o Climatic condition
o Labour availability
Broadly, poultry housing systems are classified into three systems:
1) Free range or extensive system
2) Semi-intensive system
3) Intensive system
i. Deep-litter system
ii. Slatted floor system
iii. Slat cum litter system
iv. Cage system
1) Free range system
 This system is adopted only when adequate land is available to ensure desired
stocking density by avoiding overcrowding. We can rear about 250 adult
birds per hectare. A range provides shelter, greens, feed, water and shade.
Foraging is the major source of feeding for birds. Shelter is usually provided
by temporary roofing supported by ordinary poles. The fields are generally
used on rotational basis after harvesting of crops by moving of birds from one
field to another depending on cropping programme. All categories of birds
 can be reared in this system. This system is most preferred for organic egg
production.
Advantages
 Less capital investment
 Cost of housing is least.
 Feed requirements are less since birds can consume fairly good amount of
feed from grass land.
 Fertility of soil can be maintained.
Disadvantages
 The scientific management practices cannot be adopted.
 Eggs are lost when laid inside the dense grasses unless special nests are
provided.
 Losses due to predatory animals are more.
 Wild birds may bring diseases unless proper care is taken.
2) Semi-intensive system
 As the name indicates birds are half-way reared in houses and half-way on
ground or range, i.e. birds are confined to houses in night or as per need and
they are also given access to runs. The houses are with solid floors while
runs are fields only. The success of rearing depends on maintenance of
condition of runs to reduce the contamination. Runs can also be used on turn
basis. The stocking density rate on an average for adult birds is 750 per
hectare. This system is usually adopted for duck rearing. The feeding and
watering facilities are provided in the pen.
Advantages
 More economical use of land compared to free range system
 Protection of birds from extreme climatic conditions
 Control over scientific operation is some extent possible
Disadvantages
 High cost for fencing.
 Need for routine cleaning and removal of litter material from the pen.
3) Intensive system
 Birds are totally confined to houses either on ground / floor or on wire-
netting floor in cages or on slats. It is the most efficient, convenient and
economical system for modern poultry production with huge numbers.
Advantages
 Minimum land is required for farming.
 Farms can be located near market area.
 Day-to-day management is easier.
 The production performance is higher as more energy is saved due to
restricted movements.
 Scientific management practices like breeding, feeding, medication, culling
etc. can be applied easily and accurately.
 The sick birds can be detected, isolated and treated easily.
Disadvantages
  Birds‘ welfare is affected. They cannot perform the natural behaviour like
roosting, spreading wings, scratching the floor with legs etc.
 Since they are not exposed to outside sunlight and feed sources, all the
nutrients should be provided in balanced manner to avoid nutritionally
deficient diseases.
 Chances for spreading of diseases are more.
4) Deep Litter System
 In this system the birds are kept inside the house all the time. Arrangement
for feed, water and nest are made inside the house. The birds are kept on
suitable litter material of about 3‖ to 5‖ depth. The word litter is used for
fresh litter material spread on the floor.
 Usually paddy husk, saw dust, ground nut hulls, chopped paddy straw or
wood shavings are used as litter materials. This arrangement saves labour
involved in frequent cleaning of faecal matter (droppings), however it needs
periodical stirring. The litter is spread on the floor in layers of 2‖ height
every fortnightly till the required is achieved.

Advantages
 Vit B2 and Vit B12 are made available to birds from the litter material by the
bacterial action.
 The welfare of birds is maintained to some extend
 The deep litter manure is a useful fertilizer.
 Lesser nuisance from flies when compared to cage system.
Disadvantages
 Because of the direct contact between bird and litter, bacterial and parasitic
disease may be a problem.
 Respiratory problems may emerge due to dust from the litter.
 The cost of litter is an additional expenditure on production cost.
 Faults in ventilation can have more serious consequences than in the cage
system
The built up litter
 Deep litter or built up litter is accumulation and decomposition of litter
material and excreta until it reaches a depth of 8‖ to 12‖, after an original
start of 3‖ to 5‖ depth. Bacterial action decomposes litter and excreta into
crumble form and heat is produced during decomposition which keeps litter
 dry and warm. If the amount of droppings exceeds the litter, fresh litter will
be added to lower the amount of droppings.
 Periodical stirring of the litter should be carried out for an effective
functioning of built-up litter. After one year, the litter is changed and the
decomposed litter is used as good quality manure. The best built-up litter
should be dry, friable and free from obnoxious odour.
5) Slatted (Slotted) Floor System
 In a slatted floor, iron rods or wood reapers are used as floor, usually 2-3 feet
above the ground level to facilitate fall of droppings through slats. Wooden
reapers or iron rods of 2‖ diameter can be used on lengthwise of the house
with interspaces of 1‖ between rods.
Advantages
 Less floor space per bird is needed when compared to solid floor system.
 Bedding is eliminated
 Manure handling is avoided
 Increased sanitation
 Saving in labour
 Soil borne infection is controlled
Disadvantages
 Higher initial cost than conventional solid floors
 Less flexibility in the use of the building
 Any spilled feed is lost through the slots
 More fly problem.
6) Slat (Slot) Cum Litter System
 This system is commonly practiced for rearing birds for hatching eggs
production, particularly meat-type breeders. Here, a part of the floor area is
covered with slats. Usually, 60% of the floor area is covered with slats and
rest with litter. Feeders and waterers are arranged in both slat and litter area.
In case of breeder flock, nest boxes are usually kept on litter area.
Advantages
 More eggs can be produced per unit of floor space than all solid floors.
 Fertility is better with the slat cum litter house than with the all-slat house.
Disadvantages
 Housing investment is higher with the slat cum litter house than with the all-
litter house.
 The separation of birds from the manure beneath the slats commonly results
in fly problems.
7) Cage System
 This system involves rearing of poultry on raised wire netting floor in smaller
compartments, called cages, either fitted with stands on floor of house or
hanged from the roof. It has been proved very efficient for laying operations,
right from day-old to till disposal.
 At present, 75% of commercial layers in the world are kept in cages. Feeders
and waterers are attached to cages from outside except nipple waterers, for
which pipeline is installed through or above cages. Auto-operated feeding
 trolleys and egg collection belts can also be used in this rearing system. The
droppings are either collected in trays underneath cages or on belts or on the
floor or deep pit under cages, depending on type of cages.

Advantages
 Minimum floor space is needed
 More number of eggs per hen can be received
 Less feed wastage
 Better feed efficiency
 Protection from internal parasites and soil borne illnesses
 Sick and unproductive birds can be easily identified and eliminated.
 Clean eggs production
 Vices like egg eating, pecking is minimal.
 Broodiness is minimal
 No need of litter material
 Artificial Insemination (AI) can be adopted.
Disadvantages
 High initial investment cost.
 Handling of manure may be problem. Generally, flies become a greater
nuisance.
 The incidence of blood spots in egg is more
 Problem of cage layer fatigue. (It is a condition, in which laying birds in
cages develop lameness. It may be due to Ca and P deficiency but the exact
reason is not known)
 In case of broilers, incidence of breast blisters is more, especially when the
broilers weight is more than
1.5 kg.
7.1. Types of Cages
a. Based on the number
of birds in a cage, it
is classified as;
 Single or individual bird
cage (Only one bird in a
cage)
 Multiple bird cage (From
 2 to 10 birds, usually 3 or 4 birds per cage)
 Colony cages (Holding birds more than 11 per cage)
b. Based on the number of rows
 Single-deck
 Double-deck
 Triple-deck
 Four-deck
 Flat-deck

c. Based on arrangement of cages

1) Stair-step cages
a) M-type cages
b) L-type cages

2) Battery cages (Vertical cages)

e) Based on the type of bird reared

 Brooder / chick cages
 Grower cages
 Layer cages
 Breeder cages

1. Brooder/Chick Cages (see side photo)

 Specifications: Front feeding length: 60 inch
 Front & Back height: 12 inch
 Depth: 36 inch
 No. of chicks (0-8 weeks) accommodated per box: 60
 Chick cages are arranged either as single deck or double deck system. The
feeders and waterers are arranged on outside. Now-a-days nipple drinker
system is followed from day-old itself. Newspaper may be spread over the
cage floor for first 7 or 10 days. Feed is usually provided inside the cage
during the first week of age.
2. Grower cage
Specifications:
 Front feeding length : 30 inch
 Front & Back height: 15 inch
 Depth: 18 inch
 No. of growers (9 to 18 weeks)
accommodated per box : 10

3. Layer cage
Two types of stair-step layer cages are commonly used in open-sided poultry
houses
a. Conventional cages
b. Reverse cages (Californian cages)

a) Conventional cages
Specifications for each box:
 Front feeding length : 15 inch
o Front height: 18 inch
o Back height: 15 inch
o Depth: 18 inch

b).Reverse cages
Specifications for each box:
 Front feeding length: 18 inch
 Front height: 18 inch
 Back height: 15 inch
  Depth: 15 inch
These cages can hold 3 to 4 birds. They are arranged either in 2-tier or 3-tier.
A slope of 1/6 is provided in conventional cages, where as in reverse cages
the slope is 1/5.
Advantages of reverse cages over conventional cages
 More feeding space is available in reverse cages. So, all 4 birds can take feed
at a time, where as in conventional cages, 3 birds can take feed and the other
one is waiting at the back.
 Number of cracked eggs is less due to lesser rolling distance.
 Better ventilation in reverse cages than conventional cages.
Elevated cage layer house
 The height of the shed is raised by 6-7 feet using concrete pillars. The
distance between two pillars is 10 feet. Two feet wide concrete platforms are
made over the pillars. When 3 ‗M‘ type cages are arranged 4 platforms are
needed. In case of 2 ‗M‘ and 2 ‗L‘ type cages are arranged 3 platforms are
needed. When constructing platforms projecting angles or iron rods to be
provided to fix the cages.
 The inter-platform distance is 6-7 feet depending upon the type of the cages
used. The total height of the house is 20-25 feet and the width is 30-33 feet.
This type of houses provides sufficient ventilation in tropical countries.

Floor space requirements

Age Deep-litter Cages
Type (in weeks) (ft2) (ft2)

0-8 0.60 0.20

Egg-type chicken 9-18 1.25 0.30
>18 1.50 0.50
0-4 0.30 -
Meat-type chicken
4-8 0.75 -
Lesson 3: Maintaining a clean and healthy animal environment

This unit covers the knowledge, skills and attitudes required to

maintain healthy environment effectively and efficiently. It includes
proper attainment of relative humidity, controlling the required
temperature and ventilation, sustaining quality air and water supplies,
application of chemicals to eliminate vermin and proper disposal of the
hazardous wastes.

Importance of Maintaining a Clean and Healthy Environment

 Proper housing and management of animal facilities are essential to animal
well-being, to the quality of research data and teaching or testing programs in
which animals are used, and to the health and safety of personnel.
 A good management program provides the environment, housing, and care
that permit animals to grow, mature, reproduce, and maintain good health;
provides for their well-being; and minimizes variations that can affect
research results.
 Specific operating practices depend on many factors that are peculiar to
individual institutions and situations. Well-trained and motivated personnel
can often ensure high-quality animal care, even in institutions with less than
optimal physical plants or equipment
A. Housing Management
Elements of a good housing;
1. Appropriate House
 Housing plays a vital role in animal health. When it conducive, when it is
properly ventilated and situated, it will help animals to feel free from stress.
2. Clean and sufficient drinking water
 Clean and potable water is needed in animal health. It regulates body
temperature and helps in maintain homeostasis or balance.
 Water must be sufficient to avoid dehydration of animals.
3. Regular vaccination, drenching and veterinary services
 Vaccination program for poultry should be followed as prescribed by duly
authorized veterinarian.
 Vaccination improves immunity, thus ensuring the healthy poultry
fam/house.
 Vitamin supplementation is necessary in poultry health. It allows them to
have the proper nutrition and other elements needed by the body which they
can‘t have from eating feeds alone.
4. Proper Feeding
 Feeding the pouktry with exact feed formulation makes them healthier.
 Proper feeding method and system should be observed in order to let animals
have the proper nutrition their body needs.
 Exact time, amount and feed type must be known for better results.
B. Effects of Bad Housing and Environment
1. Slow or Retarded Growth and Poor Health
 Stunted growth is a result of poor housing and management.
 Environment where the housing is situated make have a great effect on the
growth performance of poultry.
2. Dysentery or Diarrhoea
 Poor and unmaintained housing may results to vermin infestations like rats,
it also invites fleas and other insects and bacterial growth that results to
several forms of diarrhoea.
3. Parasitic Infestation
 Poor management of poultry houses may results in parasite infestation.
 Parasite infestations will results to stunted growth and development of
poultry.
4. Economic Losses due to less meat production
 Poor and destitute may results to less meat produce thus leads to low income
or even economic loss.
5. Effect in Human Health
 Poor sanitation and housing management may results to spreading of bacteria
towards the surrounding community where the poultry house is situated.
6. Spread of Contagious Diseases in Animals
 Rapid spreading of infectious diseases are sometime caused by unhealthy and
poor sanitation practices.
C. Applying Biosecurity Measures
 Biosecurity – refers to the measure taken to secure farm from exposure to
biological agents. It is basically keeping all life forms that may harm
chickens away from the poultry houses.
 In biosecurity it is necessary to identify threats and hazards properly whether
it is immediate threats or Biosecurity Threats.
1. Immediate Threats
 Natural Calamities
 Physical Threats
 Unforeseen events (prevailing disease or outbreaks)
2. Biosecurity Threats
 Animals other than stocks being taken care of.
 Disease
o Bacterial
o Viral diseases
o Parasitic diseases
o Parasitism
 Finished products/ By-products of animal production
 Traffic flow of potential carriers
o People – may cause the entry of pathogen to the farm. Foot bath is
a good example of biosecurity measure.
o Stocks – must be quarantined first before letting them join other
animals to avoid entry of pathogens and parasites.
o Equipment – newly acquired equipment must disinfected first
before using it inside the farm to avoid contamination and
infection of pathogens.
o Vehicles – must be disinfected before letting it enter the farm to
avoid entry of possible disease from the outside vicinity to the
premise of the pig farm.
 Birds, pests and rodents, and other animals may also be vector or carrier of
pathogens.
 3. Supplies and Materials
 Supplies and material like syringes, needles and other drugs and medical
supplies must be disposed properly to avoid cross contamination.
4. Disinfectant – these are effective disinfectant to be used in pig farms.
a. Chemical disinfectants
i. Phenols
ii. Iodophore
iii. Aldehydes
iv. Organic salts
v. Quarternary products
vi. Combined disinfectants
b. Physical disinfectants
i. Torch
ii. Disposable suits
iii. Boots
iv. Paints
v. Rust remover
c. Lime for animal disposal
Learning Activities for Prelim Period
General Instruction: Please read each set of activity and answer it
honestly. Avoid copy pasting of answers or any form plagiarism.
Activity 1. Draw it your way!
Direction: Choose a type of poultry house that for you is the best poultry house,
draw it in a clean sheet of bond paper and state the specification of that housing,
and also state the reason why you choose it as the ―best‖ type of poultry house.

Activity 2. Organized your thoughts!

Direction: Create a graphic organizer of the following;
1. Importance of Sanitation
2. Importance of Healthy Animal Environment

END OF PRELIM PERIOD

Prelim Exam: MARCH 16-18, 2022

Note: All answers should be written in a short bond paper and hand written.
All questions must be answered out of your own cognition. Plagiarism is an
illegal act according to laws, therefore copy pasting of answers are prohibited
in any forms. Anyone who is caught doing so, will be penalized with demerit
of points.
 Midterm Period: March 14, 2002 – April 02,
Module-3, Week 9-12 2022

3 Pests Infesting Poultry Farms

Reference: Shane, S. 2005, Handbook on Poultry Diseases
Module Overview:
Module 3 will tackle the different pest that infests poultry farms today. It will
also explain various techniques in repelling, controlling and preventing massive
infestation of these pests that may lead to disease outbreaks.
Objectives / Desired Learning Outcomes
1. Evaluate different pests that infests poultry farm in the Philippines today.
2. Classify these pests, according to its form, species and effect to poultry.
3. Judge the different preventive, control and repelling methods against these pests.

Lesson 1. Common Pest Infesting Poultry Species

Hello learner! Since you have already learned from our previous lesson; the
importance of sanitation, housing management and biosecurity measures in
poultry production. Now, let us venture in to identifying different pests that infest
poultry houses or farms and its implications to poultry species.
 One of the largest management problems facing poultry producers is pest
control. Poultry operations can be infested by flies, mites, lice, bed bugs,
fleas, beetles, red imported fire ants, chiggers and gnats. But by
implementing integrated pest control measures, producers can minimize the
damage from these pests.
I. Flies
 The shift from many small farm
flocks to fewer large poultry
operations has greatly increased fly
problems by creating concentrated
breeding areas and large amounts of
waste that are costly to be removed
often. As more people move to rural
areas, poultry producers face
increasing pressures to reduce fly
populations.
 Populations of manure-breeding
flies may cause a public health nuisance, resulting in poor community
relations and threats of litigation. To achieve an acceptable level of fly
control, a dedicated effort is necessary.
1. House flies, Musca domestica, are about 1⁄2 inch long. They breed in moist,
decaying plant material, including refuse, spilled grains and spilled feed and in
all kinds of manure. For this reason, house flies are more likely to be a problem
around poultry houses where sanitation is poor. Adult house flies prefer sunlight
and are very active, crawling over filth, people and food products.
 This fly is the most important species because it can carry and spread human
and poultry disease agents and leave fly specks on eggs.
  For example, the house fly is the intermediate host for the common tapeworm
in chickens, and it has been implicated in the transmission of several viral
and bacterial pathogens of people and animals.
2. The little house fly, Fannia canicularis, is somewhat smaller than the house fl
y, about 3 ⁄16 inch long. This fly prefers a less moist medium for breeding and
reproduction than does the house fly.
 The little house fly
chooses poultry manure over
most other media for egg
laying. The adult fly also
prefers shade and cooler
temperatures and is often seen
circling aimlessly under
hanging objects in the poultry
house, egg room and feed
room. Large numbers of the
flies may also hover in nearby
garages, breezeways and
homes, which offer shade and
protection from wind.
 Although the little house fly is less likely to crawl on people and food, it does
spark complaints about fly problems from people living near poultry
establishments, and it may surpass the house fly in its ability to cause
nuisance to nearby homeowners.
3. The black garbage fly, Hydrotea ignava, is shiny bronze-black and slightly
smaller than the house fly. The wings are held straight back. This fly tends to
remain on its food source at night rather than resting on the ceiling or on
outdoor vegetation, as does the house fly. The female fly does not seem to fly
great distances, but it has been
found about 5 miles from its
breeding area.
 Although black garbage fly
larvae have been known to
exterminate house fly populations,
they should not be considered
entirely beneficial because these
flies also can build large
populations on the farm and fly to nearby communities.
 All stages are found throughout the year under suitable conditions, and they
can tolerate cold weather. The life cycle is similar to that of the house fly.
4. Blow flies, sometimes known as green or blue bottle flies, are slightly larger
than house flies and sometimes live in poultry houses.
  These flies may be green, blue
or nearly black, which makes for
easy identification.
 Blow flies prefer to breed and
reproduce in decaying animal and
bird carcasses, dog manure, broken
eggs and wet garbage. Generally, a
good sanitation program and rapid
mortality processing will hold these
flies in check.
 Other flies found on the
poultry establishment include
soldier flies, small dung flies, fruit flies, and rat-tailed maggots.
Preventive and Control Management
 It is important to note, that flies are the very common insect pests that infest
poultry houses. Controlling and preventing massive infestation greatly boils
down to the following methods.
1. Fly biology
 To control flies most effectively, at the lowest cost and with the least harm to
the environment, it helps to understand their biological life cycle. All flies
develop through four life stages: egg, larva, pupa and adult.
 Most adult flies lay small, white, oval eggs on the breeding medium. Creamy
white larvae (maggots) develop in the moist materials.
 Mature maggots crawl out of this material and move to a drier place for the
pupal stage. The brown, seed-like pupae finally yield adult flies.
 Development from egg to adult fly may take just 7 to 10 days under the ideal
conditions often present in poultry manure pits.
2. Cultural control
 The most effective way to control flies is by manure management. As many
as 1,000 house flies can complete development in 1 pound of breeding
material. Fresh poultry manure contains 75 to 80 percent moisture, which
makes it ideal for fly breeding.
 You can practically eliminate fly breeding in this material by reducing the
moisture content to 30 percent or less. Drying manure is preferred because
once dried it will occupy less space, usually has less odor and is more easily
transported off site. Also, high-moisture manure often results in high black
garbage fly populations.
3. Dry manure management
 To prevent fly breeding, remove the manure often, at least twice a week. This
breaks the breeding life cycle. It is important to scatter the manure in thin
layers outdoors to kill the eggs and larvae by drying them. Avoid piles or
clumps of manure.
 You must have access to enough land so the manure can be spread thinly; this
keeps excessive amounts of nutrients from building up in the soil. Spread it at
an agronomic rate for your area.
  If the manure is stored in-house, it must be dried to a 30 percent moisture
level and be maintained at this level. Dry manure can be held for several
years. Any practice that limits moisture in the droppings or aids in rapid
drying is important for fly control.
4. Water management
 To control flies, it is vital that you lower the water content of the manure.
Follow these steps to minimize water content:
• Prevent leaks in water troughs or cups. Regulating water flow to an on/off cycle
may help eliminate moisture problems. Assign an employee to walk the manure pit
daily to check for leaks.
• Provide abundant cross-ventilation beneath the cages, especially during hot
weather.
 Using 36-inch pit fans blowing across the manure can be very effective. Place
a curtain above the manure every 100 feet to help keep the air moving over
the manure.
 Adequate house ventilation is important at all times.
• If the water table in your area is high or if there is a danger of water running into
the house from the outside, adjust the floor grade so that the house floor is higher
than the outside surrounding ground. Direct surface water away from the building.
Drain and fill all low areas around the houses.
• Prevent dysentery by keeping the water clean. If dysentery develops, use
recommended antibiotics.
• Prevent excessively high house temperatures, which encourage the chickens to
drink abnormal amounts of water.
• Practice good husbandry by restricting excess water consumption but not to the
point of reducing egg lay.
• If your resources allow it, consider adopting a new housing system designed to
dry the manure in the pits.
5. Sanitation
 The most important aid in successful fly control is sanitation. Often, certain
conditions in and around the poultry operation will encourage fly outbreaks.
These must be eliminated.
To improve sanitation:
• Quickly remove and dispose of dead birds and broken eggs. Dispose of them far
from the poultry premises by burning them in an incinerator or by using another
approved management method.
• Immediately clean up and dispose of feed spills and manure spills, especially if
they are wet.
• Clean out weed-choked water drainage ditches.
• Install proper eave troughs and downspouts on poultry houses to carry rainwater
far from the buildings. Provide proper drainage in the poultry yards.
• Minimize the migration of flies from other fly-infested animal operations close to
the poultry house.
6. Biological Control
 Entomologists encourage the use of biological control in poultry houses. If
you are considering biological control for your operation, be sure to buy
 beneficial insects (also called ―beneficials‖) that are adapted to the climate in
your area and apply them as directed by the supplier.
 These beneficial are fly parasitoids, actually very tiny wasps, and are the
naturally occurring enemies of manure-breeding flies. They kill flies in the
pupal stage.
 One species, Spalangia nigroaenea, is about the size of the head of a house
fly (1⁄16 to 1⁄8 inch) and lives in the manure. An adult female wasp lays an
egg on the fly pupa within the puparium (the hard, brown case containing the
fly pupa). Then the developing wasp larva consumes the pupa and emerges as
an adult.
Other beneficials in poultry manure include mites and beetles, according to
Pest Management Recommendations for Poultry, a publication by Cornell
University and Penn State Cooperative Extension. Mites and beetles are
major predators in caged-layer operations.
 The macrochelid mite, Macrochelis muscaedomesticae, is reddish brown
and less than 1⁄16 inch long. It feeds on house fly eggs and first-instar (or
first-stage) larvae. Found on the outside layer of manure, this mite can
consume up to 20 house fl y eggs a day.
 Another mite, the uropodid mite, Fuscuropoda vegetans, feeds only on
first-instar house fly larvae deeper in the manure. Both species occur
naturally in most poultry facilities.
 A hister beetle, Carcinops pumilio, is black and about 1⁄8 inch long. It feeds
on house fly eggs and first-instar larvae. Common in both broiler and layer
houses, it can consume 13 to 24 house fly eggs per day. Both adult and
immature hister beetles live in the surface layers of manure.
7. Mechanical Control
 Many types and styles of fly traps are available, including sticky fly strips,
funnel-type traps and ―fly zappers,‖ which use black lights with electrically
charged grids to kill the insects. Some traps are baited with a fly attractant
material.
 Traps appear to help as a preventive measure in tight, enclosed areas such as
egg rooms where there is no breeding fly population and where good
sanitation practices are followed. However, in areas of heavy fly populations,
traps do not reduce fly numbers to satisfactory levels. When used, traps
operate during the night, away from doors and windows.
8. Surveillance
 To make informed control decisions, it is important that you monitor the fly
populations. Visual observations alone can be misleading. Historical
observations may be helpful in determining when to apply control options
such as manure removal or the release of beneficial arthropods.
 Surveillance methods include moving tape counts, sticky fly tapes, fly speck
counts, baited jug traps and larval sampling.
a. Moving Tape Count
 is the best surveillance method, requiring about 5 minutes each day walking
on a 1,000-foot walk to catch 25 to 75 flies. Walking down and back in each
house is cheap and easy.
 Carry the sticky fly tape using the same walk pattern at the same time of day.
If possible, do not turn on or use a light, as this encourages fly movement.
b. Sticky Fly Tapes
 Tapes in a chicken house fill up fast during the summer. However, they do
enable you to determine the fly species infesting the operation. Some
operators hang sticky fly ribbons along the aisles. Each week they count the
captured flies and replace the tapes. A weekly count of 100 flies per ribbon
may indicate that fly control is required.
 Ribbons may become ineffective after 2 to 3 days because of dust and fly
covering. Tapes are messy to use, and location is important. These devices
are a poor choice for a monitoring program.
c. Fly Speck Counts
 are an economical way to determine whether fly-control methods are needed.
Fasten 3- by 5-inch white index cards flush against feed troughs, ceilings,
braces or other fly-resting areas, and leave them for several days to a week.
Label the back of each card with date and location in the facility.
 Place the cards on the head rafters (ten cards per house) and count the fl y
specks on one side.
 Count the ―fly specks‖ on a given date or over a period of time within a given
house. Change the cards once a day or week, depending on the populations
present. Fifty or more spots per card per week may indicate that fly-control
measures are required.
d. Baited jug trap
 More expensive than other sampling methods, baited jug traps can indicate
changes in and need for control of house fly populations. This trap will not
collect species as such as the lesser house fly because they are not attracted to
the commercial baits available.
 To make a jug trap, cut four access holes (2 to 6 inches in diameter) around
the upper part of a plastic milk jug. Attach a wire to the jug and pour
commercial fly bait (about 1 ounce) inside the jug bottom. Hang the jug
about 6 feet above the floor around the pit periphery.
e. Larval sampling
 It is most important to walk the pits to determine ―hot spots‖ where the
manure appears flattened and wet and contains heavy populations of fly eggs
and maggots. Always take a hoe or trowel to sample for larvae. Keep the pits
walkable, clean and water free.
 ―Hot spots‖ usually appear where water has accumulated in the manure.
Some producers carry knapsack sprayers to treat only the hot spots to halt
excessive fly larval breeding. However, treating manure widely and
excessively will kill the beneficial agents.
9. Chemical Control
 Consider insecticides (Table 1) to be supplements to sanitation, and direct
your management measures to preventing fly breeding. Keep accurate
records on the insecticides and dosage rates you use.
  The first chemical option should be pyrethrins, which is not a residual. This
material is highly effective for a short time; when used sparingly, it does
minimal damage to the beneficial arthropod populations.

Table 1. Insecticides for suppression of arthropod pests in poultry.



Material
Pest and Application and remarks
formulatio
n
Mist sprays

Norther permethrin Aim spray at the vent area.

n fowl (Insectrin X, Cover or remove feed and
mites Permectrin water. Can spray cages or
(bird II) 10% nests. Do not treat more often
treatme than once every 2 weeks.
nt)
Coarse
sprays
Norther permethrin Pay particular attention to vent.
n fowl (Atroban, One application should eliminate
mites Expar) 11% an infestation.
EC
(Insectrin)
5.7% EC
(Permectrin
) 25% WP
Dusts
Lice permethrin Apply with shaker or hand
(Insectrin duster. Treat vent area
GP, thoroughly.
Permectrin)
Norther 0.25% Dust
n fowl
mites
(bird
treatme
nt)
Sprays
Chicken permethrin Spray ceilings, walls, empty
mites (Permectrin cages or nests to runoff. Repeat
) 25% WP in 7 to 10 weeks or as needed.
Lice tetrachlorvinph
Norther os and Apply thoroughly to litter,
n fowl dichlorvos walls, roosts, cracks and
mites (Ravap) crevices.
(house 28.7% EC
and tetrachlorvinph
litter Apply thoroughly to litter,
os (Rabon) walls, roosts, cracks, crevices
treatme 50% WP
nt) and interiors.
carbaryl
(Sevin) 50% Do not treat poultry or game
WP birds. Apply spray to wall, litter
80% S or roost surface.
Force spray into cracks.
4F (43% Repeat as needed. Avoid
suspension) contaminating nests, eggs,
XLR (56.6% and feeding and watering
suspension) troughs. Ventilate while
spraying,
 Materia
Pest l and Application and remarks
formula
tion
Dusts
Lice carbaryl Treat litter evenly and repeat in 28
(Sevin) days if needed. Do not contaminate
Norther 5% Dust feed and water.
n fowl tetrachlorv Treat litter thoroughly and evenly.
mites inphos
(Rabon)
50% WP 3% D
Roost
paints
Norther tetrachlorvi Spray or treat by brush
n fowl nphos and (thoroughly), especially cracks
mites dichlorvos and crevices.
(Ravap)
28.7% EC Treat by brush (thoroughly),
tetrachlorv especially cracks and crevices.
inphos
(Rabon)
50% WP
Sprays
Northern permeth Spray to the point of runoff. Cover
fowl mites rin birds, feed and water. Do not treat
Cockroac (Insectri more often than once every 2
hes n X, weeks.
Mosquito Permect
es (house rin II)
and litter 10%
treatment
) Repeat treatment in 4 weeks as
carbaryl needed. Ventilate while spraying.
Chicken
(Sevin) Treat walls, bedding, litter and
mites 50% WP roost surfaces. Force spay into
cracks and crevices.
80% S
4F (43%
suspension)
tetrachlorv For cage birds, spray no less than
inphos and 100 to 125 psi to the vent area from
(Ravap) below (high pressure). For floor
28.7% EC birds, spray lightly. Do not treat
tetrachlorv more often than every 14 days.
inphos For cage birds, spray no less than
(Rabon) 100 to 125 psi to the vent area from
Bed bugs 50%WP below (high pressure). For floor
carbaryl birds, spray lightly. Do not treat
(Sevin) more often than every 14 days.
50% WP Thoroughly spray walls bedding,
litter and roost surfaces. Force
80% S spray into cracks and crevices.
4F (43% Ventilate while spraying. Do not
suspension) apply directly to poultry, nests or
LXR (56.6% eggs. Repeat as needed.
suspension) Ventilate while spraying litter
surface. Repeat as needed.

Ventilate while spraying litter

surface. Repeat as needed.
 48

Materia
Pest l and Application and remarks
formula
tion
Dusts
Darkling carbaryl Apply evenly to litter and repeat
beetle (Sevin) treatment in 28 days if needed. Do
(lesser 5% Dust not treat feed, water, nests or
mealworm) eggs.
Sprays
Darkling carbaryl Ventilate while spraying litter
beetle (Sevin) surface. Repeat as needed.
(lesser 4F (43%
mealworm) Suspension)
Ventilate while spraying litter
XLR (56.6%
surface. Repeat as needed.
Suspension)
tetrachlorv
Apply thoroughly to litter, walls,
inphos
roosts, cracks, crevices and
(Rabon)
interiors.
50% WP
carbaryl Do not treat more than once every
(Sevin) 4 weeks. Do not apply to eggs or
5% Dust nests. Clean houses before
treatment if mealworms are a great
problem. Avoid excess grain in litter
cyfluthrin and moisture. Treat floor litter.
(Tempo)
20% WP Apply Tempo 20 WP to litter, walls
and center posts inside the house.
Best control will be obtained when
application is made shortly after
bird removal because larvae and
adults begin to burrow deeper into
the litter as surface temperature
tetrachlorv begin to cool, making control more
inphos difficult. Use a properly calibrated
(Rabon) air blast, boom or power hand gun
50% WP sprayer to achieve full coverage.
Treat only when no birds are
carbaryl (Sevin)
present.
Treat litter evenly and thoroughly.

Instructor: Ramil B. Entana Jr. Contact Number: 09532866420

 49

Spread evenly before new litter is

applied or on top of built-up litter.
Birds do not have to be removed
during application. Optimum
treatment is 10 to 14 days after
birds are placed in the house.
Repeat treatment 2 weeks later if
needed. Follow label directions.
Dusts
Fleas carbaryl Do not treat birds more often than
(Sevin) once every four weeks. Do not treat
5% eggs, feed or water.
5% Apply evenly to litter and repeat
treatment in 28 days if needed. Do
10% not treat feed, water, nests or
eggs.

Lesson 2: Other Pests Affecting Poultry Production

Since from the previous lesson we learned that the most common pest that infests
poultry farms, which is flies. In this lesson we will tackle other insects and non-
insect pests that affect poultry production, and how to control and prevent
massive infestation of these pests.
I. Non – insect Pests
1. Mites
a. The northern fowl mite, or feather mite, Ornithonyssus sylviarum, is a
very important external parasite of poultry. Heavy populations of this mite can
reduce egg production by 10 to 15 percent. The mites can also annoy egg
handlers and other people. Mites are often noticed first on the eggs.
 Check for mites first on the vent, then on the tail, back and legs of layers.
Feathers become soiled from mite eggs, cast skins, dried blood from feeding
and excrement.
 The eight-legged adult is about 1⁄26 inch long and dark red to black. The
mite‘s entire life cycle—egg, larva, several nymph stages and adult—is
completed on the bird and can be completed under ideal conditions within a
week.
 If you detect the mites early, you may need to treat only some of the caged
layers. Each week, monitor at least 10 randomly selected birds from each cage
row in the entire house. Mite populations will increase in cooler weather.
b. Chicken Mite
 Dermanyssus gallinae, sucks blood from poultry at night and remains
secluded in cracks and crevices during the day. Poultry workers entering
poultry houses at night may be readily bitten by these mites as well.

Instructor: Ramil B. Entana Jr. Contact Number: 09532866420

 50

 When the mites are numerous, weight gains and egg production can be
reduced. These red and gray mites are difficult to see without a magnifying
glass. The life cycle may be completed in 7 to 10 days during warm weather;
they are inactive during cold weather.
c. Female Scaly-leg Mite
 Knemidocoptes mutans, are small with round bodies and short, stubby legs.
These mites must be magnified to be seen because they are only 1⁄50- to
1⁄100-inch long. Young mites are at first six-legged, then molt through two
eight-legged nymphal stages.
 The scaly-leg mite is distributed widely throughout the world, but its exact
range in Texas is unknown. This mite attacks poultry, commonly chickens and
turkeys. However, infestations of commercial poultry are uncommon, as these
birds are typically young and have not had contact with older birds that may
be infested with these mites.
 The scaly-leg mite also has been reported on pheasants, partridges,
bullfinches, gold finches and many passerine (perching) birds. Researchers
suspect that wild birds transmit the mites to domestic flocks.
 Little is known about the life history and habits of this species. The females
burrow un- der scales on the feet and legs of poultry and deposit eggs. They
begin laying eggs soon after they burrow under the skin and continue to
oviposit (lay eggs) for about 2 months.
 The eggs hatch in about 5 days into six-legged larvae that soon molt into
nymphs. The nymphs develop into mature males and immature females. The
immature female becomes a mature egg-laying female shortly after it is
fertilized.
 Complete development for an egg-laying female probably requires 10 to 14
days.
 When the mites burrowing under the scales on the feet and legs of poultry, a
powdery material accumulates and binds into a scab of serum discharge.
Affected feet and legs usually have red blotches. Glands in the mouthparts of
mites may secrete an irritating fluid that causes the discharge and blotches.
Eventually, the feet and legs may be covered with these crusts or scabs. Mites
remain beneath the crusts in small oval vesicles.
 Irritation from mite infestation causes the poultry to pick at the crusty
formations. As the formations extend over the feet and legs, they interfere
with joint flexion and cause lameness. Severe infestations may cause loss of
toes, loss of appetite, lowered egg production, emaciation and death.
d. Depluming mite
 Neocnemidocoptes laevis gallinae var. gallinae, is similar to the scaly- leg
mite but is smaller and more oval. Infestation occurs throughout the United
States. Hosts include pigeons, pheasants, geese, canaries and chickens. Many
wild birds have been infested with this species or with closely related, un-
identified species.
Instructor: Ramil B. Entana Jr. Contact Number: 09532866420
 51

 Development stages include egg, larva, nymph, male adult, and immature and
mature female adult. Little is known about the life his- tory of this species, but
researchers believe that the transformation from immature to mature female
occurs after fertilization.
 The fertilized female begins depositing eggs within a few hours after starting
to burrow and continues at 2- or 3-day intervals for about two months. The
eggs hatch in about 5 days. Development from egg to egg-laying female
requires 10 to 14 days. Fewer than 10 percent of the eggs mature into adults.
 The depluming mite burrows into the skin at the base of the feathers on the
back, on top of the wings, around the vent and on the breast and thighs. It
causes intensive itching, often resulting in feather pulling. The fowls may lose
feathers over large areas of the body. The infestations are especially
noticeable in spring and summer; they may disappear in autumn.
II. Insect Pests
1. Lice
a. The chicken body louse, Menacanthus stramineus, can reduce egg
production in caged layer hens. The skin of infected birds becomes irritated
and red, and localized scabs and blood clots form. In addition to feeding on
skin fragments, feathers and debris, these lice can at- tack young quill
feathers, feeding on blood.
 Although the lice are naturally infected with the eastern encephalomyelitis
virus, they are not considered an important vector (transporter of disease).
 Adult chicken lice are yellowish, flat bodied and 1⁄16 inch long. They have
chewing mouth- parts.
b. Shaft lice, Menopon gallinae, are commonly collected from domestic and
wild fowl. They have complete life cycles and require about 21⁄2 weeks to
complete their development from egg to adult.
c. Wing lice, Lipeurus caponis, are similar to the lice species previously
described. However, wing lice develop more slowly, requiring 35 days to
grow from egg to adult stage. Treatments used for suppressing other lice will
also work for wing lice.
d. Chicken Head Lice, Cuclutogaster heterographus, are primarily a pest on
young birds. They occur on the base of the feathers on the ani- mal‘s head and
are transmitted through contact.
2. Bed Bugs
 The common bed bug, Cimex lectularius, occasionally attacks poultry. It hides
in cracks within the housing during the day and feeds mostly at night on blood
while the host is asleep. Bed bugs cause small, hard, swollen, white welts that
become inflamed and itch severely. They are rarely seen on poultry during
daylight hours.
 An infestation can sometimes be recognized by blood stains and dark spots of
excreta on support structures. The adult is reddish brown, oval-shaped,

Instructor: Ramil B. Entana Jr. Contact Number: 09532866420

 52

flattened and about 1⁄4 to 5⁄8 inch long. There may be three or more
generations per year.
 There is no evidence that bed bugs spread disease.
3. Fleas
 Fleas are occasionally found in the poultry house. They are usually first
noticed in the litter, where a wide range of hosts are attached, including rats,
mice, chickens and people. Bites annoying egg handlers occur primarily on
the ankles and legs, causing a swollen itchy spot.
 The adult flea, an excellent jumper, passes through a complete life cycle
consisting of egg, larva, pupa and adult. The life cycle varies from 2 weeks to
8 months, depending on temperature, humidity, food and species.
a. Sticktight or southern chicken flea, Echidnophaga gallinacean, is found in
the southern United States from South Carolina to California. It attacks
poultry, cats, dogs, horses and people.
 Adult males and females are found on the heads of fowl. The females
remain attached by their mouthparts in the same spot as long as 2 or 3
weeks. During this time, eggs are laid, being thrown with considerable
force from the female‘s vagina. The eggs hatch on the ground in 2 days
to 2 weeks.
 The slender white larvae feed on excreta of the adult fleas, filth in cracks
or litter on the poultry house floor or on the ground in dry, protected
places. After growing for 2 weeks to
 1 month, they spin silken cocoons and molt to the pupal stage.
 The adults attach to the host in about a week, and females feed for about
1 week before laying eggs. One to five eggs are laid at one time. The life
cycle may be completed in 1 to 2 months.
 This pest thrives in dry, cool weather, and un- der these conditions
adults may live for several months.
 In the South and Southwest, fleas sometimes embed themselves in
clusters about the face, eyes, ear lobes, comb and wattles of poultry so
that they cannot be brushed off. Young fowls are often killed; egg
production and growth are reduced because of the loss of blood and
irritation caused by the bites.
4. Beetles
a. Lesser mealworm, Alphitobius diaperinus, is rapidly becoming more of a
nuisance in poultry operations. Large populations of beetles sometimes
migrate to nearby residential areas, especially after litter cleanout.
 Although the beetles can fly up to a mile, most crawl at night from litter
disposed in fields neighboring homes.
 Beetles are often associated with poultry feed, preferring grain and cereal
products that are damp, moldy and slightly out of condition. Adults and
larvae consume poultry feed in amounts costly to the producer. The larvae
are known as lesser mealworms.
Instructor: Ramil B. Entana Jr. Contact Number: 09532866420
 53

 Control of this beetle has become increasingly important. Adult beetles and
larvae act as reservoirs for many poultry and human pathogens and
parasites. Researchers have found that this beetle has transmitted acute
leucosis (Marek‘s disease) to chickens.
 Marek‘s disease usually affects 3- and 4- month-old birds. The clinical
signs include various degrees of paralysis, most easily observed in legs and
wings, as well as droopy wings, gasping, loss of weight, pallor and
sometimes diarrhea. Birds severely affected may be found lying on their
sides with one leg stretched for- ward and the other held behind.
 The disease affects both broiler and egg-lay- ing poultry. Losses can reach
2 percent of the flock per day, with mortality at 30 percent of the flock
within a few weeks.
 This disease is highly contagious and has been shown to be airborne.
Contamination may persist in the environment because the darkling beetle
may serve as a reservoir for residual contamination.
 Other diseases spread by this beetle include the causative agents of avian
influenza, salmonella, fowl pox, coccidiosis, botulism and Newcastle
disease. The beetle also spreads cecal worms and avian tapeworms.
 In the poultry house, the darkling beetle can lay up to 800 eggs in litter
during a 42-day period. Eggs develop into larvae in 4 to 7 days.
 The life cycle requires between 42 to 97 days, depending on temperature
and other factors. Adult beetles live 3 months to a year. The adults are
about 1⁄4 inch long and black or very dark reddish brown.
 The larvae are yellowish brown (wireworm- like) and up to 3⁄4 inch long.
They accumulate in the dark corners of manure or litter, especially under
sacks, in bins or in places where feed is stored. Pupation occurs in the litter,
soil and side walls of poultry houses. The larvae often migrate throughout
the litter seeking pupation sites.
 Adult chickens and chicks are more likely than turkeys to eat the beetles
and their larvae. Rather than providing ―extra protein‖ in the diet,
consumption actually lowers feed conver- sion and rate of gain, according
to research.
b. Mature larvae of the hide beetle, Dermestes maculatus, develop on chicken
carcasses in the facility and have the habit of boring into various hard surfaces
to pupate, preferring softwoods.
 Some may climb 24 to 36 feet and bore into wood posts, studs and rafters,
seriously weakening and ―honey-combing‖ these structures.
 The larvae are especially troublesome in poultry houses, damaging yellow
pine, foam insulation, sytrofoam air baffle boards, paneling, drywall and
even PCP (Penta Ready) chemically treated wood, in some cases. Larvae
emerge from the litter, climb the walls and bore into soft building material.
Instructor: Ramil B. Entana Jr. Contact Number: 09532866420
 54

 Hide beetles are larger than darkling beetles, about 1⁄3 inch long, dark
brown on top, with a mostly white undersurface (belly). Each female lays
about 135 eggs, which hatch in 12 or more days.
 The larvae are thickly covered with long, brown hairs, grow to about 1⁄2
inch long and have two spines on top near the tail end, which curve
forward. The life cycle requires 40 to 50 days.
 Reasonable control has been achieved by applying tetrachlorvinphos
(Rabon®) 50% WP in the dry form to building walls. Make treatments with
an electrostatic duster to negatively charge the particles, which enables it to
stick to the wall surface better.
 The best time to treat for darkling and hide beetles is after manure removal.
Treatments of caged-layer houses before manure removal will fail.
5. Red Imported Fire Ants
 Solenopsis invicta, forms tall, hardened mounds in clay-type soil in and
around poultry operations.
 Imported fire ants can cause problems on poultry farms by attacking chickens
and foraging on broken eggs. Fire ant stings cause blemishes that can reduce
the quality of poultry.
 Their stings can cause medical problems or even death to some animals
receiving multiple stings.
 In animal feeding stations, barns and feed- lots, fire ants can cause similar
problems. Fire ants prey on a number of pest insects and arthropods, including
many species of caterpillars, flea larvae, ticks and chiggers. They also prey
on beneficial insects.
 Ants defending mounds can sting and cause medical problems for workers.
The ants have an affinity for electrical units, utility housings and structures,
where they can cause equipment failures.
 Like other ants, the fire ant is a social insect. Colonies of these ants reside
under mounds of dirt that may exceed 18 inches tall. Imported fire ant mounds
commonly occur in open, sunny areas in the landscape.
 Winged reproductive male and female ants periodically leave the colonies on
mating flights. Mated females (queens) can fly or be carried by winds for
miles before landing and starting new colonies.
 Development from egg to adult occurs in about 30 days, progressing through
four larval stages and a pupal stage. In a mature colony, worker ants (sterile
female ants that can sting) can number in the hundreds of thousands.
Management of Red Imported Fire Ants:
 Management of fire ants for caged-layer houses differs from that for broiler
houses.
Program 1: For caged-layer houses
Use a combination of the following suggestions:
Instructor: Ramil B. Entana Jr. Contact Number: 09532866420
 55

1. On grounds surrounding the buildings, broadcast conventionally formulated bait

products outside the poultry house. Products include abamectin (Clinch™),
fenoxycarb (Award®), hydramethylnon (Amdro®), pyriproxifen (Distance®), s-
methoprene (Extinguish™) or hydramethylnon plus me- thoprene (Extinguish™
Plus). Do not allow the chickens to have access to the fire ant bait or bait-treated
areas. Pesticides avail- able for this method are listed in Table 2.
2. If fire ants are foraging inside the poultry house from ant mounds located
outdoors, spray a barrier around the outside of the building using products
registered for that usage site, such as lambdacyhalothrin.
3. Use mowers or herbicides to remove the weeds and grass from around poultry
houses.
4. Remove food sources (trash, piled feed, broken eggs and dead chickens) and
potential nesting sites (pieces of lumber, old equipment and manure piles).
5. If the ants are nesting inside poultry houses, treat indoor surfaces with a
registered product.
Note: Although some products such as permethrin (Y-Tex® GardStar®) are
registered specifically for control of fire ants in poultry houses, other products, such
as cyfluthrin (Countdown™), dichlorvos (Vapona® Concentrate Insecticide) and
lambdacyhalothrin (Grenade™ ER Premise Insecticide), are more generally
registered for ―crawling pests,‖ including ants. Read the poultry section of the
labels for additional precautions. Do not allow the insecticides to come into contact
with feed or water supplies.
Program 2: Broiler houses
 Program 1 for caged-layer facilities can be adapted to broiler houses, if the
products used are registered for this site. Because broilers roam freely in the
houses, you must take care to prevent the chickens from having contact with
the insecticides by confining treatments to the outside of the broiler house.
6. Gnats
 Several kinds of gnats attack poultry, including black flies, buffalo gnats and
turkey gnats.
o Turkey gnat, Simulium spp., a vector of leucocytozoan parasites that
cause a malaria-like disease in turkeys and ducks.
o The eggs are deposited on objects in or on the surface of flowing water,
usually at the edge.
o The eggs must be kept wet or submerged to hatch into larvae, which
occurs in 2 to 12 days. Larvae develop in water 1 to 6 weeks before
transforming into pupae. Adults emerge after a 4- to 15-day pupal
period.
Learning Activities for Midterm
General Instruction: Please read each set of activity and answer it honestly.
Avoid copy pasting of answers or any form plagiarism.
Instructor: Ramil B. Entana Jr. Contact Number: 09532866420
 56

Activity 1. Essay it down!

Instruction: Read each question carefully and answer it with your own cognition.

1. State the importance of controlling pest infestation in a poultry farm or house.

2. Why it is necessary to prevent both insect and non-insect pest from entering
your poultry farm or houses.
3. Paste at least 3 insect pest and 3 non-insect pests that infest poultry houses.
State its mode of infestation, effect on poultry and how to control and prevent
massive infestation of those pests.
Activity 2. Compare it now!
Instruction: Base on the previous lesson, complete the information needed in every
box that compares the different pests in poultry production.

Flies
Common name:
Scientific name:
Diseases carried over poultry farms:

Beetles Mites
Common name: Common name:
Scientific name: Scientific name:
Diseases carried over poultry farms: Diseases carried over poultry farms:

END OF MIDTERM
MIDTERM Exam: APRIL 11 – 13, 2022

Note: All answers should be written in a short bond paper and hand written.
All questions must be answered out of your own cognition. Plagiarism is an
illegal act according to laws, therefore copy pasting of answers are prohibited
in any forms. Anyone who is caught doing so, will be penalized with demerit of
points.

Instructor: Ramil B. Entana Jr. Contact Number: 09532866420

 57
Pre-final Period: April 14, 2022 – May 03,
Module 4, Week 13-15 2022

4 Diseases Infecting Poultry Species and its Production

Reference: Shane, S. 2005, Handbook on Poultry Diseases

Module Overview:
Module 4 will tackle the diseases affecting poultry and poultry farms today. It
will also explain various techniques in repelling, controlling and preventing massive
infection and spread of diseases.
Objectives / Desired Learning Outcomes
1. Evaluate different diseases infecting poultry animals.
2. Classify these diseases, according to its form, species and effect to poultry.
3. Judge the different preventive, control and repelling methods against these
diseases.

Lesson 1. Immunosuppressive Diseases

Since we tackled different pests that affect poultry animals, let us now tackle the
different diseases in poultry that affects or suppresses the immune system of
poultry animals.
1. Marek’s Disease
Etiology:
• An oncogenic (tumor-inducing) herpesvirus
Occurrence and Economic Significance:
• Marek‘s disease affects commercial chicken flocks from approximately 5 to
35 weeks of age in all areas of the world. Highly pathogenic (vvMD) strains
of the virus are responsible for acute outbreaks of mortality which may attain
50% in exposed, non-immunized flocks up to 60 weeks of age. Generally,
erosive losses of up to 20% occur in non-protected or inadequately vaccinated
flocks.
• Marek‘s disease virus is responsible for neural and visceral tumors. Marek‘s
disease virus is immunosuppressive and infected broiler and pullet
replacement flocks are susceptible to a wide range of viral and bacterial
infections. Exposed broilers show increased mortality and condemnation rates
at processing.
Transmission:
• Exposure to MDV occurs by horizontal infection. The virus is resistant to
environmental exposure and can remain viable for long periods in houses
especially if units are not decontaminated between cycles.
• Infected birds shed ―dander‖ (feather dust) contaminated with virus which
can be distributed by wind, equipment, and personnel.
Clinical Signs:

Instructor: Ramil B. Entana Jr. Contact Number: 09532866420

 58

• Involvement of the peripheral nerves results in paresis (weakness) of the legs

or wings which progresses to paralysis. Death occurs in both caged and floor-
housed birds as a result of dehydration and persecution.
Pathology:
• Enlargement of the feather follicles is observed on the skin of de-feathered
broilers and results in condemnation of carcasses in the USA, Canada, and
Europe.
• The characteristic MD lesion comprises enlargement of the peripheral nerves
of the sciatic or brachial plexus. Occasionally visceral lesions are observed
and the kidney, eye, proventriculus, ovary or other organs may be affected.
Diagnosis and Confirmation:
• The gross appearance of neural lesions is generally diagnostic. Histological
examination of nerve and visceral lesions will show characteristic 70
lymphocytic proliferation.
• The condition should be differentiated from botulism and from ―transient
paralysis‖, an emerging condition of unknown etiology, but suspected to be an
autoimmune response to vaccination in specific strains of commercial laying
hens.
• The causal virus may be isolated and identified by submitting tissues to a
suitably equipped laboratory using specific tissue culture techniques.
Prevention:
• Vaccination of broiler embryos using in ovo administration on the 18th day
of incubation or by subcutaneous administration of vaccine to broiler, breeder
or replacement egg-strain chicks at day old.
Three types of vaccine are available:
Type 1: attenuated chicken strain (e.g. Rispen‘s)
Type 2: apathogenic chicken strain (e.g. SB1)
Type 3: apathogenic turkey, strain (e.g. HVT)
• Due to the interfering effect of maternal antibody on HVT it is advisable to
alternate vaccine types in successive generations. In countries where highly
pathogenic MDV occurs, parents should be vaccinated with Rispen‘s strain,
allowing commercial progeny to be immunized using the less expensive HVT
strain alone or in combination with the potentiating SB1 strain. Cell-
associated, frozen vaccines require special storage in a liquid nitrogen
canister.
• Careful reconstitution using the diluents supplied by the vaccine
manufacturer is necessary to maintain viability of the vaccine virus. Improper
vaccination technique may lead to defective immunization with resulting
―breaks‖.
• It is essential to place day old chicks in houses which have been thoroughly
decontaminated to allow vaccinated flocks to develop immunity. Rearing
Instructor: Ramil B. Entana Jr. Contact Number: 09532866420
 59

farms and broiler growing units should be operated as single-age units with
all-in-all-out cycles.

2. Infectious Bursal Disease(synonyms IBD: Gumboro Disease)

Etiology:
Type 1 avibirnavirus strains
• Type 1: Both classic and highly pathogenic (vvIBD) serotypes are recognized.
Pathogenic Delaware variants A through E predominate in the USA and
Central America. The vvIBD strains occur frequently in the Middle East, Asia
and Africa.
• Type 2: Turkey strains are apathogenic to chickens.
Occurrence and Economic Significance:

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• The disease affects immature chickens worldwide. Acute infection with

classic mild or variant strains results in up to 5% mortality. The variants are
more immunosuppressive than the classic strains.
• Very virulent (vvIBD) virus may kill up to 50% of susceptible flocks.
Avibirnaviruses are immunosuppressive and predispose flocks to intercurrent
viral pathogens and secondary bacterial infection.
• Infectious Bursal Disease is a major restraint to productivity and profitability
in the poultry industries of both industrialized and developing nations.
Transmission:
• Direct contact of young birds with infected flocks in multi-age units results in
persistent ―rolling‖ infection which is difficult to control. Indirect infection
with IBDV occurs within days of placing chicks as the agent can survive in a
contaminated environment for up to 3 months.
• Contaminated equipment, non-pelleted feed containing inadequately
heattreated poultry by-product meal, housing, and clothing of personnel are
frequently sources of infection
Clinical Signs:
• Flocks are affected acutely and show variable morbidity (5-50%) and rapidly
ascending mortality (5-50%), depending upon the pathogenicity of the IBDV
strain and the susceptibility of the flock. Affected birds are depressed and
show recumbency, ruffled plumage and white diarrhea. There are no
characteristic signs specific to IBD.
Pathology :
• Dehydration and muscular hemorrhages are evident in dead birds. In acute
cases the characteristic lesion comprises enlargement of the bursa of Fabricius
which is often surrounded by gelatinous exudate. Sectioning the organ may
show hemorrhages. Recovered birds show bursal atrophy.
• Airsacculitis and E. coli septicemia are frequent complications following
exposure to respiratory viruses especially with superimposed climatic or
environmental stress.
Diagnosis:
• Acute bursal changes are generally diagnostic. Histological examination of
bursas from broilers or pullets at various stages of the disease will show
edema progressing to atrophy.
• IBDV can be isolated in specific pathogen free embryonated eggs or on tissue
culture. Serotyping carried out in reference laboratories using monoclonal
antibodies, can identify specific IBDV isolates.
• Antibody response in vaccinated flocks should be routinely monitored using
ELISA serology.
Prevention:
• Parent flocks should be immunized with one or more attenuated live (mild or
intermediate) vaccines followed by an oil-emulsion booster. This program will
promote transfer of high and uniform levels of antibodies to progeny.

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• Broiler and replacement layer chicks should be vaccinated with live-

attenuated vaccine which primes the immune system. In North America a mild
live multivalent (classic and variant) vaccine is administered by the in ovo
route to provide initial stimulation of the immune system. This is required if
chicks are exposed to IBDV at the time of placement. In areas of the world
where relatively avirulent strains of IBD virus occur, mild strain vaccines may
be administered from dayold to 14 days. Subsequent administration of
intermediate strain vaccine may be necessary depending on factors including:
• Risk of infection.
• Strains of virus prevalent in the area of operation.
• Intercurrent exposure to respiratory viral infections.
• A combination of live IBD virus with corresponding antibody (Bursaplex®)
is available to be administered either in ovo or at day-old by the subcutaneous
route. This vaccine is effective in the presence of high levels of maternal
antibody.
• The age of administration of live attenuated vaccines depends on the level of
maternal antibody and the risk of infection. In areas of the world where the
very virulent (vvIBD) strain occurs, intermediate-plus (―hot‖) vaccines are
administered in drinking water. Selection of the age of vaccination is
determined by applying the following formula based on the results of ELISA
serology at day old. This formula relates the initial antibody level to the rate
of decline in maternal antibody to obtain the optimal age for vaccination.

• Where 22.36 is the square root of 500 ELISA units, (the threshold of
protection) and 2.82 is the mean half life (in days) of maternal antibody.
• It is necessary to maintain strict levels of biosecurity and to operate flocks on
an all-in-all-out basis in areas where severe infectious bursal disease is
endemic.

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3. Chicken Anemia
Etiology:
• A non-enveloped icosohedral DNA-virus, classified as a circovirus. 10.2
Occurrence and Economic Significance The infection is widespread in broiler
and replacement parent and layingstrain pullets.
• Chicken infectious anemia virus (CAV) is immunosuppressive and is
responsible for mortality of up to 10% in affected broiler flocks.
• The virus causes stunting and increased susceptibility to secondary viral and
bacterial infections including dermatitis which results in downgrading. The
pathogen is synergistic with IBDV, MDV and reticuloendotheliosis virus
(REV) (a retrovirus).
Transmission:
• Both vertical and horizontal routes of infection occur under commercial
conditions. Contaminated live vaccines prepared from infected embryos are
thought to have been responsible for widespread dissemination of CA
infection prior to recognition of the virus.
Clinical Signs:
• Morbidity is variable, with onset at 10 days. Primary CA mortality occurs
during the age period 15-20 days. Affected chicks are pale and stunted.
Gangrenous dermatitis of the extremities (―blue wing‖) is noted. Marked
anemia may be observed with corresponding hematocrit values below 15%.
Pathology:
• Thymus and bone marrow atrophy and muscular hemorrhages are
characteristic. Septicemia and gangrenous dermatitis occur in older birds,
following secondary bacterial infection. 10.6 Diagnosis ELISA and VN
serology can confirm infection of flocks. The PCR (polymerase chain
reaction) assay can identify CAV T-cell and B-cell lymphoblastoid cell line
tissue cultures can be used to isolate the agent in suitably equipped
laboratories.
Prevention:
• Immunization of breeder flocks during the age period 12-15 weeks using an
attenuated vaccine. Either vaccination or natural exposure will confer
immunity to
progeny through
maternal antibody
transfer.
• Biosecurity
procedures are
required to prevent
horizontal
infection.
Appropriate
management
Instructor: Ramil B. Entana Jr. Contact Number: 09532866420
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procedures can reduce the effects of primary CA infection.

• Control of respiratory infections and other immunosuppressive agents is
essential to reduce the impact of CA.

Lesson 2: Respiratory Diseases

Now that we are done scrutinizing different immunosuppressive diseases in
poultry, let us now study the diseases that impair the respiratory system of a
poultry species.
1. Newcastle Disease
Etiology:
Antigenically related strains of Avian paramyxovirus, type 1
Occurrence and Economic Significance:
Three categories of viral pathogenicity result in different clinical forms of the
disease.
• Velogenic-viscerotropic virus (vvND) infection results in acute onset, highly
lethal disease.
• Mesogenic virus causes acute, moderately lethal disease with nervous and
respiratory signs.
• Lentogenic virus is responsible for mild respiratory infection.
Velogenic and mesogenic forms are exotic to the USA, Canada, the UK and
other European countries but are widespread in Asia, Africa, and Latin
America. The lentogenic form is encountered in most poultry-producing areas
including the USA. Severe losses from mortality, depressed egg production
and lowered feed conversion efficiency occur as a result of exposure to vvND.
The lentogenic form is responsible for erosive losses in broilers including
lowered gain and feed conversion efficiency and elevated mortality and
condemnation. The severity and financial impact depends on climatic and
management stress and intercurrent exposure to pathogenic E. coli and other
viral respiratory disease and immunosuppressive agents.
The cost and consequences (respiratory stress) of vaccination are significant,
especially during winter and following immunosuppression. Disruption of
trade and the cost of eradication of vvND in non-endemic countries imposes a
significant burden on producers and the public sector after outbreaks.
Transmission:
 ND virus is highly contagious. Infection occurs either by the inhalation of
virus in aerosol form or ingestion of contaminated feed or litter. • Wind
dispersal may occur over distances of 5 km.
• Direct and indirect contact with contaminated material (fomites) is associated with
deficiencies in biosecurity.
• Companion birds, backyard flocks and gamefowl serve as reservoirs.
Clinical Signs:
a. Velogenic Viscerotropic Newcastle Disease

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 This form is characterized by acute onset with up to 100% flock morbidity

and rapidly ascending high mortality (20% in 2 days, 50% in 3 days, 80% in 5
days) accompanied by respiratory and nervous signs. In susceptible
commercial egg production flocks and breeders, peracute cessation of
production occurs with the presence of shell-less eggs due to premature
oviposition. Exposure of immunized flocks results in variable decline in
production.
b. Mesogenic
 Variable to high morbidity is evident in an exposed flock which will show
moderate mortality characterized by nervous and respiratory signs. An acute
drop in egg production occurs in susceptible mature flocks with the presence
of shell-less eggs.
c. Lentogenic
 Acute onset with moderate to high morbidity. Mild to inapparent respiratory
signs are noted but negligible mortality occurs in uncomplicated cases.
Lentogenic ND may be responsible for asymptomatic drops in egg production
in incompletely immunized commercial layer or breeder flocks.
Pathology:
Velogenic
 Prominent hemorrhages occur throughout the digestive tract especially in the
mucosa of the proventriculus and gut-associated lymphoid tissue. Severe
tracheitis and pulmonary congestion are evident in acute cases. These changes
are not specific to vvND and may be observed with highly pathogenic strains
of avian influenza and vvIBD.
Lentogenic
 Mild conjunctivitis and tracheitis are observed. Recovered flocks show
septicemia and airsacculitis due to secondary infection with E. coli.
Diagnosis:
 Isolation. The virus can be detected applying PCR technology to obtain a
provisional diagnosis within a working day. Identification and
characterization of the virus by a suitably equipped laboratory is the usual
confirmatory procedure.
 Retrospective serology (ELISA, hemagglutination inhibition and serumvirus
neutralization) demonstrates the presence of antibodies which indicates
exposure to ND virus and the titer (level) can differentiate between field
infection and previous vaccination.
Prevention:
Vaccination. Conventional programs:
• Lentogenic infection of broilers can be prevented by day old administration of
aerosol or eye drop vaccine using Hitchner B1 with subsequent boosters in drinking
water or by the aerosol route.
• Administration of a preparation comprising live virus with complementary
antibody (Newplex®) by the in ovo route at 18-days of incubation is protective in
countries where the vaccine is available.
Instructor: Ramil B. Entana Jr. Contact Number: 09532866420
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• Recombinant pox and HVT-vector vaccines expressing the fusion (F) protein of
NDV are available for either in ovo or subcutaneous vaccination.
• Lentogenic infection of breeders can be prevented by 10 day administration of
Hitchner B1, by the aerosol or eye drop route.
• Subsequent vaccinations include 24 day, and 8 week Hitchner B1 or LaSota in
non-chlorinated drinking water, followed by multivalent oil inactivated emulsion at
18-20 weeks. An optional 45 week multivalent oil inactivated emulsion may be
administered to boost maternal antibody transfer, depending on antibody titer of the
flock, risk of exposure, and other factors relating to the operation.
• In areas with a defective cold-chain the V-strain live thermostable mutant ND can
be distributed to subsistence and backyard flocks.
A variety of vaccination programs can be followed depending on the risk of
infection, virulence of agent, management system, and economic factors.
In countries with endemic vvND, rigorous programs are implemented,
incorporating day-old subcutaneous emulsion vaccine together with attenuated
live vaccine by the eye-drop route. Hitchner or LaSota vaccine is administered
to broilers by the aerosol route at 10 day intervals thereafter.
Breeders may be immunized with mesogenic-strain vaccines in some
countries. This expedient is only justified if birds have previously received
one or more live attenuated lentogenic vaccines.

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2. Infectious Laryngotracheitis, synonyms lt & ilt

Etiology:
 Gallid herpesvirus 1.
Occurrence and Economic Significance:
 Laryngotracheitis is distributed worldwide but is frequently regional in
prevalence or seasonal in incidence.
 Mild LT results in lowered growth rate and feed conversion efficiency and
elevated mortality and condemnation in broilers. Decreased egg production
occurs following exposure of mature susceptible flocks. Moderate to severe
strains of LT result in proportionately higher morbidity and mortality in both
mature and rearing stock with losses approaching 50% with concurrent
environmental stress and other infections.
Transmission:
 Direct contact with clinically affected chickens or recovered permanent
carriers. Indirect contact through dust-laden vehicles, or contaminated
personnel or equipment. Wind dispersal over 3 km has been documented.
Clinical Signs:
 The severity of LT is influenced by the strain of virus, immune status of the
flock and environmental conditions. Mild to severe cases show acute onset
with respiratory signs (snicking and gurgling), conjunctivitis and swollen
heads. In severe cases, birds show expectoration of blood accompanied by
cyanosis of the head due to dyspnoea.
Pathology:
 Hyperemia of the tracheal mucosa is present in most cases. Proportionally
more severe lesions occur with pathogenic virus strains which produce severe
hemorrhagic tracheitis with the presence of blood clots. Aggregations of
desquamated epithelium and blood clots may obstruct the glottis resulting in
asphyxiation.
Diagnosis:
 Histopathology usually reveals the presence of intranuclear inclusion bodies
in the epithelium (cell lining) of the trachea. The fluorescent antibody
technique may be used to demonstrate LT antigen in respiratory mucosa. The
LT virus can be isolated using SPF embryos or tissue culture with
identification applying immunofluorescence or serum-virus 85 neutralization.
ELISA serology may be used to confirm infection by demonstrating a
significant rise in antibody in paired serum samples obtained during the acute
and recovery phases of infection.
Prevention:
 Strict biosecurity measures are justified in endemic areas. Effective protection
can be achieved using egg-embryo propagated vaccine administered in
drinking water to broilers, immature breeders and commercial pullets at 14 -
20 days. The spray route is less effective especially with tissue-culture
propagated vaccines.

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 Commercial egg pullets and breeders are vaccinated at 6-10 weeks of age by
administration of tissue-culture origin modified live virus which has a lower
potential for reversion to virulence than chick-embryo origin vaccine virus.
Since flocks immunized with chick embryo origin virus serve as permanent
carriers of the vaccine virus, LT may be transmitted to susceptible flocks or to
unaffected areas following movement of vaccinates.
 New vaccine candidates based on recombinant DNA technology should
overcome the problem of reversion associated with live modified vaccines.

3. Avain Influenza
Etiology:
 Diverse Type-A orthomyxoviruses characterized by hemagglutinating (HA)
and neuraminidase (N) antigens occurring on the surface of the virus.
Occurrence and Economic Significance:
 Avian influenza is world-wide in distribution. Avian influenza viruses vary in
their pathogenicity and their effects range from a mild respiratory disease
(LPAI) to catastrophic losses associated with viscerotropic and pansystemic
infection (HPAI or ―fowl plague‖).
 Sporadic outbreaks of HPAI result in severe losses in production, disruption in
operations and high costs for control and prevention.
 Avian influenza of low pathogenicity is an erosive disease reducing
liveability and quality of either broilers or eggs and exacerbating secondary
bacterial infection. Influenza adversely affects the financial return from flocks
and a decline in quality of broiler carcasses or table-eggs following infection.
Transmission
 Wild birds serve as reservoirs and transmit infection to subsistence flocks or
commercial units which are operated with substandard biosecurity. Rapid
multiplication of HPAI virus occurs in susceptible subsistence and
commercial flocks, ultimately affecting all poultry operations in a region,
unless appropriate controls are implemented.
 The virus is relatively resistant to environmental exposure and can infect
birds placed in imperfectly decontaminated units housing a previously
Instructor: Ramil B. Entana Jr. Contact Number: 09532866420
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infected flock. Indirect infection can occur by moving flocks, equipment and
personnel and by wind dispersal of virus-laden dust and feathers. Direct
infection occurs following contact between infected carriers and susceptible
flocks. This situation is common in countries with extensive distribution of
live birds and where multi-age flocks are operated.
Clinical:
 Signs Highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) results in an acute and
precipitous decline in egg production with rapidly ascending mortality
characterized by both respiratory and nervous signs. Flock morbidity is
apparent following exposure to AI virus but mortality is variable depending
on the pathogenicity of the strain of AIV and intercurrent climatic and
environmental conditions.
 88 Mild strains (LPAI) result in low morbidity and mortality, and a decline
in egg production. Elevated mortality follows secondary E. coli infection
superimposed on flocks with a history of exposure to immunosuppressive
infections (IBD, CA) and with concurrent respiratory pathogens (MG/ MS,
ND, ILT, IB).
Pathology:
 Highly pathogenic avian influenza is characterized by subcutaneous
hemorrhages and edema of the head. Vesicles may be present on the comb
and wattles. Hemorrhages are observed in the serosa of all viscera and in
the mucosa and lymphoid structures of the intestinal and respiratory tracts.
 Mild influenza results in tracheitis, pulmonary edema and if secondary
bacterial infection occurs, airsacculitis is observed.
Diagnosis:
 Rapid presumptive diagnosis is based on solid-state antigen capture assay
(Directigen®) and confirmed by RT-PCR assay. An alternative but more
time-consuming approach involves isolation of a hemagglutinating virus
from tissues using specific pathogen free embryos or avian-cell tissue
culture systems.
 AI viruses are then identified and serotyped using serumvirus neutralization
followed by more advanced sero-immunologic procedures conducted in
suitably equipped laboratories. The agar-gel immuno-diffusion test and the
ELISA procedure are used to demonstrate group specific AI antibody in
serum, denoting either exposure or vaccination.
Control in Areas Where Exotic HPAI is Diagnosed:
 Exotic outbreaks of HPAI are eradicated by implementing an intensive
program comprising rapid diagnosis, slaughter and disposal of affected
flocks, quarantine and concurrent surveillance with subsequent disposal of
flocks demonstrating antibodies to AI. Restriction on movement of flocks
and products from foci of infection should be imposed.
 In areas where inadequate resources or extensive dissemination of infection
precludes absolute eradication, flocks are immunized using autogenous
inactivated vaccine or a recombinant vector product. Vaccination
Instructor: Ramil B. Entana Jr. Contact Number: 09532866420
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suppresses clinical occurrence of disease but the virus persists in the

poultry population of the affected region, impeding exports.
 Studies in industrialized nations have shown that strict biosecurity can limit
dissemination of avian influenza virus among commercial farms 89 and
within integrations. Preventing the spread of virus is extremely difficult in
the context of industries in developing countries where feed is delivered in
bags, and eggs, culled hens and live broilers produced by small-scale
farmers are distributed through a network of dealers to regional markets.
 Since 1997, the zootiotic potential of AI has been recognized. Human
fatalities associated with the 2004 outbreak of the H5N1 strain of AI in
Southeast Asia has created international pressure for extensive vaccination
to suppress infection in regions and nations where HPAI has resisted
traditional eradication programs and has become endemic.

4. Infectious Bronchitis
Etiology:
 Specific strains of an avian coronavirus.
Occurrence and Economic Significance:
 Infectious bronchitis (IB) occurs world wide and is responsible for depressed
egg production and shell quality in susceptible commercial and breeder flocks.
Infection of immature chickens causes a mild respiratory disease which may
affect liveability and growth if exacerbated by adverse managemental,
climatic stress or intercurrent mycoplasmosis.
Transmission:
 The virus can be transmitted from clinically affected birds to susceptible
flocks either by direct contact or indirectly by fomites.
Clinical Signs:
 Moderate morbidity and low flock mortality associated with respiratory rales
(gurgling and snicking) and ocular discharge. Mature flocks show reduced egg
production with malformed shells.

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Pathology:
 Hyperemia (red discoloration) of the trachea and accumulation of mucus in
the nasal cavity. Chronic cases, complicated by secondary E. coli infection
show airsacculitis.
Diagnosis:
 The diagnosis can be confirmed by immunofluorescence assay or isolation
and identification of the causal virus using egg inoculation or tissue culture
techniques. Where suitably equipped laboratory resources are available, RT-
PCR is used to rapidly diagnose IB. Retrospective diagnosis is possible by
demonstrating a significant rise in circulating antibody in paired acute and
recovery-phase sera applying ELISA or SN assay.
Prevention:
 Immature breeders and commercial layer flocks are routinely vaccinated with
a mild attenuated product (H-120, Massachusetts, Connecticut strains or their
combination) at 7 days in drinking water or by aerosol.
 The vaccination is repeated at 30-40 days. The initial live vaccine should
always be administered to susceptible breeder and layer flocks before 12
weeks of age to avoid possible damage to the developing reproductive tract of
the pullet. Immunity in commercial layers can be boosted by administration of
live attenuated vaccine either in drinking water or as a coarse spray during the
production period. Potential breeder flocks receive inactivated IB vaccine as a
booster, usually in the form of an injectable multivalent emulsion at the end of
the rearing period and then at mid-cycle, as considered necessary, to maintain
adequate maternal antibody transfer to progeny.
 Broilers in endemic areas are vaccinated by aerosol at day-old or subsequently
by coarse spray or in drinking water at a suitable time (10- 20 days) depending
on maternal antibody transfer or pattern of field challenge.
 In many areas specific IB vaccines are required to prevent clinical problems
attributed to variant strains.
5. Mycoplasmosis
Etiology:
 Mycoplasma gallisepticum and M. synoviae are the two significant species
affecting commercial chickens.
Occurrence and Economic Significance:
 Chronic respiratory disease caused by M. gallisepticum and synovitis and
airsacculitis due to M. synoviae infection, occur world-wide.
 These conditions are responsible for extensive losses in broiler operations
especially where flocks are exposed to concurrent viral respiratory diseases
and environmental stress.
 The economic impact of mycoplasmosis in broilers includes severely
depressed growth rate and feed conversion efficiency, elevated mortality, and
condemnation at processing. In commercial layers and breeders, liveability
and egg production are depressed.
Transmission:
Instructor: Ramil B. Entana Jr. Contact Number: 09532866420
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 Mycoplasmosis is transmitted by the vertical route from infected parent

flocks to progeny. Lateral transmission occurs by direct contact between
clinically affected or recovered carriers and susceptible flocks. Indirect
infection occurs through contact with contaminated equipment, feed bags,
and personnel. Wild birds and rodents may transmit the disease to susceptible
flocks. Mycoplasmas do not survive outside the host for longer than 24 hours.
Clinical Signs:
 Mycoplasmosis is characterized by chronic respiratory signs including ocular
discharge, tracheal rales (―gurgling and snicking‖), markedly reduced growth
rate and an increased susceptibility to intercurrent respiratory diseases.
Chronic cases are emaciated and show purulent nasal discharge.
 M. synoviae infection results in acute arthritis especially of the hock and stifle
joints. 15.5 Pathology Affected birds show congestion of the upper
respiratory tract, mild tracheitis, and in chronic cases airsacculitis and
colibacillosis. Acute cases of M. synoviae infection show serous arthritis. In
advanced cases, seropurulent exudate may be present in affected joints.
Diagnosis:
 Two to three weeks following infection, chickens demonstrate antibodies
which can be detected using the serum plate agglutination test or the
automated ELISA technique. These highly sensitive tests are used to screen
flocks. The hemagglutination inhibition test is applied to confirm the
provisional serologic diagnosis.
 Mycoplasma spp can be isolated and identified by inoculating tracheal swabs
or serous joint exudate from acute cases onto special selective media. This
procedure may require up to 30 days and may be inconclusive due to technical
problems including contamination. The polymerase chain reaction assay can
be applied as a commercially available, sensitive and specific test procedure.
Kits are available for M. gallisepticum and/or M. synoviae respectively.
Treatment:
 Clinical signs can be suppressed by administering tylosin or a fluoroquinolone
compound in drinking water. Chicks derived from known infected parent
flocks can be treated with a suitable antibiotic during the first 48 hours after
placement and re-treated subsequently at 20 to 24 days of age for a 24 to 48
hour period.
 It is emphasized that treatment does not eliminate the carrier state in infected
flocks but will suppress excretion of the organism in respiratory exudate and
vertical transmission through eggs.
Prevention:
 The world‘s primary breeders of broilers and commercial layers have
eliminated mycoplasmosis. Infection of grandparent and parent level breeders
occurs in developing industries due to deficiencies in biosecurity on farms
operated by multipliers. It is essential to purchase parent and commercial
stock from known mycoplasma-free breeder flocks.

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 Strict biosecurity will prevent lateral introduction of infection. Live M.

gallisepticum vaccines are available for immature egg-production flocks
which will be transferred to multi-age, infected layer farms.
 The liveattenuated F-strain vaccine administered in drinking water has been
largely replaced in the USA by the milder TS-11 and 6/84 products.
Inactivated vaccines administered as oil emulsions are available commercially
but are of limited value.
 A pox-vectored recombinant Mg vaccine (―Vectormune‖) has recently been
licenced for administration to immature egg-production pullets in the USA. It
is noted that vaccination will suppress clinical signs of infection but will not
eliminate the carrier state.

6. Coryza
Etiology:
 Three Haemophilus paragallinarum serotypes designated A, B and C are
recognized.
Occurrence:
 The disease is potentially encountered in any poultry-raising area but
frequently occurs in specific regions or countries as a chronic or seasonal
problem. Coryza results in decreased egg production in commercial multiage
laying and breeder operations.
Transmission:
 Infection follows direct contact with clinically affected or asymptomatic
carriers or indirect contact with contaminated equipment or personnel. The
pathogen does not remain viable outside the host for periods exceeding 24
hours.
Clinical Signs:
 Flock morbidity varies from 1 to 20%. Mortality is negligible in
uncomplicated cases of coryza. Egg production in young commercial or
breeder flocks is reduced following infection. Clinically affected birds show
unilateral or bilateral ocular discharge progressing to facial cellulitis and
chronic sinusitis.
Instructor: Ramil B. Entana Jr. Contact Number: 09532866420
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Pathology
 Acute cases show severe conjunctivitis and inflammation of the periorbital
fascia. Chronic cases show serous to caseous sinusitis.
Diagnosis:
 Haemophilus paragallinarum can be isolated from sinus swabs in acutely
affected birds. Since the organism is susceptible to desiccation it is
recommended that acutely infected live birds should be submitted to a
diagnostic laboratory whenever possible.
 Alternatively, severed heads packed on ice can be forwarded to a laboratory.
Isolation involves semiaerobic culture on a blood agar medium streaked with
Staphylococcus sp. incubated in a candle jar. The condition should be
differentiated from pasteurellosis and viral infections including LPAI, and
other respiratory agents.
Treatment:
 Immature birds can be treated with water-soluble sulfonamides. These drugs
should not be administered to mature flocks due to residues in eggs and the
deleterious effect of sulfonamides on production and shell quality.
Combinations of tetracyclines are frequently used to treat coryza by
administration in water or injected directly by the intramuscular route.
Compulsory or recommended withdrawal periods before marketing eggs
should be followed after treatment of commercial flocks.
Prevention:
 Appropriate biosecurity measures will limit the possibility of introducing
infection on to breeding and commercial egg production farms. Immature
flocks can be partly protected by administration of inactivated multivalent or
homologous bacterins in aqueous suspension or oil emulsion. Two doses of
inactivated vaccine should be administered by the subcutaneous or
intramuscular route at four week intervals during the rearing period, as
recommended by the manufacturer.

7. Aspergillosis (synonym Mycotic Pneumonia)

Etiology:

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 Various fungi including Aspergillus fumigatus.

Occurrence and Economic Significance:
 The disease is world-wide in distribution but cases are more frequently
diagnosed in tropical countries especially during warm and humid weather.
Severe outbreaks associated with hatchery contamination may result in up to
15% chick mortality during the first two weeks. Decreased growth rate and
ascites complex are noted in affected survivors.
Transmission:
 Contamination of egg shells with Aspergillus spores results in colonization of
the air cell. This is followed by subsequent infection of the respiratory tract of
pipping embryos and hatching chicks.
 Horizontal transmission can occur in the hatchery or during handling and
delivery. Chicks older than 48 hours are usually refractory to infection by
inhalation of spores.
Clinical Signs:
 Morbidity may attain 10% of the flock with corresponding mortality during
the first 3–12 days. Affected chicks are disinclined to move and show labored
breathing with extension of the head, frequently accompanied by a whistling
rale. Mycotic encephalitis (infection of the brain) results in lateral
recumbency, incoordination and coarse muscle tremors.
Pathology:
 Numerous 1mm diameter yellow to green nodules are observed in the lungs
and air sacs and occasionally in other organs including the brain and eye.
Diagnosis:
 Characteristic lesions are highly suggestive of aspergillosis. Confirmation of
the diagnosis requires culture using an appropriate fungal medium
(Sabouraud‘s dextrose agar). Histological examination of lungs will reveal
characteristic hyphae.
Prevention

 Improving nest-box hygiene, increasing the frequency of collection of eggs to

four times daily and where possible, substituting plastic nest pads for litter
will reduce the prevalence of aspergillosis. Decontamination of eggs by
Instructor: Ramil B. Entana Jr. Contact Number: 09532866420
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formalin fumigation or application of a QAT or phenolic disinfectants is

advised, but eggs should not be washed by immersion.
 Decontamination of setters, hatchers, and air ducts is recommended including
the use of aerosol generators and medicated ―candles.‖ The efficacy of
cleaning procedures can be monitored, using an appropriate microbiological
detection procedure such as an air sampler or exposed petri-plates.

Lesson 3. Multifactorial Condition

1. Swollen Head Syndrome
Etiology:
 Swollen Head Syndrome (SAS) is a multifactorial condition involving the
sequence of immune suppression (IBD, MD, CA) followed by exposure to a
respiratory virus (IB, TRT, ND) and terminating in E. coli cellulitis of the
subcutaneous tissues surrounding the eyes and of the head. Related
metapneumoviruses including turkey rhinotracheitis virus (TRT) causing
tracheitis and sinusitis in turkeys and a swollen head condition in broiler
breeders are accepted as a precipitating agent of SHS in broilers.
 Outbreaks of facial cellulitis in chickens have been diagnosed in California
without evidence of metapneumovirus infection. Environmental stress (low
temperature and humidity, or high dust and ammonia levels) due to
inadequate ventilation or climatic extremes exacerbate the prevalence and
severity of SHS.
 Pathogenic E. coli strains, usually introduced through contaminated drinking
water are responsible for the subcutaneous facial and occipital cellulitis
which is characteristic of SHS.
Occurrence and Economic Significance:
 The condition occurs in southern Africa, the Middle East, Asia, and Latin
America, especially in high-density broiler growing areas. Regionally, SHS
often shows a seasonal (winter) occurrence. Losses due to primary mortality
may attain 10% to 20% of the flock. Subsequent bacterial septicemia and
airsacculitis which occur approximately 10 - 14 days after the onset of acute
facial cellulitis may result in additional flock mortality of up to 20% of
survivors of an acute outbreak.
Transmission:
 The immune suppressive and respiratory agents are transmitted by direct and
indirect contact and usually are associated with defects in biosecurity,
especially on multiple-age farms. Pathogenic E. coli or other opportunistic
pathogens including Ornithobacterium rhinotracheale (ORT) can be
introduced through contaminated water and litter.
Clinical Signs
 Under commercial conditions SHS is characterized by acute onset of
morbidity involving up to 10% of the flock in broilers aged 14 - 30 days.
Affected birds show ocular discharge and conjunctivitis progressing to

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periorbital swelling. Terminally, eyes are closed and enlargement of the head
is a prominent sign in severely depressed or recumbent broilers.
 Pathology Subcutaneous accumulation of viscous sero-purulent exudate,
which becomes caseous in chronic cases.
 Acutely affected birds may show tracheal hyperaemia and pulmonary
congestion. Chronic cases show caseous airsacculitis, perihepatitis and
peritonitis. Bursal and thymic atrophy consistent with previous IBD or CAV
infection, respectively, may be apparent.
Diagnosis:
 The obvious gross lesion comprising subcutaneous cellulitis of the head is
highly suggestive of SHS. Attempts to isolate and identify primary viral
pathogens and secondary bacterial pathogens should be carried out.
Differential diagnoses include LPAI, ND, IB, coryza, pasteurellosis. Serologic
profiling of flocks is necessary to determine the pattern of maternal IBD
antibody decay and the response to either vaccination or field challenge with a
range of respiratory and immunosuppressive agents.
Treatment:
 Administration of water soluble antibiotics including fluoroquinolones will
produce a transitory decline in flock mortality. Losses frequently resume after
withdrawal of medication. Antibiotics should be used in accordance with the
manufacturer‘s instructions and statutory restrictions relating to the
withholding period before slaughter should be observed.
 Medication should be guided by anticipation of a positive benefit:cost ratio.
Improper or prolonged use of antibiotics will result in emergence of drug-
resistant E. coli. In small-scale operations acute cases can be salvaged by
transfer to small pens where food and water are available and birds can be
treated with parenteral antibiotic and protected from persecution by the
remainder of the flock.
Prevention:
 Chlorination of drinking water to 2 ppm and installation of closed (nipple)
drinking systems are recommended. Alleviation of obvious managemental
deficiencies and environmental stress factors will reduce the intensity of
respiratory stress. Appropriate vaccination programs are required to prevent
immunosuppressive and respiratory viral diseases.

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2. Septicaemia and Airsacculitis

Etiology:
 Pathogenic strains of E. coli, superimposed on primary immunosuppressive
and respiratory viral infections.
Occurrence and Economic Significance:
 Septicemia and airsacculitis resulting from E. coli infection are responsible
for decreased growth rate and feed conversion efficiency, elevated flock
mortality, downgrading and condemnation of carcasses in processing plants.
Infection of commercial laying and breeding stock during the rearing period
may adversely affect subsequent performance.
 Flocks infected with vertically transmitted or acquired mycoplasmosis are
extremely susceptible to E. coli airsacculitis. Diets containing aflatoxins or
free radicals evolved from peroxidation of lipids will lead to
immunosuppression with increased susceptibility to E. coli infection.
Transmission:
 E. coli is introduced onto poultry farms through contaminated drinking water.
High levels of infection occur following deficiencies in routine
decontamination of housing, equipment and drinking systems.
Immunosuppressive and respiratory viruses which precipitate infection are
transmitted by direct and indirect contact especially on multi-age farms or
where biosecurity is defective.
Clinical Signs:
 Flock morbidity of up to 10% occurs during the 10 – 40 day period
accompanied by ascending mortality which may either plateau or decline but
usually persists until depletion of the flock. Total losses may attain 50% in
immunosuppressed broiler flocks subjected to environmental stress and
previous exposure to viral respiratory pathogens and mycoplasmosis.
Pathology
 Acute septicemia is characterized by pulmonary congestion, enlargement of
the spleen and liver, and generalized venous congestion. Most birds which die
of septicemia show perihepatitis, pericarditis and peritonitis. Bursal atrophy
indicating previous exposure to IBDV is often observed. Birds surviving acute
airsacculitis show stunted growth and develop a caseous exudate in the air
sacs often accompanied by peritonitis, resulting in downgrading or
condemnation at processing.
Diagnosis:
 Isolation, identification and serotyping of E. coli from heart blood,
perivisceral exudate, and liver tissue. Evaluation of the epidemiology of
immunosuppressive and respiratory infections by serology and isolation is
recommended.
Treatment:
 Mortality can be suppressed by administration of water soluble furazolidone,
sulfonamides, and fluoroquinolones where these drugs are permitted. It is
necessary to perform antibiograms to ensure that selected drugs are effective.
Instructor: Ramil B. Entana Jr. Contact Number: 09532866420
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 Medication should be administered in accordance with statutory restrictions

concerning withdrawal and must comply with the manufacturer‘s
recommendations.
Prevention:
 Refer to Swollen Head Syndrome

Lesson 4. Systematic Diseases

After we have tackled the different multifactorial diseases that affect poultry. Let
us now, learn the different systematic diseases that infect poultry species.

1. Salmonellosis-Pullorum Disease
Etiology:
 Salmonella pullorum 20.2 Occurrence and Economic Significance Pullorum
disease (or ―bacillary white diarrhea‖, BWD) is potentially world-wide in
distribution but in practice is confined to non-commercial flocks in many
countries. Infection results in high mortality in young chicks.
Transmission:
 Vertical transmission occurs by the transovarial route. Horizontal transmission
takes place by direct contact between clinically affected and recovered carriers
and by indirect contact with contaminated equipment, housing, litter, and
clothing of personnel. The pathogen can remain viable in soil for up to a year.
Clinical Appearance:
 Morbidity in affected batches of chicks often exceeds 40% with corresponding
mortality commencing at hatch and extending through 21 days. Affected
chicks are depressed and anorexic and tend to huddle under brooders. Birds
may show copious white diarrhea and accumulation of fecal material adherent
to the plumage surrounding the vent. From 14 days of age onwards affected
birds show stunting, poor feathering and frequently lameness due to arthritis.
Pathology:

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 Chicks show enlargement of the spleen and liver. Omphalitis is often present.
Chronic cases show abscessation of the viscera (heart, internal serosa, lungs,
liver) and chronic caseous typhlitis characterized by grey casts in the ceca.
 20.6 Diagnosis Isolation and identification of S. pullorum from liver, intestine
or yolk sac using appropriate enrichment culture and standard microbiological
techniques.
 Recovered carriers can be identified using the rapid whole blood plate
agglutination test.
Treatment:
 None is recommended. Affected flocks should be depleted to eliminate
chronic carriers.
Prevention:
 Breeding stock and chicks should be purchased from suppliers and hatcheries
certified free of S. pullorum by a responsible government agency. Breeder
flocks can be monitored using the rapid whole-blood plate agglutination test.
Strict biosecurity should be enforced to prevent introduction of the pathogen
from backyard flocks which serve as reservoirs. Rodent eradication is an
important component of control.
2. Salmonellosis – fowl Typhoid
Etiology:
 Salmonella gallinarum
Occurrence and Economic Significance
 Potentially world-wide in distribution and frequently encountered in
subsistence or semi-commercial flocks. The disease is responsible for serious
economic losses in commercial units in organized poultry industries in
endemic areas. Producers in Latin America and Asia experience mortality in
both mature and immature flocks, loss of egg production and increased costs
incurred by prevention and treatment.
Transmission:
 Vertical and lateral transmission occurs as for S. pullorum.
Clinical Signs:
 Acute onset of fowl typhoid occurs in susceptible flocks which are exposed to
infection. Ascending morbidity and corresponding mortality may attain 5 -
10% within a week. No characteristic prodromal signs are noted. Diarrhea,
depression and a decline in egg production are observed in mature flocks but
these signs are not diagnostic.
Pathology:
 Gross enlargement of the spleen and liver are observed in affected cases.
Oophoritis (inflammation of the ovary) followed by ovarian regression is
noted in mature stock. Peritonitis may be present in chronic cases.
Diagnosis:
 Isolation and identification of S. gallinarium is required to confirm the
diagnosis. The rapid whole blood plate agglutination test will demonstrate
antibodies approximately 2 weeks after infection and can be used to screen
Instructor: Ramil B. Entana Jr. Contact Number: 09532866420
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Treatment:
 Treatment is inappropriate for breeding flocks, which should be depleted.
Commercial laying flocks may be salvaged under specific conditions by
administering furazolidone or tetracycline in feed at 400 g/ton, for two weeks,
where permitted. Eggs should not be marketed during medication or the
subsequent withdrawal period.
Prevention:
 Appropriate biosecurity measures should be implemented as for S. pullorum
infection, to prevent introduction of infection. Administration of live 9R strain
S. gallinarum vaccine during the rearing period will eliminate outbreaks of
clinical disease. Bacterins are generally ineffective in preventing fowl
typhoid.
3. Salmonellosis – Parathyroid
Etiology:
 Salmonella spp other than S. pullorum and S. gallinarum.
Occurrence:
 A world-wide problem in integrated commercial-egg and broiler operations
and also on small-scale farms.
Economic Significance
 Some Salmonella spp including S. enteritidis, phage type 4, may result in high
chick mortality consistent with S. Pullorum infection. Generally paratyphoid
Salmonella spp will result in up to 3% losses during the first 14 days.
 Paratyphoid Salmonella spp are responsible for food-borne infection in
consumers of eggs (S. Enteritidis) and poultry meat (S. typhimurium, S.
agona, S. heidelberg and possibly up to 50 other frequently encountered
serotypes).
Transmission:
 S. enteritidis is transmitted vertically by the trans-ovarial and transoviductal
routes. Other Salmonella spp may be transmitted mechanically by fecal
contamination of egg shells, or in cases of immunosuppressed flocks,
infrequently by the transovarial route.
 Feed containing contaminated ingredients of animal-origin is often
responsible for introduction of paratyphoid salmonellosis into integrations or
entire countries. The condition can be perpetuated by recycling contaminated
by-product meal from infected broilers and commercial laying flocks. Rodents
and litter beetles serve as reservoirs of infection.
 Paratyphoid salmonellosis can be introduced by contaminated equipment,
personnel and wild birds.
Clinical Signs:
 Elevated chick mortality and unevenness in brooding flocks are observed. No
specific signs are associated with paratyphoid infection in mature flocks.
Vertically transmitted S. enteritidis pt 4 infection resembles pullorum disease
in chicks.
Pathology:
Instructor: Ramil B. Entana Jr. Contact Number: 09532866420
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 Acute cases show enlargement of the spleen and liver and occasionally
enteritis and peritonitis. Chicks may show omphalitis.
Diagnosis:
 Confirmation is based on isolation and identification of Salmonella spp from
liver, spleen, intestine, or heart blood. Routine microbiological screening of
liver/spleen/intestinal pools from post mortem submissions to laboratories is
strongly recommended. Specific ELISA-based test kits are available for
assaying for S. enteritidis antibody.
Treatment:
 Furazolidone if allowed will suppress mortality but will not eliminate
infection.
Prevention:
 Reduction in prevalence in breeding flocks is possible (absolute elimination
of S. Enteritidis and progressively S. typhimurium carriers) by implementing
intensive programs of microbiological screening together with appropriate
biosecurity procedures. Salmonella enteritidis is controlled in commercial
level stock using live, modified S. typhimurium vaccines alone or in
combination with inactivated S. enteritidis emulsion boosters at point of lay.

4. Pasteurellosis syn. Fowl Cholera

Etiology:
 Pasteurella multocida serotypes (including 1, 3, & 4) which vary in
pathogenicity.
Occurrence and Economic Significance
 World-wide in distribution, pasteurellosis is encountered as an endemic
infection in many intensive poultry producing areas and frequently persists as
an infection in specific integrations or farms.
 Mortality occurs in floorhoused replacement commercial laying and breeding
stock and extends into mature flocks. Acute outbreaks associated with
environmental or managemental stress, may result in depression in egg
production. In breeders, reduced mating activity lowers fertility and depresses

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productivity of flocks as measured by the number of chicks produced by each

hen placed.
Transmission:
 Infection occurs following direct contact between susceptible birds and
clinically affected or recovered carriers. Environmental contamination,
rodents, and wild birds are sources of indirect infection.
 Contaminated feed bags, equipment, and the clothing of personnel may
introduce infection onto farms or into integrations. Intraflock transmission is
enhanced by handling birds for vaccination and weighing and by open
watering systems such as troughs and bell drinkers.
Clinical Signs:
 Morbidity and mortality rates depend on the pathogenicity of the strain and
the susceptibility of the flock. Newly introduced infections may result in up to
10% mortality. Prodromal signs are not observed in peracute cases. Chronic
infection may be recognized by enlargement of the wattles, lameness caused
by arthritis and torticollis (twisted necks) due to otitis interna (infection of the
inner ear).
Pathology:
 Acute cases show enlargement of the spleen and liver with punctate
hemorrhages of the viscera including the heart. Subacute cases may show gray
granulomatous foci in the liver. Caseous cellulitis of the wattles and
seropurulent arthritis may be present in chronic cases.
Diagnosis:
 Laboratory examination is required to isolate and identify P. multocida from
specimens of heart blood, liver, and spleen. In acute cases, characteristic
bipolar organisms may be observed in Giemsa-stained smears of heart blood.
Treatment:
 Tetracycline incorporated into feed at a level of 200 - 400 g/ton or in water at
250 - 500 mg/l will suppress clinical signs and reduce mortality.
 Prevention Stringent biosecurity procedures are necessary to prevent
introduction of infection. Eradication of rodents is critical to reducing the
exposure of flocks to P. multocida. Immunization of flocks in endemic areas
is recommended. Routine vaccination is essential on farms where previous
cases have occurred. Live-attenuated P. multocida vaccines (CU; PM-1; PM-9
strains) are administered by wing-web stab twice during the rearing period, at
approximately 10 and 14 weeks of age.
 Breeder males or flocks subjected to environmental stress may be vaccinated
with the relatively milder PM1 and PM-9 strains in place of the CU strain to
avoid adverse vaccine reaction. Antibiotics should not be administered one
week before and one week after administration of a live attenuated vaccine.
Inactivated vaccines can be used to protect flocks if an undesirable reaction to
a live vaccine occurs.

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 It is emphasized that for effective control of pasteurellosis inactivated

bacterins must be homologous with the endemic strains of P. multocida. In
some areas or integrations, autogenous, inactivated vaccines are required.

5. Spirochetosis
Etiology:
 A spirochete, Borrelia anserina.
Occurrence and Economic Significance:
 Spirochetosis is widespread in tropical countries due to the prevalence of the
soft-shell tick vector Argas spp. The condition is responsible for sporadic
losses in subsistence flocks and small scale commercial units.
 Ticks of the genus Argus are most frequently implicated in transmission of
spirochetosis. Studies have confirmed that mites including Dermanyssus spp
and Culex spp mosquitoes may also be involved in transmission.
Clinical Signs:
 Young birds are apparently more susceptible than older stock. Acutely
affected birds show depression with cyanosis (blue discoloration) of the head.
Mortality may attain 30% of the flock. In sub-acute and chronic cases, birds
show paresis (weakness) terminating in paralysis and death.
 Pathology A grossly enlarged spleen with mottling due to subcapsular
hemorrhage is the predominant lesion. Focal necrotic hepatitis may also be
present.
Diagnosis:
 Demonstration of the organisms in Giemsa-stained blood smears. The
pathogen can be propagated from a spleen homogenate injected into the yolk
sac of embryonated eggs at the 6th day of incubation.
Treatment:
 Oxytetracycline by injection (1-2 mg/kg body weight) or chlortetracycline in
drinking water are effective.
Prevention:

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 Eradication of vectors and dusting birds at frequent intervals with 5%

carbamate (Sevin®) powder. In some countries, locally prepared vaccines are
available but vary in efficacy.
6. Avian Encephalomyelitis syn. Epidemic Tremor (AE)
Etiology:
 A picornavirus
Occurrence and Economic Significance:
 Avian encephalomyelitis (AE) occurs world-wide, resulting in an
asymptomatic egg production decline in commercial layers and breeders and
elevated mortality in vertically infected batches of chicks.
Transmission:
 Vertical transmission occurs by transviral passage of virus from viremic hens
to their progeny. Lateral spread from birds which shed AE virus in feces
results in direct and indirect infection of susceptible flocks.
Clinical Signs:
 Mortality occurs in chicks aged 3 - 20 days. Morbidity varies according to
transmission rate but seldom exceeds 5% under commercial conditions,
especially in areas where AE vaccination is an accepted practice. Affected
chicks show depression progressing to prostration in lateral recumbency.
Terminally, chicks demonstrate fine muscular tremors of the head, neck, and
feet. Recovered birds may show lenticular opacity (cataracts). Infection of
susceptible breeder or commercial egg flocks results in an asymptomatic
decline in egg production.
Pathology:
 No gross lesions are observed. This is important in differentiating AE from
encephalomalacia.
Diagnosis
 Histological examination of brain and spinal cord tissue reveals perivascular
cuffing and degeneration of neurons. Lymphoid aggregations are observed in
the proventriculus, pancreas and other organs. Epidemic tremor virus can be
isolated from brain tissue by inoculation of embryonated SPF eggs.
Commercial ELISA test kits are available to monitor the antibody titer of
flocks to determine susceptibility or following vaccination or challenge.
Prevention:
 A live-attenuated
vaccine can be
administered to
replacement
commercial laying and
breeding stock during
the 10 - 14 week
period.

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7. Adenoviral Infections
Etiology:
 Type 1 adenovirus: Different strains produce specific conditions including
mild respiratory infections, inclusion body hepatitis and hydropericardium-
hepatitis syndrome (HHS) in chickens.
 Type 2 adenovirus: Hemorrhagic enteritis of turkeys.
 Type 3 adenovirus: Egg-drop syndrome in chickens.
Occurrence and Economic Significance:
 Egg drop syndrome in mature flocks occurs in Europe, Asia, Africa, and Latin
America. This infection has not been diagnosed in the USA and Canada.
Inclusion body hepatitis and mild adenoviral respiratory infection may occur
in all areas where commercial chickens are reared.
 Hydropericardium-Hepatitis syndrome is responsible for severe losses in
India (Lychee disease), Pakistan (Angara disease), and Latin America and is
emerging as a significant restraint to production in areas where intercurrent
problems of immunosuppression due to vvIBD and vvMD occur.
Transmission:
 All adenoviruses are potentially transmitted by the vertical route. Under
commercial conditions, direct transmission occurs from fecal shedders to
susceptible flocks.
 Indirect infection is possible on contaminated personnel, equipment and
housing. Vaccines produced using infected, non-SPF embryos have been
implicated in outbreaks of EDS and HHS in Asia. 26.4 Adenoviral
Respiratory Infection
Clinical Signs:
 Mild respiratory signs (moist rales) occur in a few birds in a flock following
infection. The condition is characterized by slow onset and spread within and
among flocks.
Pathology:
 Mild inflammation of the tracheal mucosa is observed following primary
infection.
Diagnosis:
 Isolation and identification of the causal agent using SPF eggs.
Prevention:
 No specific vaccine is available.
Inclusion:
 Body Hepatitis
Clinical Signs:
 Moderate (5 - 20%) morbidity and slightly elevated mortality occur in
broilers and replacement rearing and breeding flocks aged 2 - 6 weeks. In the
presence of intercurrent immunosuppressive viruses, morbidity and mortality
may exceed 10%. No specific clinical signs are demonstrated. Affected birds
are depressed, with ruffled plumage and are disinclined to move.
Lesions:
Instructor: Ramil B. Entana Jr. Contact Number: 09532866420
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 Enlargement of the liver, with mottling due to petechial hemorrhages under

the capsule interspersed with areas of necrosis. Nephrosis, characterized by
enlargement of the kidneys and urate retention may be observed in chronic
cases. The more severe HHS infection is characterized by hydropericardium
and focal hepatic necrosis.
Diagnosis:
 Histological examination of affected livers often shows intranuclear
inclusions. Adenovirus can be isolated from the respiratory and digestive
tracts by inoculating embryonated SPF eggs.
Prevention:
 All-in-all-out placement programs and appropriate biosecurity procedures are
recommended. No specific vaccine is available. Effective control of Marek‘s
disease and IBD together with early exposure of breeders to mild prevalent
adenoviral strains have contributed to a decline in the severity of adenoviral
inclusion body hepatitis in broiler flocks in the USA. Specific inactivated oil-
emulsion HHS vaccines are available for administration in endemic areas.
Egg Drop Syndrome:
Clinical Signs:
 Other than acute drop in egg production in mature flocks, no specific clinical
abnormalities can be detected following direct or indirect exposure to EDS
virus. Eggs produced by brown and tinted-shelled strains show lack of
pigment and shells have a ―chalky‖ appearance. Failure to attain peak
production may be associated with activation of latent infection or lateral
introduction of infection at onset of sexual maturity.
Lesions:
 Examination of sacrificed, clinically unaffected birds will show regression of
the ovary. Histological changes in the oviduct occur following infection.

Diagnosis:
 Isolation of the causal virus in duck eggs or on liver cell tissue culture.
Confirmation of a diagnosis is based on demonstrating a rise in antibody titer
in paired sera applying VN or ELISA procedures.
Instructor: Ramil B. Entana Jr. Contact Number: 09532866420
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Prevention:
 Vaccination of immature breeding and laying flocks with an inactivated oil-
emulsion vaccine is recommended before onset of production.
8. Runting Syndrome synonyms Malabsorption; Infectious Stunting Syndrome
Etiology:
 The specific causal agents responsible for Stunting Syndrome have not been
identified, although most poultry health professionals accept that specific
reovirus strains (including 1733) are responsible for the condition, possibly in
association with as yet unidentified viruses or anaerobic bacteria in the
intestinal tract. It is noted that the condition can be reproduced by infecting
specific-pathogen free chicks with intestinal homogenates from affected
birds. It is not possible to reproduce the typical stunting syndrome by
administering reovirus isolates from field cases, suggesting a multifactorial
etiology.
Occurrence and Economic Significance:
 The condition has been diagnosed in most broiler-raising areas and is
responsible for decreased growth rate and elevated mortality in broiler chicks
usually derived from young parent flocks. The severity and prevalence of the
condition generally abates within 1 to 2 years after initial appearance in an
area.
Transmission:
 The reovirus presumed to be responsible for the condition is transmitted by
the vertical route from infected hens to progeny in addition to lateral infection
among broiler chicks. It is known that reovirus infection can remain latent in
replacement pullets during the rearing stage with viremia appearing at the
onset of production and persisting for approximately 4 to 6 weeks thereafter.
Clinical:
 Signs Affected chicks show decreased growth rate which is evident by the 5th
to 7th day of brooding. Feather abnormalities are obvious in affected chicks
and include breakage of the shafts of the primary feathers of the wings and
persistence of yellow down on the head, through 30 days of age. Abnormal
wing feathering gives rise to the term ―helicopter disease‖ since the abnormal
feathers resemble rotor blades. By 4 weeks of age, affected chicks which may
comprise up to 25% of the flock may weigh only 250 g and are less than half
the size of normal pen mates. Examination of the orange-colored, loose
droppings from infected birds shows the presence of undigested grain
particles. A high proportion of affected birds show a disinclination to walk
due to a rickets-like syndrome characterized by osteopenia. In extreme cases
fracture of the proximal epiphysis of the femur occurs. Affected birds show
decreased pigmentation of the skin which is evident on the shanks and beak.
Pathology:

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 Stunting syndrome attributed to malabsorption is characterized by a wide

range abnormalities including:
• A rickets-like syndrome involving decreased skeletal density, beading of the ribs,
osteopenia resulting in fracture of the proximal epiphysis of the femur (incorrectly
termed ―femoral head necrosis‖).
• Pale colored skin and feather abnormalities. These changes which are observed
clinically are confirmed on post-mortem examination. Despite obvious
malabsorption, enteritis is not a primary lesion although affected birds may be
concurrently infected with coccidiosis or may undergo secondary bacterial
infection. Enlargement of the pancreas may be noted. There are no characteristic
gross or histological lesions associated with the stunting syndrome.
Diagnosis:
 A diagnosis of stunting syndrome is based on the history of young parent
flocks producing affected chicks and the appearance of up to 20% stunting in
a flock with typical clinical presentation in affected birds ranging in age from
7 to 35 days. A wide range of pathogens can be isolated from affected flocks.
Since the range of etiologic agents have not been identified, there is no
definitive laboratory diagnostic procedure.
Treatment:
 There is no specific treatment for stunting syndrome. Affected chicks can be
gathered from the flocks at approximately 10 days of age and placed in a
common pen where they can be provided with feed and water and protected
from competition from normal pen-mates. Stunted chicks will grow slowly,
and can be salvaged for live-bird sale or processing as lowweight birds.
Isolation of affected chicks may reduce the probability of lateral transmission
of virus. Evaluation of dietary formulations is advised to ensure nutritional
adequacy. The following components should be considered:
• levels of methionine and lysine should attain or exceed breed specifications
• selenium level should range from 0.1 to 0.3 ppm, with at least half of this dietary
contribution in the form of selenomethionine.
• vitamin E supplementation should conform to NRC levels for stressed flocks (20
IU/kg) All supplementary fats and animal byproducts should be stabilized with 300-
600 ppm ethoxyquin or an equivalent compound.
Prevention:
 It is recommended that parent-level pullets receive an attenuated reoviral
arthritis vaccine at 7 days followed by a multivalent live vaccine during the
14 to 30 day period consistent with the immunization program for the area.
Inactivated reoviral vaccines administered during the late rearing period
should contain antigenic components which are known to be protective
against the reovirus strains (1733) considered responsible for stunting-
malabsorption syndrome.
Instructor: Ramil B. Entana Jr. Contact Number: 09532866420
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Learning Activities for Pre-final Period

General Instruction: Please read each set of activity and answer it
honestly. Avoid copy pasting of answers or any form plagiarism.

Activity 1. Accomplish this!

Direction: Look at the table below and provide the information needed to complete
the table.
Disease Causal Prevention Control Treatment
Organism
1. Marek‘s
2. Newcastle
(NCD)
3. Salmonellosis-
Parathyroid
4. Salmonellosis-
Pullorom
Disease
5. Coryza

Activity 2. Explain it well!

Direction: Choose at 1 major disease from Immunosuppressive, Respiratory,
Multifactorial and Systematic Diseases, and elucidate why it is necessary to be
controlled, prevented and treated.

END OF PREFINAL
PREFINAL Exam: MAY 11 – 13, 2022

Note: All answers should be written in a short bond paper and hand written.
All questions must be answered out of your own cognition. Plagiarism is an
illegal act according to laws, therefore copy pasting of answers are prohibited
in any forms. Anyone who is caught doing so, will be penalized with demerit of
points.

Instructor: Ramil B. Entana Jr. Contact Number: 09532866420

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Pre-final Period: May 16, 2022 – June 04,

Module 5, Week 16-18 2022

5 Factors causing backlogs and losses in poultry production

Reference: Shane, S. 2005, Handbook on Poultry Diseases

Module Overview:
Module 5 is a continuation on disease control, prevention and treatmemt, with
emphasis on other diseases that causes backlogs on the poultry production.
Objectives / Desired Learning Outcomes
1. Evaluate different diseases infecting poultry animals.
2. Classify causes backlogs in poultry production.
3. Judge the different preventive, control and repelling methods against these
diseases.

Lesson 1: Enteric Disease

Kudos! You are almost at the finish line. In this part of the module we will
tackle about, other poultry diseases that causes backlogs to poultry production
all over the world. Get ready and let us dive in to the topic . . .

1. Coccidiosis
Etiology:
 Various Eimeria spp which parasitize specific portions of the intestinal tract
of chickens.
Occurrence and Economic Significance:
 Coccidiosis occurs world-wide and is a major cause of mortality and
suboptimal growth and feed conversion efficiency in immature flocks unless
appropriate preventive measures are implemented. The cost of anticoccidial
feed additives and treatment is estimated to exceed $400 million annually in
all poultry producing areas of the world.
Transmission:
 The sporulated oocyst is the infective stage of the life-cycle. Infected,
recovered chickens shed oocysts representing a problem in multi-age
operations. Oocysts can be transmitted mechanically on the clothing and
footwear of personnel, contaminated equipment, or in some cases, by wind
spreading poultry-house dust and litter over short distances. Factors
contributing to outbreaks of clinical coccidiosis include:-
• litter moisture content exceeding 30% due to ingress of rain or leaking waterers.
• immunosuppression (Marek‘s disease, IBD, mycotoxins)
• suboptimal inclusion of anticoccidials or incomplete distribution (poor mixing) in
feed.
• environmental and managemental stress such as overstocking, inoperative feeding
systems, inadequate ventilation.
Clinical Signs:

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 Coccidiosis is generally acute in onset and is characterized by depression,

ruffled plumage, and diarrhea. Birds infected with E. tenella show pallor of
the comb and wattles and blood-stained cecal droppings.
Lesions:
 E. acervulina and E. mivati: 1-2mm areas of hemorrhage interspersed with
white foci visible through the serosa of the distal duodenum and proximal
jejunum. E. necatrix: severe distention of the mid-jejunum with hemorrhages
in the mucosa and red-stained fluid in the lumen. E. maxima: distention of the
mid-jejunum with hemorrhages in the mucosa. E. tenella: hemorrhagic
typhlitis (inflammation of the cecum). E. brunetti: hemorrhages of the
mucosa of the distal jejunum and colon. Fibrinonecrotic enteritis may occur
in chronic cases.
Diagnosis:
 Gross lesions of E. tenella, E. necatrix and E. brunetti are diagnostic.
Microscopic examination of intestinal and cecal scrapings reveals oocysts. To
confirm a diagnosis in a commercial operation the following specimens
should be submitted to a laboratory:
• Intestine from a sacrificed, affected bird preserved in 5% potassium dichromate
for culture and identification of Eimeria sp
. • Intestine showing gross lesions in 10% formalin for histological examination.
• Representative feed samples for anticoccidial assay.
• Litter samples for oocyst counts. 28.7 Treatment Administration of amprolium
solution, 0.024% of the active ingredient in drinking water for 3 - 5 days.
Sulfonamides (sulfamethazines , 0.1% for 2 days, 0.05% for 4 days or commercial
combinations of sulfa drugs) in drinking water. Administration of water dispersable
vitamin A and K supplements may enhance recovery.
Prevention:
Management procedures which limit saturation of litter include:
• Appropriate installation and management of watering systems. Nipple drinkers
reduce spillage of water onto litter compared to bell and trough drinkers.
• Acceptable ventilation rate.
• Maintaining recommended stocking density.
• Providing adequate feeding space.
• Inclusion of anticoccidials in diets at recommended levels will prevent clinical
infection.
• Chemical and ionophoric anticoccidials for broilers in shuttle programs.
• Synthetic coccidiostats for breeders and floor-reared commercial eggproduction
flocks which allow the development of premunity.
 Anticoccidial vaccines are appropriate for replacement breeding stock and
roasters. This approach is cost-effective but requires experienced and diligent
management and monitoring especially if the vaccine is applied over feed.
 Intraocular administration by spray or the insertion of a gelatine cylinder
impregnated with oocysts in the chick delivery box contributes to an even
distribution of vaccine through the flock. Future control measures will
Instructor: Ramil B. Entana Jr. Contact Number: 09532866420
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include in ovo vaccination of broiler embryos with a highly purified oocyst

suspension (Inovocox®).
 Administration of a vaccine (Coxabic®) derived from gametocytes to
replacement pullets has been shown to confer immunity to progeny, obviating
the need for anticoccidials.

2. Clostridial Enterotoxemia
Etiology:
 Clostridium perfringens is the principal pathogen responsible for necrotic
enteritis (NE) although the condition is multi-factorial in origin and is usually
preceded by mild intestinal coccidiosis.
 Necrotic enteritis is often initiated by an alteration in the feeding program
(commencing skip-a-day feeding of replacement breeder pullets or accidental
starvation) environmental stress, overstocking, withdrawing anti-coccidial
growthstimulating feed additives, vaccination, movement or weighing of
flocks, or saturation of litter.
 Clostridium botulinum is responsible for botulism, an enterotoxemia resulting
in progressive paralysis.
Occurrence and Economic Significance:
 Both NE and botulism can occur world-wide, in areas where chickens are
reared on litter. Successive flocks in some regions show frequent or persistent
outbreaks possibly due to high levels of Clostridium spp in soil or the
presence of drug-resistant strains. The economic significance of clostridial
enterotoxemia varies, but erosive losses of up to 4% can occur in broiler and
immature breeder flocks due to direct mortality or concurrent infection with
systemic bacteria.
Transmission:
 Clostridium perfringens and C. botulinum are ubiquitous soil contaminants.
Pathogenic strains of C. perfringens may be introduced onto farms by
deficiencies in hygiene and biosecurity. Ingestion of the vegetative form of
the organisms invariably result in colonization of the intestinal tract.
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Clinical Signs:
 Mortality is acute with no specific prodromal or clinical signs. Chickens
affected with NE develop rigor (―stiffness‖) within 1 hour of death. Chickens
with botulism show ascending paresis and then paralysis extending craniad
from the legs, impairing locomotion. Terminally affected birds are in sternal
recumbency with flaccid necks, ruffled plumage and extension of the
nictitating membrane over the cornea.
Pathology:
 The mucosa of the intestine shows changes ranging from focal hyperemia
(redness) to mucosal ulceration. In extreme cases NE is characterized by
extensive pseudomembranous enteritis which resembles a coarse yellow
coating. Focal hepatic necrosis may be observed. There are no characteristic
lesions associated with botulism.
Diagnosis:
 Histological examination of affected mucosa will demonstrate the presence of
characteristic clostridial organisms applying Gram stain. Cl. perfringens can
be isolated and identified by a suitably equipped laboratory using anaerobic
culture. Botulinum toxin can be identified in the blood of severely affected
broilers by injecting 0.5 ml of serum into susceptible mice using the
intraperitoneal route. Toxin results in paralysis and death within 24 hours.
Treatment:
 Administration of flocks with water soluble zinc bacitracin, lincomycin ,
virginamycin or penicillin for 72 hours reduces morbidity and mortality.
Prevention:
 Addition of zinc bacitracin, lincomycin, or virginamycin to feed at levels
approved by local regulatory authorities will suppress the clinical occurrence
of clostridial infections. Botulism and NE can be prevented by the
management procedures recommended to prevent coccidiosis.

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3. Endoparasites
a. Capillariasis
 Infection of the crop (Capillaria contorta) and the intestine (Capillaria
obsignata) will result in severe emaciation and mortality in both immature
and producing flocks. In floor-housed breeders and commercial layers
reduction in egg production occurs.
 Ingluvitis (inflammation of the crop) is associated with C. contorta. Mucosal
thickening and focal enteritis occurs with C. obsignata. Parasitism can be
diagnosed by examination of mucosal scrapings and fecal flotation, which
reveal characteristic bi-operculated ova.
Treatment:
 Fenbendazole in feed or levamisole or ivermectin (where permitted) in
drinking water.
b. Ascaridiasis
 Ascaridia galli occurs in the jejunum and Heterakis gallinarum in the cecum.
Extensive A. galli infection may reduce egg production in floorhoused
breeders and commercial layers.
 Death may occur due to intestinal obstruction in birds which are
immunosuppressed or are affected by an intercurrent debilitating condition.
 Other nematodes which may be encountered in subsistence or small-scale
flocks include:
1) Oxyspirum mansoni – a 1.5 cm ( ) nematode beneath the nictitating
membrane of the eye. Syngamus trachea – a 2 cm ( ) nematode in the
trachea.
2) Tetrameres americana – a 3 mm ( ) spherical nematode beneath the
mucosa of the proventriculus.
3) Cheilospirura hamulosa – a 2.5 cm nematode beneath the mucosa (koilin
layer) of the ventriculus.
Treatment:
 Piperazine, levamisole, or ivermectin (where permitted) in drinking water
c. Cestodiasis
 Numerous cestode species may occur in the intestinal tract and can be
diagnosed at postmortem or by examination of feces.
 Cestodiasis results in emaciation in mature flocks, especially if severe
infestation is exacerbated by malnutrition or immunosuppression.
The most commonly diagnosed cestodes include:
Davainea proglottina - a 4 mm cestode located in the duodenum.
Choanotaenia infundibulum - a 25 cm cestode located in the distal duodenum
and jejunum.
Raillietina tetragona - a 25 cm cestode located in the distal jejunum.
Raillietina echinobothridia - a 30 cm cestode of the jejunum resulting in
nodular granulomas and catarrhal enteritis.
Treatment:
 Niclosamide in feed.
Instructor: Ramil B. Entana Jr. Contact Number: 09532866420
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Lesson 2. Locomotory Abnormalities

I. SKELETAL DEFORMITIES AND ARTHRITIS

A. Nutritional Etiology
• Calcium or phosphorus deficiency or an imbalance in these nutrients will result
in rickets in immature birds or osteomalacia in mature breeders and commercial
egg-production flocks.
• Vitamin D3 (cholecalciferol) deficiency results in rickets in immature flocks
housed in controlled environment units.
• Thiamine (vitamin B1) deficiency results in an abnormal gait progressing to
recumbency and paralysis with hyperextension of the neck.
• Riboflavin (vitamin B2) deficiency results in a deformity of the feet termed
―curled toe paralysis‖.

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• Pyridoxine (vitamin B6) deficiency results in abnormal gait and convulsions. This
condition can also occur following administration of toxic levels of nitrofurans to
immature flocks.
• Manganese deficiency results in chondrodystrophy. This occurs in growing
chicks due to decreased formation of bone below the growth plates of the tibiotarsus
and tarsometatarsus. Mildly affected chickens show stunting and enlargement of the
hock joint with reduction in the length of the leg bones. The lesion progresses to
severe deformation of the hock joint culminating in displacement of the
gastrocnemius
 (Achilles) tendon (perosis). Chondrodystrophy is characterized by a high
prevalence in the flock, bilateral involvement of the hock joints and reduction
in length of the long bones. Confirmation of the diagnosis requires analysis of
feed to determine manganese content. Dietary level should range from 80 to
120 ppm for optimal growth.
• Choline and pyridoxine deficiency may result in bilateral enlargement of hock
joints, sometimes with displacement of the gastrocnemius tendon.
• Chondrodystrophy should be differentiated from valgus-varus abnormality of
genetic origin.

B. Infectious Etiology
1. Mycoplasmosis
 Mycoplasma synoviae results in serous arthritis. The condition can be
diagnosed by serology (ELISA or plate agglutination test for flock screening,
and hemagglutination inhibition for confirmation) or identifying the organism
in synovial fluid by culture or by applying PCR technology.
 For information on diagnosis, treatment and control of M. synoviae, refer to
the mycoplasmosis section under respiratory diseases.
2. Reoviral Arthritis
 Specific serotypes (S1133 and WVU 2937) are responsible for arthritis and
tenosynovitis.
Occurrence and Economic Significance:
Instructor: Ramil B. Entana Jr. Contact Number: 09532866420
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 Viral arthritis occurs world-wide and is responsible for losses in both

commercial broilers and replacement breeding stock.
Transmission:
 Vertical transmission is the principal route of infection. Lateral spread from
infected carrier chick occurs, especially during the first 48 hours after hatch.
Under commercial conditions, indirect transmission is possible through
contaminated equipment and from improperly cleaned housing.
Clinical Signs:
 Affected birds aged approximately 30 days onwards show an increasing
prevalence of lameness characterized by unilateral or bilateral arthritis of the
hock and stifle joints. Up to 10% of the flock may be affected and lame birds
generally die from dehydration or persecution.
Pathology:
 Both serous arthritis and teno-synovitis are observed, especially involving the
hock and gastrocnemius tendon. The extent of the lesion progresses from
acute inflammation to chronic fibrosis. Rupture of the tendon occurs in severe
cases, and may be responsible for losses in hens at onset of sexual maturity.
Diagnosis:
 The causal organism can be isolated from synovial (joint and tendon) fluid.
 Histopathology of affected tissues shows lymphocytic infiltration and reticular
cell proliferation. Chronic cases show fibrosis of the tendon sheaths which can
be palpated in birds which have recovered from the infection. Retrospective
serological diagnosis is based on ELISA assay of serum from acute phase and
recovered flocks.
Prevention:
 Breeding stock and broilers should be obtained from parent flocks immunized
against reoviral arthritis.
 High levels of biosecurity including operation of all-in all-out placement
programs will prevent lateral transmission.
 Breeding flocks should be immunized at approximately 4-5 days of age with a
mild attenuated reoviral arthritis vaccine administered by the parental route.
This should be followed by a second dose of less-attenuated vaccine at
approximately 30 to 40 days of age. High levels of parental immunity for
breeders is stimulated by administration of an inactivated emulsion vaccine
prior to point of lay, and if required, at mid-cycle.
3. Staphylococcal Arthritis
Etiology:
 Staphylococcus aureus is a primary pathogen but often occurs as an
opportunist, following reoviral arthritis or mycoplasmosis.
Occurrence and Economic Significance:
 The condition occurs world-wide but is a problem in specific broiler breeder
flocks subject to immune suppression or previous exposure to reoviral
arthritis.
Transmission:
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 Introduction of S. aureus occurs through skin abrasions and lacerations and is

often a consequence of parenteral vaccination with contaminated needles or
contact with improperly cleaned equipment used for weighing.
Clinical Appearance:
 Increasing incidence of lameness occurs from 8 to 16 weeks and lossesmay
attain 20% of the flock. Affected birds are characterized by unilateral or
bilateral hock arthritis and occasionally pododermatitis. Affected birds
invariably die of dehydration and persecution.
Pathology:
Affected joints yield purulent, viscous yellow or green exudate.
Diagnosis:
 Diagnosis is based on isolation and identification of S. aureus. Concurrent
diagnostic procedure should include serology and culture to determine the
possibility of previous exposure to reovirus or M. synoviae.
Treatment:
 Parental administration of antibiotics to infected birds is only palliative, and is
not cost effective. Culling of crippled birds is recommended.
Prevention:
 Purchase of Ms-free stock and effective vaccination against reoviral arthritis
will reduce the occurrence S. aureus as a secondary infection.
 Immunosuppressive disease should be controlled by appropriate biosecurity
including isolation of flocks and vaccination of breeders.
 Acceptable biosecurity procedures including decontamination of houses and
equipment are recommended. Needles used to vaccinate flocks should be
sterilized before use and after administering vaccine to 50 consecutive birds,
to reduce the probability of direct inoculation with S. aureus.
4. Pododermatitis
Etiology:
 This condition which occurs in mature broiler breeders, is multi-factorial in
etiology. Predisposing factors include wet litter and obesity.
Occurrence and Economic Significance:
 Pododermatitis is responsible for lameness resulting in death and lowered
fertility in broiler breeder flocks, from 40 weeks of age onwards.
Clinical Appearance:
 Males are more frequently affected than females, presumably due to their
relatively higher weight. Pododermatitis is characterized by gross enlargement
of the foot pad. The initial lesion is a superficial erosion which progresses to
ulceration of the plantar skin with abscessation and chronic fibrosis of
underlying synovial structures.
Pathology:
 The lesion is characterized histologically by fibrosis.
Prevention:

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 Dry litter, free of ammonia reduces damage to foot pads. Implementing post-
peak feed restriction is necessary to restrict the weight of both males and
females within limits recommended by the supplier of breeding stock.
 The incidence of pododermatitis has decreased in the USA since the
introduction of separate male and female feeding systems for broiler breeders.
C. Alleviation of Locomotory Problems Through Nutrition
 Changes in dietary formulation will alleviate specific nutritional deficiencies
but will have no effect on genetic, environmental or infectious causes of
locomotory abnormalities. It is advisable to review formulations, quality
control of ingredients and feed in the event of acute episodes of locomotory
dysfunction involving a high proportion of a flock.
Areas requiring specific attention include:
• Calcium and phosphorus levels in the diet should be in accordance with breed
specifications. (Usually 1.0% calcium and 0.4% to 0.5% available phosphorus for
immature flocks.)
• Limestone should have less than 3% magnesium content.
• Vitamin premixes should contain acceptable levels of potent D3; biotin; and
riboflavin.
• Trace mineral premixes should contain adequate levels of zinc, manganese, iron.
• Essential amino acid content must conform to breed specifications.
• Ingredients should not contain mycotoxins at toxic levels.
• Water should conform to acceptable standards of purity and mineral content.
• Anticoccidial levels must conform to accepted inclusion rates. Ionophore toxicity
results in paresis and paralysis in chicks.

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D. Developmental Etiology
1. Twisted Legs
 Valgus (x-legged) and Varus (bow-legged) deformities occur in
rapidlygrowing broilers. The long bones (tibiotarsus and tarsometatarsus)
show obvious defects in 0.5% to 2% of broilers in otherwise normal flocks.
The condition can be detected at approximately 3 weeks of age and progresses
from angular deformation to displacement of the gastrocnemius (Achilles)
tendon.
 Valgus and varus deformities are genetic in origin but severity may be
influenced by intercurrent nutritional and managemental factors.
2. Rotated Tibia and Crooked Toes
 These changes are observed in turkeys and heavy broilers and are probably
genetic in origin. Generally they are not regarded as a significant cause of
losses.

Lesson 3: Integumentary Condition

1. Avian Pox
Etiology: An avipoxvirus.
 Occurrence and Economic Significance
 The disease occurs in most countries with warm and humid climates.
 Broilers are frequently affected by the diphtheritic form of the infection.
 Losses are associated with a depression in growth rate and downgrading due
to dermatitis although avian pox does not result in primary mortality.
 Infection of susceptible mature commercial-egg and breeder flocks results in a
decline in production.
Transmission:
 The virus is mosquito-borne. Direct intraflock transmission by contact
between infected and susceptible birds may occur.
 Clinical Signs:

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 Pink focal lesions occur on the comb and wattles and non-feathered portions
of the body. These foci enlarge to become 0.5 to 1.0 mm diameter, black scab-
like lesions, which persist for up to two weeks followed by desquamation and
healing.
 Broilers may show confluent and extensive lesions of the back especially in
the slow-feathering males of the autosexing strains. Mild respiratory rales
(sounds) may occur in broiler flocks especially with suboptimal ventilation
due to tracheitis.
Pathology:
 Histological examination shows characteristic intracytoplasmic inclusion
bodies in infected skin and tracheal mucosa.
 The diphtheritic form is recognized by the presence of nodular hyperplasia of
the mucosa of the pharynx and trachea. Chickens which die of diphtheritic
pox may show a plug of desquamated epithelium which lodge in the glottis
resulting in asphyxiation.
 Diagnosis:
 Cutaneous lesions are characteristic. Histological examination of affected
tissue will confirm the presence of intracytoplasmic inclusions (Bollinger
bodies) in the respiratory mucosa and skin.
Prevention:
 Immunization is recommended in endemic areas using a mild-attenuated
avipox, chicken-strain virus vaccine administered at approximately 8 weeks of
age. In areas where early exposure occurs, the age of vaccination can be
advanced. In some areas, broilers are routinely vaccinated against avian pox
by subcutaneous injection at day-old.
 The efficacy of this procedure is questionable based on demonstrated maternal
antibody interference. In areas where flocks are affected with vertically
transmitted mycoplasmosis, adverse vaccine reaction from avian pox vaccine
can be prevented by administration of a pigeon-pox vaccine.

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2. Ectoparasites
a. Mites
 Ornithonyssus spp remain on chickens permanently. Dermanyssus mites
parasitize chickens nocturnally. Heavy mite infestation is characterized by
anemia and the appearance of black mite exoskeleton casts and excreta and
dermatitis in the vicinity of the vent.
b. Argasid Ticks
 Soft-shelled ticks (Argas spp) occur in tropical areas and may affect
cagehoused laying flocks or birds maintained on litter. Argasid ticks are
nocturnal feeders and favor the soft unfeathered skin beneath the wings.
Parasitized birds show multiple hematomas associated with feeding sites.
Ticks transmit spirochetosis.
c. Scaly Leg Mites
 Chronic infestation of the legs of free-roaming chickens with Knemidocoptes
mutans results in proliferation of scales overlying the shanks and feet. The
gross appearance of the lesion is pathognomonic.
 The diagnosis may be confirmed by microscopic examination of detritus from
scales
d. Lice
 Lice are frequently encountered in subsistence flocks. Lice are responsible for
irritation and damage to feathers. Mature adults are evident on examination.
Egg clusters (―nits‖) are observed as spherical white structures adherent to the
shafts of feathers.
Treatment:
 Ectoparasites may be treated with a carbamate insecticide such as Sevin®,
applied as a 5% powder to birds at two week intervals. Cages and housing can
be treated with 2 - 7% carbamate suspension administered by spray.
 Only approved insecticides should be applied to poultry or used in the vicinity
of housing to avoid contamination of the food chain. Insecticides should be
used in accordance with manufacturers‘ label instructions.

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3. DERMATOMYCOSIS synonyms Favus or “Ringworm”

Etiology: Fungi including Trichophyton spp.
Occurrence and Economic Significance:
 The condition occurs infrequently in commercial flocks but occurs mainly in
subsistence chickens.
Transmission:
 The fungus is spread by direct contact or by contaminated cages or transport
coops.
Clinical Signs:
 Grey to white scaly lesions appear on the comb and wattles, spreading
progressively, especially in young birds. Feather loss may occur if lesions
extend to the neck and body of the bird.
Diagnosis:
 The causal fungus can be cultured from lesions using Sabourauds dextrose
agar. Histological examination of Gridley-stained tissue will show
characteristic hyphae.
Treatment:
 Application of a 2% quaternary ammonium disinfectant, 1% tincture of
iodine, or 5% formalin will eliminate the infection.
Prevention:
 Biosecurity precautions should be implemented to avoid introducing infected
birds to the flock. Transport crates and other equipment should be thoroughly
decontaminated and disinfected to prevent lateral transmission of the agent.

Lesson 4: Miscellaneous Conditions

A. MYCOTOXICOSES
 Mycotoxicosis, a widespread problem in the poultry industry is caused by
ingestion of toxins produced by molds which contaminate cereals and some
oilseeds before and subsequent to harvest.
 Mycotoxins are a diverse group of chemical compounds which adversely
affect liveability, growth rate, feed conversion, immune response, egg
Instructor: Ramil B. Entana Jr. Contact Number: 09532866420
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production, and carcass quality. The acute and chronic effects of mycotoxins
depend on the type of compounds present, level of contamination, and
duration of ingestion.
 Maize, wheat, rice, and peanut meal are most frequently implicated in cases of
mycotoxicosis.
 Immature chickens and ducklings are most susceptible to mycotoxins, but age,
intercurrent health and environmental stress also influence the response to
various toxins in feed.
 Aflatoxins, ochratoxins, trichothecenes, and rubratoxins may result in high
mortality if lethal levels of these compounds are present in feed. Low levels
produce economically significant reduction in growth rate and feed
conversion in broilers, and low egg production in breeders and commercial
egg flocks.
Specific mycotoxins may product characteristic lesions in affected flocks:
• Fusarium T-2 toxin is associated with stomatitis (ulceration of the lining of the
oral mucosa).
• Ochratoxin results in kidney degeneration.
• Chronic aflatoxicosis is responsible for cirrhosis of the liver and ascites.
 Generally, low-level mycotoxicoses are difficult to diagnose but should
always be considered in cases of a chronic decline in growth rate,
immunosuppression, suboptimal feed conversion, egg production or
hatchability.
 Nutrient content of grain is degraded when mold growth occurs on ingredients
even in the absence of mycotoxins. Maize with moisture levels over 13% may
be contaminated with mycotoxins including aflatoxin.
 Prevention is based on detection of contaminated ingredients and exclusion
from diets if this is practical or financially justified.
 Correct storage of ingredients prevents post-harvest proliferation of molds.
Feed additive inhibitors such as propionate and gentian violet will suppress

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proliferation of fungi and elaboration of toxins.

 Salvage of feed contaminated with aflatoxin is possible using high
temperature ammoniation or adding commercial aluminosilicates to diets.
Zeolite compounds and extracts from the cell wall of Saccharomyces
cerevisiae (Mycosorb®) specifically bind aflatoxin in the intestine, inhibiting
absorbtion.
 Zeolites have limited ability to inactivate other mycotoxins including the
fusariotoxins. Charcoal and clay additives are generally ineffective as
mycotoxins binders. Clay compounds may be contaminated with dioxins.

B. LEUCOCYTOZOONOSIS
Etiology:
 Protozoa of the genus Leucocytozoon. L. caulleryi occurs in chickens and L.
simondi in waterfowl in Asia.
Occurrence and Economic Significance:
 Leucocytozoonosis is frequently encountered in tropical countries especially
where farms are located near lakes or ponds. Affected flocks show depressed
growth rate and elevated mortality which may be influenced by immuno-
suppression and intercurrent primary viral and secondary bacterial infection.
Transmission:
 Leucocytozoon is transmitted by dipterids of the genera Simulium and
 Culicoides.
Clinical Signs:
 Flock morbidity may exceed 25% in broilers and replacement egg production
flocks. Batches of ducklings and goslings may show up to 35% mortality.
Clinical signs include depression and decreased feed intake.
 Muscular incoordination occurs in extremis. Introduction of infection into a
susceptible breeders or commercial egg-flocks may result in variable
reduction in egg production.

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Pathology:
 Affected birds show anemia, splenomegaly and hepatomegaly.
Diagnosis:
 Identification of the gametocytes which occur as extra-erythrocytic parasites
in stained bloodsmear preparations. Gametocytes are elongated structures with
prominent nuclei. Schizonts may be observed in preparations of kidney and
liver tissue processed with Romanowski stain.
Treatment:
 Pyrimethamine in combination with sulfadimethoxine.
Prevention:
 Control of insect vectors should be attempted using approved insecticides and
draining of standing water. Exclusion of insect vectors in open-sided houses is
impossible.
 Clopidol anticoccidial incorporated in feed at levels ranging from 125 to
 250 ppm has been used in the USA to prevent leucocytozoonosis in turkeys.
NOTE: In many countries, leucocytozoonosis is referred to incorrectly as ―malaria.‖
Malaria caused by Hemaproteus spp are not associated with clinical infections in
commercial chickens.

Instructor: Ramil B. Entana Jr. Contact Number: 09532866420

 107

Learning Activities for FINAL Period

General Instruction: Please read each set of activity and answer it
honestly. Avoid copy pasting of answers or any form plagiarism.

Activity 1. Tell us why?

Direction: Read each questions and answer it base on what you have learned with
the lessons.
1. Why it is important to consider endoparasites in poultry production, how does
it affect poultry production?
2. Is it necessary keep the surrounding of you poultry house/s cleaned and
sanitized?
3. How does, unhealthy surrounding affects poultry animals.
4. In what way pest, diseases and parasites affect the economic viability of
poultry animals?
Activity 2. Voice it out!
Direction: In 500 hundred words essay write the things you have learned about the
following;
1. Enteric Diseases
2. Locomotory Diseases
3. Integumentary abnormalities

END OF FINAL PERIOD

FINAL Exam: JUNE 15 – 17, 2022

Note: All answers should be written in a short bond paper and hand written.
All questions must be answered out of your own cognition. Plagiarism is an
illegal act according to laws, therefore copy pasting of answers are prohibited
in any forms. Anyone who is caught doing so, will be penalized with demerit of
points.

Instructor: Ramil B. Entana Jr. Contact Number: 09532866420

 108

Activity/Assignment Rubrics

CATEGORY 100% 75% 50% 25%

QUALITY OF All information Most information Most information Information had

INFORMATION presented was presented was presented was a several
clear, accurate clear, accurate clear and inaccuracies or
and through. and thorough accurate, but was usually not
was not usually clear
thorough

AMOUNT OF All topics are All topics are All topics are One or more
INFORMATION addressed and addressed and addressed and topics were not
all questions most questions most questions addressed
answered with at answered with at answered with 1
least 4 sentences least 3 sentences sentence about
about each about each each

UNDERSTANDING Student clearly

THE TOPIC understood the
Student clearly Student seemed Student did not
topic in-depth
understood the to understand show and
and presented
topic in-depth the main points adequate
their information
and presented of the topic and understanding of
forcefully and
their information presented those the topic
convincingly
with ease with ease

DIAGRAM & Diagrams and Diagrams and Diagrams and Diagrams and
ILLUSTRATIONS illustrations are illustration are illustration are illustrations are
neat, accurate accurate and neat and not accurate or
and add to the add to the accurate and do not add to the
reader/s reader’s sometimes add reader/s
understanding of understanding of to the reader/s understanding of
the topic the topic understanding the topic
of the topic

SOURCES All sources All sources All sources Some sources

(information and (information and (information and are not
graphics) are graphics) graphics) are accurately
accurately accurately accurately documented
documented in documented but documented, but
the desired a few are not in many are not in
format the desired the desired
format format

MECHANICS No grammatical Almost no A few Many

spelling or grammatical, grammatical grammatical,
punctuation spelling or spelling or spelling or
errors punctuation punctuation punctuation
errors error errors

Instructor: Ramil B. Entana Jr. Contact Number: 09532866420

 109

References: Shane, S. 2005, Handbook on Poultry Diseases

Prepared by

RAMIL B. ENTANA JR.

Instructor

Reviewed and Checked by:

MILAGROS L. RODRIGUEZ, Ph.D.

Dean – College of Agriculture

Attested by:

NANCY CHIONG - MAGBANUA, MSIT

Academic Dean

Verified by:

DR.EUFEMIO D. JAVIER JR.

School President

Instructor: Ramil B. Entana Jr. Contact Number: 09532866420

 110

SIBUGAY TECHNICAL INSTITUTE INCORPORATED

LOWER TAWAY, IPIL, ZAMBOANGA SIBUGAY
www.sibugaytech.edu.ph
Telefax:(062)222-2469, Mobile No: 0917-1217190

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MAJORS IN:
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MAJOR IN:
 HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT
BACHELOR SCIENCE IN CRIMINOLOGY (BS CRIM)

BACHELOR OF ARTS IN ENGLISH LANGUAGE STUDIES (BAELS)

BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN COMPUTER SCIENCE (BSCS)

BACHELOR SCIENCE IN INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY (BSIT)

BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN MIDWIFERY (BS MID)

BACHELOR OF TECHNICAL-VOCATIONAL TEACHERS EDUCATION

(BTVTED)

BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN SOCIAL WORK

BACHELOR OR ARTS IN MULTIMEDIA ARTS

Instructor: Ramil B. Entana Jr. Contact Number: 09532866420

 111

STII ASSESSMENT CENTER

OFFERS!!

AGRICULTURAL CROPS PRODUCTION NC II

ANIMAL PRODUCTION (POULTRY-CHICKEN) NC II
ANIMAL PRODCUTION (RUMINANTS) NC II
ANIMAL PRODUCTION (SWINE) NC II
BARTENDING NC II
BOOKKEEPING NC III
BREAD & PASTRY PRODUCTION NC II
CAREGIVING NC II
DRVING NC II
ELECTRONIC PRODUCTS ASSEMBLY SERVICING NC II
EVENTS MANANGEMENT SERVICES NC III
FOOD AND BEVERAGE SERVICES NC II
FRONT OFFICE SERVICES NC II
HEAVY EQUIPMENT OPERATOR (HYDRAULIC EXCAVATOR) NC II
HOUSEKEEPING NC II
MOTORCYCLE/SMALL ENGINE SERVICING NC II
ORGANIC AGRICULTURE NC II
PHARMACY SERVICES NC II
RUBBER PRODUCTION NC II
SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING NC I
SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDONG NC II
TRAERS METHODOLOGY COURSE

Instructor: Ramil B. Entana Jr. Contact Number: 09532866420

 112

Sibugay Technical Institute Inc.

Lower Taway, Ipil, ZSP
Complete
Junior High
School
Levels

SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL STRANDS

Accountancy and Business Management (ABM)

Agricultural Technology (AgriTech)

General Academic Strand (GAS)

Humanities and Social Sciences (HUMSS)

Industrial Arts (IA)

Information and Computer Technology

Home Economics (HE)

Science Technology Engineering and Mathematics (STEM)

Instructor: Ramil B. Entana Jr. Contact Number: 09532866420