Module - 2 ⃗ = 𝐶𝑥 𝑎̂𝑥 + 𝐶𝑦 𝑎̂𝑦 + 𝐶𝑧 𝑎̂𝑧

𝑪 According to Parallelogram Rule, the resultant vector ⃗⃗⃗

𝐶 is the diagonal vector of the
⃗⃗⃗ and −𝐵
parallelogram, formed by 𝐴 ⃗⃗⃗ .
VECTOR CONCEPTS
SCALAR (i) By Parallelogram Rule

A quantity that is characterised only by magnitude is called scalar. Scalar quantity cannot be According to Parallelogram Rule, the resultant vector ⃗⃗⃗
𝐶 is the diagonal vector of the
characterised by direction. ⃗⃗⃗ and 𝐵
parallelogram, formed by 𝐴 ⃗⃗⃗ .
Example: Mass, Temperature, Pressure

(ii) By Head To Tail Rule

VECTOR
If head of ⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗ , then resultant vector ⃗⃗⃗
𝐴 connected to tail of −𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗ to the head
𝐶 drown from tail of 𝐴
A quantity that is characterised by both magnitude and direction, is called vector. of −𝐵⃗⃗⃗ .
Example: Force, Velocity
(ii) By Head To Tail Rule
⃗ = 𝐴𝑥 𝑎̂𝑥 + 𝐴𝑦 𝑎̂𝑦 + 𝐴𝑧 𝑎̂𝑧
𝑨
If head of ⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗ , then resultant sum ⃗⃗⃗
𝐴 connected to tail of 𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗ to the head of
𝐶 drown from tail of 𝐴
⃗⃗⃗ .
𝐵
UNIT VECTOR
A vector which only specifies the direction, is called unit vector.
Magnitude of unit vector is Unity
POSITION VECTOR
⃗⃗⃗ is written as 𝑎̂𝐴
Unit vector along 𝐴
Position vector ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝑃 is used to refer the position of paint ‘P’ with respect to origin ‘O’.
𝑉𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝐴 𝐴𝑥 𝑎̂𝑥 + 𝐴𝑦 𝑎̂𝑦 + 𝐴𝑧 𝑎̂𝑧
𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑉𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = = A Position vector shows the directed distance from the origin to paint ‘P’.
𝑀𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 𝐴 𝑀𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐴

𝑀𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐴 = |𝐴| = √𝐴2𝑥 + 𝐴𝑦2 + 𝐴2𝑧 VECTOR SUBTRACTION

⃗⃗⃗ and 𝐵
Consider the two vectors i.e. 𝐴 ⃗⃗⃗ that are lying in the same plane Co-planar vector
𝐴𝑥 𝑎̂𝑥 + 𝐴𝑦 𝑎̂𝑦 + 𝐴𝑧 𝑎̂𝑧
𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑉𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = 𝑎̂𝐴 =
√𝐴𝑥2 + 𝐴𝑦2 + 𝐴𝑧2 ⃗⃗⃗ and ⃗⃗⃗
The vector subtraction of 𝐴 ⃗⃗⃗ , where
𝐵 is 𝐶
⃗⃗⃗
𝐶 =𝐴⃗⃗⃗ − 𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗ + (−𝐵
⃗⃗⃗ = 𝐴 ⃗⃗⃗ ) Direction of ⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗
𝐵 is opposite of −𝐵
VECTOR ADDITION ⃗ = 𝐴𝑥 𝑎̂𝑥 + 𝐴𝑦 𝑎̂𝑦 + 𝐴𝑧 𝑎̂𝑧
𝑨
⃗⃗⃗ and 𝐵
⃗⃗⃗ that are lying in the same plane Co-planar vector P(2,3,4) and O(0,0,0)
Consider the two vectors i.e. 𝐴 ⃗⃗ = 𝐵𝑥 𝑎̂𝑥 + 𝐵𝑦 𝑎̂𝑦 + 𝐵𝑧 𝑎̂𝑧
𝑩
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝑃 = (𝑃𝑥 − 𝑂𝑥 )𝑎̂𝑥 + (𝑃𝑦 − 𝑂𝑦 )𝑎̂𝑦 + (𝑃𝑧 − 𝑂𝑧 )𝑎̂𝑧 = (2 − 0)𝑎̂𝑥 + (3 − 0)𝑎̂𝑦 + (4 − 0)𝑎̂𝑧
The vector sum of ⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗ , where
⃗⃗⃗ is 𝐶
𝐴 and 𝐵
⃗ =𝐴
𝑪 ⃗⃗⃗ − 𝐵
⃗⃗⃗ = (𝐴𝑥 − 𝐵𝑥 )𝑎̂𝑥 + (𝐴𝑦 − 𝐵𝑦 )𝑎̂𝑦 + (𝐴𝑧 − 𝐵𝑧 )𝑎̂𝑧
= 2𝑎̂𝑥 + 3𝑎̂𝑦 + 4𝑎̂𝑧
⃗⃗⃗
𝐶 =𝐴⃗⃗⃗ + 𝐵
⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝐴
𝐶 ⃗⃗⃗ + 𝐵
⃗⃗⃗
⃗ = 𝐶𝑥 𝑎̂𝑥 + 𝐶𝑦 𝑎̂𝑦 + 𝐶𝑧 𝑎̂𝑧
𝑪
⃗ = 𝐴𝑥 𝑎̂𝑥 + 𝐴𝑦 𝑎̂𝑦 + 𝐴𝑧 𝑎̂𝑧
𝑨
DISTANCE VECTOR
⃗⃗ = 𝐵𝑥 𝑎̂𝑥 + 𝐵𝑦 𝑎̂𝑦 + 𝐵𝑧 𝑎̂𝑧
𝑩 (i) By Parallelogram Rule Distance vector shows the displacement from one print to another
⃗ =𝐴
𝑪 ⃗⃗⃗ + 𝐵
⃗⃗⃗ = (𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑥 )𝑎̂𝑥 + (𝐴𝑦 + 𝐵𝑦 )𝑎̂𝑦 + (𝐴𝑧 + 𝐵𝑧 )𝑎̂𝑧
Distance vector of a paint ‘P’ with respect to paint ‘Q’ is given as ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑃𝑄

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑂𝑄
𝑃𝑄 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ − ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝑃 = 𝐴𝑥 𝐵𝑥 𝑎̂𝑥 . 𝑎̂𝑥 + 𝐴𝑦 𝐵𝑦 𝑎̂𝑦 . 𝑎̂𝑦 + 𝐴𝑧 𝐵𝑧 𝑎̂𝑧 . 𝑎̂𝑧 + 𝐴𝑥 𝐵𝑦 𝑎̂𝑥 . 𝑎̂𝑦 + 𝐴𝑦 𝐵𝑧 𝑎̂𝑦 . 𝑎̂𝑧 + 𝐴𝑦 𝐵𝑥 𝑎̂𝑦 . 𝑎̂𝑥
+ 𝐴𝑦 𝐵𝑧 𝑎̂𝑦 . 𝑎̂𝑧 + 𝐴𝑧 𝐵𝑥 𝑎̂𝑧 . 𝑎̂𝑥 + 𝐴𝑧 𝐵𝑦 𝑎̂𝑧 . 𝑎̂𝑦
P (2, 3, 4) and Q (4, 5, 6)
We know that
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = (𝑃𝑥 − 𝑂𝑥 )𝑎̂𝑥 + (𝑃𝑦 − 𝑂𝑦 )𝑎̂𝑦 + (𝑃𝑧 − 𝑂𝑧 )𝑎̂𝑧 = (2 − 0)𝑎̂𝑥 + (3 − 0)𝑎̂𝑦 + (4 − 0)𝑎̂𝑧
𝑂𝑃
𝑎̂𝑥 . 𝑎̂𝑥 = 𝑎̂𝑦 . 𝑎̂𝑦 = 𝑎̂𝑧 . 𝑎̂𝑧 = 1 angle between xx, yy and zz is zero degree
= 2𝑎̂𝑥 + 3𝑎̂𝑦 + 4𝑎̂𝑧
𝑎̂𝑥 . 𝑎̂𝑦 = 𝑎̂𝑦 . 𝑎̂𝑧 = 𝑎̂𝑧 . 𝑎̂𝑥 = 0 angle between xy, yz and zx is 90 degree
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = (𝑄𝑥 − 𝑂𝑥 )𝑎̂𝑥 + (𝑄𝑦 − 𝑂𝑦 )𝑎̂𝑦 + (𝑄𝑧 − 𝑂𝑧 )𝑎̂𝑧 = (4 − 0)𝑎̂𝑥 + (5 − 0)𝑎̂𝑦 + (6 − 0)𝑎̂𝑧
𝑂𝑄
⃗⃗⃗ . 𝐵
𝐴 ⃗⃗⃗ = 𝐴𝑥 𝐵𝑥 + 𝐴𝑦 𝐵𝑦 + 𝐴𝑧 𝐵𝑧
= 4𝑎̂𝑥 + 5𝑎̂𝑦 + 6𝑎̂𝑧 ⃗⃗⃗ × 𝐵
𝐴 ⃗⃗⃗ |. |𝐵
⃗⃗⃗ = |𝐴 ⃗⃗⃗ |. sin 𝜃 𝑎̂𝑛
Depending upon the angle θ between two vetors, these are said to be
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑂𝑄
𝑃𝑄 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ − 𝑂𝑃
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = (4 − 2)𝑎̂𝑥 + (5 − 3)𝑎̂𝑦 + (6 − 4)𝑎̂𝑧 = 2𝑎̂𝑥 + 2𝑎̂𝑦 + 2𝑎̂𝑧 ⃗⃗ = 𝐴𝑥 𝑎̂𝑥 + 𝐴𝑦 𝑎̂𝑦 + 𝐴𝑧 𝑎̂𝑧
𝑨
(1) Parallel
⃗⃗ = 𝐵𝑥 𝑎̂𝑥 + 𝐵𝑦 𝑎̂𝑦 + 𝐵𝑧 𝑎̂𝑧
𝑩
(2) Perpendicular
𝑎̂𝑥 𝑎̂𝑦 𝑎̂𝑧
(3) Opposite 𝐴 𝐴𝑧 𝐴 𝐴𝑧 𝐴𝑥 𝐴𝑦
⃗⃗⃗ × 𝐵
𝐴 ⃗⃗⃗ = |𝐴𝑥 𝐴𝑦 𝐴𝑧 | = (𝑎̂𝑥 | 𝑦 | − 𝑎̂𝑦 | 𝑥 | + 𝑎̂𝑧 | |)
𝐵𝑦 𝐵𝑧 𝐵𝑥 𝐵𝑧 𝐵𝑥 𝐵𝑦
case 1) when θ = 0 degree 𝐵𝑥 𝐵𝑦 𝐵𝑧
⃗⃗⃗ . 𝐵
𝐴 ⃗⃗⃗ |. |𝐵
⃗⃗⃗ = |𝐴 ⃗⃗⃗ |. cos 𝜃 = 𝑎̂𝑥 (𝐴𝑦 𝐵𝑧 − 𝐴𝑧 𝐵𝑦 ) − 𝑎̂𝑦 (𝐴𝑥 𝐵𝑧 − 𝐴𝑧 𝐵𝑥 ) + 𝑎̂𝑧 (𝐴𝑥 𝐵𝑦 − 𝐴𝑦 𝐵𝑥 )
⃗⃗⃗ . 𝐵
𝐴 ⃗⃗⃗ |. |𝐵
⃗⃗⃗ = |𝐴 ⃗⃗⃗ | We know that

⃗⃗⃗ and 𝐵
𝐴 ⃗⃗⃗ are parallel 𝑎̂𝑥 × 𝑎̂𝑥 = 𝑎̂𝑦 × 𝑎̂𝑦 = 𝑎̂𝑧 × 𝑎̂𝑧 = 0 angle between xx, yy and zz is zero degree

case 2) when θ = 90 degree 𝑎̂𝑥 × 𝑎̂𝑦 = 𝑎̂𝑦 × 𝑎̂𝑧 = 𝑎̂𝑧 × 𝑎̂𝑥 = 1 angle between xy, yz and zx is 90 degree

⃗⃗⃗ . 𝐵
𝐴 ⃗⃗⃗ |. |𝐵
⃗⃗⃗ = |𝐴 ⃗⃗⃗ |. cos 𝜃 𝑎̂𝑦 × 𝑎̂𝑥 = 𝑎̂𝑧 × 𝑎̂𝑦 = 𝑎̂𝑥 × 𝑎̂𝑧 = −1 angle between xy, yz and zx is -90 degree

⃗⃗⃗ . 𝐵
𝐴 ⃗⃗⃗ = 0 Properties of Cross Product
SCALAR PRODUCT (DOT PRODUCT)
⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗ are perpendicular. (1) Commutative
Scalar product of two vectors is defined as the product of magnitude of ⃗⃗⃗
𝐴 and ⃗⃗⃗
𝐵 and cosine 𝐴 and 𝐵
of angle between them. case 3) when θ = 180 degree
(2) Distributive
⃗⃗⃗
𝐴 . ⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗ |. |𝐵
𝐵 = |𝐴 ⃗⃗⃗ |. cos 𝜃

⃗⃗⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗
𝐴 ⃗⃗⃗ |. |𝐵
𝐵 = −|𝐴 ⃗⃗⃗ |

⃗⃗⃗ and 𝐵
𝐴 ⃗⃗⃗ are antiparallel.
GRADIENT
The gradient is a Vector operation which operates on a scalar function to produce a vector.
VECTOR PRODUCT (CROSS PRODUCT) The symbol used to represent gradient is ∇ (nabla)
⃗⃗⃗ . 𝐵
𝐴 ⃗⃗⃗ |. |𝐵
⃗⃗⃗ = |𝐴 ⃗⃗⃗ |. cos 𝜃
Vector product of two vectors is defined as the product of magnitude of ⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗ and sine of
𝐴 and 𝐵 If 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) is a function, then gradient of 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) represented by ∇𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)
⃗ = 𝐴𝑥 𝑎̂𝑥 + 𝐴𝑦 𝑎̂𝑦 + 𝐴𝑧 𝑎̂𝑧
𝑨 angle between them with direction vector.
𝛿 𝛿 𝛿
𝛻 = 𝑖̂ + 𝑗̂ + 𝑘̂
⃗⃗ = 𝐵𝑥 𝑎̂𝑥 + 𝐵𝑦 𝑎̂𝑦 + 𝐵𝑧 𝑎̂𝑧
𝑩 𝛿𝑥 𝛿𝑦 𝛿𝑧
𝛿 𝛿 𝛿
⃗⃗⃗ . 𝐵
𝐴 ⃗⃗⃗ = (𝐴𝑥 𝑎̂𝑥 + 𝐴𝑦 𝑎̂𝑦 + 𝐴𝑧 𝑎̂𝑧 ). (𝐵𝑥 𝑎̂𝑥 + 𝐵𝑦 𝑎̂𝑦 + 𝐵𝑧 𝑎̂𝑧 ) 𝛻𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = 𝑓 𝑖̂ + 𝑓 𝑗̂ + 𝑓 𝑘̂
𝛿𝑥 𝛿𝑦 𝛿𝑧
 𝛿 𝛿 𝛿 𝛿 𝛿 𝛿
∇ × 𝐹 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = ( 𝐹𝑧 − 𝐹𝑦 ) 𝑖̂ − ( 𝐹𝑧 − 𝐹𝑥 ) 𝑗̂ + ( 𝐹𝑦 − 𝐹 ) 𝑘̂
𝛿𝑦 𝛿𝑧 𝛿𝑥 𝛿𝑧 𝛿𝑥 𝛿𝑦 𝑥
Example: (ⅱ) Consider an open circuited loop.
2
𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = 𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝑧 find ∇𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) EMF coil get induced between the terminals.
STOKE'S THEOREM
Solution:
Stoke’s Theorem states that the surface integral of curl of a function over a closed surface is
We have equal to the line integral of that function around that surface.
𝛿 𝛿 𝛿
𝛻𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = 𝑓 𝑖̂ + 𝑓 𝑗̂ + 𝑓 𝑘̂ ⃗⃗⃗ = ∮ (∇ × 𝐴) . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
∮ 𝐴 . 𝑑𝑙 𝑑𝑆
𝛿𝑥 𝛿𝑦 𝛿𝑧
𝐿 𝑆
𝛿 𝛿 𝛿 (iii) Assume that the loop of conductor is stationary and magnetic flux varies with time.
= (𝑥 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧) 𝑖̂ + (𝑥 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧) 𝑗̂ + (𝑥 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧) 𝑘̂ Application of Stores Theorem
𝛿𝑥 𝛿𝑦 𝛿𝑧
(1) It provides relationship between line and surface integral 𝑒𝑚𝑓 = − ∮𝑆
𝛿
⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐵 𝑑𝑆 (2)
𝛻𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = 1 𝑖̂ + 2𝑦 𝑗̂ + 1 𝑘̂ 𝛿𝑡
(2) It is used to evaluate curl of vector function
(iv) This emf induced is equals to line integral of electric field around the loop of conductor.
(3) It is used in physics under electromagnetism.
DIVERGENCE ⃗⃗⃗
𝑒𝑚𝑓 = − ∮𝐿 𝐸⃗ . 𝑑𝑙 (3)

Divergence of vector field gives a scalar. From equation (2) and (3). We have
DIVERGENCE THEOREM
Divergence is generally denoted as ‘Div’ or ′∇. ′ ∮𝐿 𝐸⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗
𝛿
⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑙 = − ∮𝑆 𝛿𝑡 𝐵 𝑑𝑆 (4)
Divergence Theorem states that the surface integral of the vector function (𝐴) over a closed
Divergence of a vector field can be calculated by taking the scalar product (dot product) of ∇ This is integral form of Faraday’s law.
surface is equal to the volume integral of divergence of vector function (𝐴) taken over a volume
and vector function (𝐹 )
V. Apply stokes theorem in equation (4). We get
𝛿 𝛿 𝛿
𝛻 = 𝑖̂ + 𝑗̂ + 𝑘̂ ⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ∮ (∇. 𝐴) . ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
∮ 𝐴 . 𝑑𝑆 𝑑𝑉
𝛿𝑥 𝛿𝑦 𝛿𝑧 ⃗⃗⃗ = ∮ (∇ × 𝐸⃗ ) . 𝑑𝑆
∮ 𝐸⃗ . 𝑑𝑙 ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑆 𝑉
𝐿 𝑆
𝐹 = 𝐹𝑥 𝑖̂ + 𝐹𝑦 𝑗̂ + 𝐹𝑧 𝑘̂ Applications From equation (4). We get
𝛿 𝛿 𝛿
Then 𝛻. 𝐹 = 𝛿𝑥 𝐹𝑥 𝑖̂ + 𝛿𝑦 𝐹𝑦 𝑗̂ + 𝛿𝑧 𝐹𝑧 𝑘̂ (1) It provides relationship between surface integral and volume integral 𝛿
⃗⃗⃗⃗ = − ∮
∮ (∇ × 𝐸⃗ ) . 𝑑𝑆 ⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗ . 𝑑𝑆
𝐵
(2) It evaluates divergence of vector function. 𝑆 𝑆 𝛿𝑡
This is a scalar quantity.
(3) It is used in physics under electromagnetism. After removing surface integral from both side.
𝛿
CURL (∇ × 𝐸⃗ ) = − ⃗
𝐵
𝛿𝑡
FARADAY'S LAW
Curl of a vector function gives a vector. This is differential form of Faraday’s law.
Faraday's law states that, "the electromotive force induced in a closed path is equal to the
Curl of a Vector field is obtained by taking a vector product of the vector operator (∇) and the
negative of time rate of change of the magnetic flux enclosed by the path".
vector function 𝐹 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = 𝐹𝑥 𝑖̂ + 𝐹𝑦 𝑗̂ + 𝐹𝑧 𝑘̂.
𝑑𝜙 AMPERE'S CIRCUITAL LAW
𝑒𝑚𝑓 = −𝑁 𝑑𝑡 (1)
Curl 𝐹 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) or ∇ × 𝐹 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)
Ampere Circuital Law states that the line integral of the magnetic field H around a closed path
where, is the net current enclosed by this path.
𝑖̂ 𝑗̂ 𝑘̂
𝛿 𝛿 𝛿 𝛿 𝛿 𝛿
𝛿 𝛿 𝛿| 𝑑𝜙
is time rate of change of magnetic flux. ⃗⃗⃗ = 𝐼𝑒𝑛𝑐
∇ × 𝐹 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = || | = (𝑖̂ |𝛿𝑦 𝛿𝑧| − 𝑗̂ |𝛿𝑥 𝛿𝑧| + 𝑘̂ |𝛿𝑥 𝛿𝑦|) 𝑑𝑡
⃗ . 𝑑𝑙
∮𝐿 𝐻 (1)
𝛿𝑥 𝛿𝑦 𝛿𝑧 𝐹𝑦 𝐹𝑧 𝐹𝑥 𝐹𝑧 𝐹𝑥 𝐹𝑦
𝐹𝑥 𝐹𝑦 𝐹𝑧 N is number of twens of coil. We know
-ve sign is due to lenz law.

𝐼𝑒𝑛𝑐 = ∮𝑆 𝐽 . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑆 (2) 𝛿
⃗⃗⃗ = − ∮
𝛿
⃗⃗⃗⃗ This is Maxwell’s first equation in integral form.
∇ × 𝐸⃗ = − ⃗
𝐵 ∮ 𝐸⃗ . 𝑑𝑙 ⃗ . 𝑑𝑆
𝐵
𝛿𝑡 𝛿𝑡
From equation (1) and (2). We have
𝐿 𝑆 Applying divergence theorem, we get
(3) Maxwell 4th Equation
⃗⃗⃗ = ∮ 𝐽 . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗ . 𝑑𝑙 ∮𝑉(∇. 𝐷 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ∮ 𝜌 . 𝑑𝑉
⃗ ) . 𝑑𝑉 (8)
∮𝐿 𝐻 𝑑𝑆 (3) 𝑉
𝑆 𝛿 𝛿
⃗ =𝐽+ 𝐷
∇×𝐻 ⃗ ∮𝐻⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑙 = 𝐽 + ∮ 𝐷 ⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗ . 𝑑𝑆 After removing volume integral from both side.
Apply stokes theorem in equation (3). We get 𝛿𝑡 𝐿 𝑆 𝛿𝑡

Where ⃗ =𝜌
∇. 𝐷
⃗⃗⃗ = ∮ (∇ × 𝐻
⃗ . 𝑑𝑙
∮𝐻 ⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗ ) . 𝑑𝑆
𝐿 𝑆
𝐷⃗ = Displacement density This is Maxwell’s first equation in differential form. (Point)
⃗ ) . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
∮ (∇ × 𝐻 𝑑𝑆 = ∮ 𝐽 . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑆 𝜌 = Volume charge density
𝑆 𝑆 𝐵⃗ = Magnetic flux density
MAXWELL 'S SECOND EQUATION
After removing surface integral from both side. 𝐸⃗ = Electric field.
𝐻⃗ = magnetic field intensity According to Maxwell second equation, the divergence of magnetic flux density is equal to
⃗ =𝐽
∇×𝐻 volume charge density.
𝐽 = Current density.
𝛿
⃗ = displacement current.
𝐷 ⃗ =0
∇. 𝐵
𝛿𝑡
GAUSS LAW OF MAGNETOSTATIC This equation is based Gauss's law of magnetostatics.
According to the Gauss Law, the net magnetic flux associated with the closed surface is always MAXWELL'S FIRST EQUATION According to Gauss Law,
equal to zero.
According to Maxwell's first equation, the volume charge density is equal to the divergence of
displacement density. 𝜙𝐵 = ∮ 𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 0
⃗ . 𝑑𝑆
𝑆
⃗ =𝜌
∇. 𝐷 (1) This is Maxwell's 2nd equation in integral form.
This can is based Gauss law of electrostatics The net magnetic flux through a closed surface is always equals to zero.
According to Gauss low, electric field passing through the closed surface is proportional to net Applying Divergence theorem,
charge enclosed by that surface.
𝜙𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝜙𝑜𝑢𝑡 − 𝜙𝑖𝑛 = 0 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗𝐵 ) . 𝑑𝑉
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 0
⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑞 ∮ (∇.
∮𝑆 𝐸⃗ . 𝑑𝑆 𝜀
(2) 𝑉
𝜙𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝜙𝑖𝑛 𝑜

Where After removing volume integral from both side.

⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 0
⃗ . 𝑑𝑆
𝜙𝐵 = ∮ 𝐵
𝑆 𝑞 = charge ⃗ =0
∇. 𝐵

𝜀𝑜 = permitivity of free space This is Maxwell’s 2nd equation in differential form.

INTRODUCTION TO MAXWELL EQUATIONS ⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑞
∮𝑆 𝜀𝑜 𝐸⃗ . 𝑑𝑆 (3)
(1) Maxwell 1st Equation MAXWELL 'S THIRD EQUATION
𝑞 = ∮𝑉 𝜌 . 𝑑𝑉 (4)
⃗ =𝜌
∇. 𝐷 ⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ∮ 𝜌 . 𝑑𝑉
⃗ . 𝑑𝑆
∮𝐷 It is based on Faraday's law of Electromagnetic Induction
From equation (3) and (4). We get
𝑆 𝑉 𝑑
𝑒𝑚𝑓 = − 𝑑𝑡 𝜙𝐵 (1)
(2) Maxwell 2nd Equation ⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ∮ 𝜌 . 𝑑𝑉
∮𝑆 𝜀𝑜 𝐸⃗ . 𝑑𝑆 (5)
𝑉
Induced emf is always depends upon negative of time rate of change of magnetic flux.
⃗ =0 ⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 0
⃗ . 𝑑𝑆 ⃗ = 𝜀𝑜 𝐸⃗
𝐷 (6)
∇. 𝐵 ∮𝐵
𝑆 𝑒𝑚𝑓 = ∮𝐿 𝐸⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑙 (2)
From equation (5) and (6). We get
(3) Maxwell 3rd Equation On equating equation (1) and (2)
⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
∮𝑆 𝐷 𝑑𝑆 = ∮𝑉 𝜌 . 𝑑𝑉 (7)
 𝑑
⃗⃗⃗ = − 𝜙𝐵
∮𝐿 𝐸⃗ . 𝑑𝑙 (3) ⃗⃗⃗⃗ − ∮ 𝐽 . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗ ) . 𝑑𝑆
𝑑𝑡 ∮ (∇ × 𝐻 𝑑𝑆 = 0 Medium 1
𝑆 𝑆 ← Interface
⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
ϕB = ∮𝑆 𝐵 𝑑𝑆 (4) Medium 2
⃗ ) − 𝐽] . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
∮ [(∇ × 𝐻 𝑑𝑆 = 0
From equation (3) and (4) 𝑆 Requirement : If we have to calculate the electric field in a region consisting of two different
𝑑 After removing surface integral from both side. medium, then we must require the boundary condition on the surface (interface) of these two
⃗⃗⃗ = − ∮ 𝐵
∮𝐿 𝐸⃗ . 𝑑𝑙 ⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗ . 𝑑𝑆 (5)
𝑑𝑡 𝑆 medium.
⃗ )−𝐽 =0
(∇ × 𝐻
𝑑
∮𝐿 𝐸⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗ ⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑙 = − ∮𝑆 𝑑𝑡 𝐵 𝑑𝑆 (6)
⃗ =𝐽
∇×𝐻 (6)
This is Maxwell's 3rd equation in integral form. (1) Tangential component of electric field
Maxwell check its validity by equation of continuity.
Applying stoke’s theorem, we get Medium 1
𝛿
𝑑 ∇. 𝐽 = 𝜌 (7) 𝐸𝑡1 𝜀𝑟1
⃗⃗⃗⃗ = − ∮ 𝐵
∮𝑆(∇ × 𝐸⃗ ) . 𝑑𝑆 ⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗ . 𝑑𝑆 (8) 𝛿𝑡
𝑆 𝑑𝑡 ← Interface
Taking divergence of equation (6). We get Medium 2
After removing surface integral from both side.
⃗ ) = ∇. 𝐽
∇. (∇ × 𝐻 (8) 𝐸𝑡2 𝜀𝑟2
𝑑
∇ × 𝐸⃗ = − ⃗
𝐵
𝑑𝑡 By vector identity,
This is Maxwell’s 3rd equation in differential form. As per Maxwell’s 2nd equation
⃗)=0
𝐷𝑖𝑣 (𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙 𝐻
⃗⃗⃗ = 0
∮𝐿 𝐸⃗ . 𝑑𝑙 (1)
From equation (8). We get
MAXWELL'S FOURTH EQUATION 𝑏 𝑐 𝑑 𝑎
∇. 𝐽 = 0 (9) ∫ 𝐸⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗ + ∫ 𝐸⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑙 + ∫ 𝐸⃗ . 𝑑𝑙 𝑑𝑙 + ∫ 𝐸⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑙 = 0
It is based on Ampere Circuital Law. 𝑎 𝑏 𝑐 𝑑
Comparing equation (7) and (9).
⃗⃗⃗ = 𝜇𝑜 𝐼
⃗ . 𝑑𝑙 (1) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐸 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑏 . 𝑙𝑎𝑏 + 𝐸𝑏𝑐 . 𝑙𝑏𝑐 + 𝐸𝑐𝑑 . 𝑙𝑐𝑑 + 𝐸𝑑𝑎 . 𝑙𝑑𝑎 = 0
∮𝐿 𝐵 Modifying equation (6) is
Where 𝐸𝑡1 . ∆𝑥 + 0 + (−𝐸𝑡2 ). ∆𝑥 + 0 = 0
⃗ = 𝐽 + ⃗⃗⃗
∇×𝐻 𝐽𝑑 (10)
𝜇𝑜 = permeablity of free medium 𝐸𝑡1 . ∆𝑥 − 𝐸𝑡2 . ∆𝑥 = 0
Where
Line integral of magnetic field density along a imaginary closed path is equal to product of 𝐸𝑡1 = 𝐸𝑡2 (2)
𝛿
⃗⃗⃗
𝐽𝑑 = ⃗ = displacement current density
𝐷
current enclosed by that path and permeability of medium. 𝛿𝑡 The electric field is continuous in tangential component.
⃗ = 𝜇𝑜 𝐻
𝐵 ⃗ ⃗ =𝐽+ 𝛿 𝐷
∇×𝐻 ⃗ (10) We know that
𝛿𝑡

⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗ 1
∮𝐿 𝐻 𝑑𝑙 = 𝐼 (2) This is Maxwell’s 4th equation in differential form. ⃗ = 𝜀𝑜 𝜀𝑟 𝐸⃗
𝐷 𝐸⃗ = ⃗
𝐷 (3)
𝜀𝑜 𝜀𝑟

⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐼 = ∮𝑆 𝐽 . 𝑑𝑆 (3) Putting the value of equation (3) in equation (2). We get

From equation (2) and (3). We get 𝐷𝑡1 𝐷𝑡2 𝐷𝑡1 𝜀𝑟1
= =
BOUNDARY CONDITIONS AT MEDIA INTERFACE 𝜀𝑟1 𝜀𝑟2 𝐷𝑡2 𝜀𝑟2
∮𝐿 𝐻 ⃗⃗⃗ = ∮ 𝐽 . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗ . 𝑑𝑙 𝑑𝑆 (4)
𝑆
DEFINE : (1) The conditions that the field must satisfy at the interface seperating the
This is Maxwell's 4th equation in integral form.
medium are called boundary conditions. (2) Normal component of electric field
Applying stoke’s theorem, we get
(2) The boundary conditions are helpful in determining the field on one side of
⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ∮ 𝐽 . 𝑑𝑆
⃗ ) . 𝑑𝑆 ⃗⃗⃗⃗ Medium 1
∮𝑆(∇ × 𝐻 (5) the boundary if the field on other side is known. ← Interface
𝑆 𝐸𝑡1 𝜀𝑟1

Module - 3 𝜀𝑜 = Permeability of free space.

Medium 2 UNIFORM PLANE WAVE

𝐸𝑡2 𝜀𝑟2 From equation (1)
1) PLANE WAVE
If the phase of a wave is same for all the points on a plane surface, then it is called plane waves. 𝛿 2 𝐸⃗
∇2 𝐸⃗ = 𝜇𝑜 𝜀𝑜
𝛿𝑡 2
2) UNIFORM PLANE WAVE (Amplitude & Phase)
Electric field density with respect to Gaussian surface is 𝛿2 𝛿2 𝛿2
If the phase of a wave is same for all the points on a plane surface having the constant amplitude ∇2 = + +
𝛿𝑥 2 𝛿𝑦 2 𝛿𝑧 2
According to Maxwell’s 1st equation is called uniform plane wave.
𝐸⃗ = 𝐸𝑥 𝑎̂𝑥 + 𝐸𝑦 𝑎̂𝑦 + 𝐸𝑧 𝑎̂𝑧
⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
∮𝑆 𝐷 𝑑𝑆 = 𝑄 (1) Properties of Uniform Plane Wave
⃗ and 𝑯
⃗⃗⃗ are perpendicular to each other and also to direction of Applying the value of ∇2 and 𝐸⃗ in equation (1). We get
1) At every point in space, 𝑬
∫ 𝐷 ⃗⃗⃗⃗ + ∫
⃗ . 𝑑𝑆 𝐷 ⃗⃗⃗⃗ + ∫
⃗ . 𝑑𝑆 ⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐷 𝑑𝑆 + ∫ ⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐷 𝑑𝑆 + ∫ 𝐷 ⃗⃗⃗⃗ + ∫
⃗ . 𝑑𝑆 ⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑄
⃗ . 𝑑𝑆
𝐷
𝑡𝑜𝑝 𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑡 𝑏𝑎𝑐𝑘 𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑡
propagation. TEM waves 𝛿 2
𝛿 2
𝛿 2
𝛿2
( + + ) (𝐸𝑥 𝑎̂𝑥 + 𝐸𝑦 𝑎̂𝑦 + 𝐸𝑧 𝑎̂𝑧 ) = 𝜇𝑜 𝜀𝑜 2 (𝐸𝑥 𝑎̂𝑥 + 𝐸𝑦 𝑎̂𝑦 + 𝐸𝑧 𝑎̂𝑧 )
𝛿𝑥 2 𝛿𝑦 2 𝛿𝑧 2 𝛿𝑡
𝐷𝑛1 (∆𝑥 ∆𝑦) − 𝐷𝑛2 (∆𝑥 ∆𝑦) + 0 + 0 + 0 + 0 = 𝑄 2) Both ⃗𝑬
⃗ and 𝑯
⃗⃗⃗ have same direction, magnitude and phase at every point in any plane.

3) If uniform plane wave propagation in z- direction, electric field and magnetic field do not Wave is propagating in z-direction
(𝐷𝑛1 − 𝐷𝑛2 ). (∆𝑥 ∆𝑦) = 𝑄
have Z component. 𝛿 𝛿
𝑄 𝐸𝑧 = 0 =0 =0
(𝐷𝑛1 − 𝐷𝑛2 ) = 𝛿 𝛿 𝛿𝑥 𝛿𝑦
(∆𝑥 ∆𝑦) = =0
𝛿𝑥 𝛿𝑦 𝛿2 𝛿2
𝑄 (0 + 0 + 2 ) (𝐸𝑥 𝑎̂𝑥 + 𝐸𝑦 𝑎̂𝑦 + 0 𝑎̂𝑧 ) = 𝜇𝑜 𝜀𝑜 2 (𝐸𝑥 𝑎̂𝑥 + 𝐸𝑦 𝑎̂𝑦 + 0 𝑎̂𝑧 )
𝐷𝑛1 − 𝐷𝑛2 = =𝜌 𝛿𝑧 𝛿𝑡
∆𝑥 ∆𝑦
𝐷𝑛1 − 𝐷𝑛2 = 𝜌 UNIFORM PLANE WAVE PROPAGATION 𝛿2 𝛿2
( ) (𝐸𝑥 𝑎̂𝑥 + 𝐸𝑦 𝑎̂𝑦 ) = 𝜇𝑜 𝜀𝑜 2 (𝐸𝑥 𝑎̂𝑥 + 𝐸𝑦 𝑎̂𝑦 )
𝛿𝑧 2 𝛿𝑡
The electric field is discontinuous for normal component. Let uniform plane wave propagating in z- direction,
(i) z- component will be absent. 𝛿2 𝛿2 𝛿2 𝛿2
𝐸 𝑎̂ + 𝐸 𝑎̂ = 𝜇𝑜 𝜀𝑜 [ 2 𝐸𝑥 𝑎̂𝑥 + 2 𝐸𝑦 𝑎̂𝑦 ]
𝛿𝑧 2 𝑥 𝑥 𝛿𝑧 2 𝑦 𝑦 𝛿𝑡 𝛿𝑡
𝐸𝑧 = 𝐻𝑧 = 0
Now, comparing above equation from LHS to RHS. We get
⃗ and 𝑯
(ⅱ) 𝑬 ⃗⃗⃗ are indedependant of x and y
𝛿2 𝛿2
𝐸𝑥 = 𝜇𝑜 𝜀𝑜 𝐸𝑥 (3)
𝛿 𝛿 𝛿 𝛿 𝛿𝑧 2 𝛿𝑡 2
⃗𝑬
⃗ = ⃗𝑬
⃗ = ⃗𝑯
⃗⃗ = ⃗𝑯
⃗⃗ = 0
𝛿𝑥 𝛿𝑦 𝛿𝑥 𝛿𝑦 𝛿2 𝛿2
𝛿𝑧 2
𝐸𝑦 = 𝜇𝑜 𝜀𝑜 𝛿𝑡 2 𝐸𝑦 (4)
The general wave equation for free space is
𝛿 2 𝐸⃗
∇2 𝐸⃗ = 𝜇𝑜 𝜀𝑜 (1) From equation (2)
𝛿𝑡 2

𝛿2𝐻
⃗
⃗
⃗ = 𝜇𝑜 𝜀𝑜
∇2 𝐻 (2) 𝛿 2𝐻
𝛿𝑡 2 ⃗ = 𝜇𝑜 𝜀𝑜
∇2 𝐻
𝛿𝑡 2
Where,
2
𝛿2 𝛿2 𝛿2
∇ = 2+ 2+ 2
𝐸⃗ = 𝛿𝑥 𝛿𝑦 𝛿𝑧
⃗ =
𝐻 ⃗ = 𝐻𝑥 𝑎̂𝑥 + 𝐻𝑦 𝑎̂𝑦 + 𝐻𝑧 𝑎̂𝑧
𝐻
𝜇𝑜 = Permitivity of free space. ⃗ in equation (1). We get
Applying the value of ∇2 and 𝐻
 𝛿2 𝛿2 𝛿2 𝛿2 c) Circular polarization 𝐸𝑥 = 𝐴 cos 𝜔𝑡 𝐸𝑦 = −𝐵 sin 𝜔𝑡
( 2 + 2 + 2 ) (𝐻𝑥 𝑎̂𝑥 + 𝐻𝑦 𝑎̂𝑦 + 𝐻𝑧 𝑎̂𝑧 ) = 𝜇𝑜 𝜀𝑜 2 (𝐻𝑥 𝑎̂𝑥 + 𝐻𝑦 𝑎̂𝑦 + 𝐻𝑧 𝑎̂𝑧 )
𝛿𝑥 𝛿𝑦 𝛿𝑧 𝛿𝑡 𝐸𝑥
𝐴
= cos 𝜔𝑡 (3)
Wave is propagating in z-direction (1) LINEAR POLARIZATION 𝐸𝑦
𝛿 𝛿 𝐵
= − sin 𝜔𝑡 (4)
𝐻𝑧 = 0 =0 =0 Consider a uniform plane wave is travelling in z-direction.
𝛿𝑥 𝛿𝑦 After squaring and adding equation (3) and (4). We get
𝛿2 𝛿2 𝐸𝑥 2 𝐸𝑦 2
(0 + 0 + ) (𝐻𝑥 𝑎̂𝑥 + 𝐻𝑦 𝑎̂𝑦 + 0 𝑎̂𝑧 ) = 𝜇𝑜 𝜀𝑜 2 (𝐻𝑥 𝑎̂𝑥 + 𝐻𝑦 𝑎̂𝑦 + 0 𝑎̂𝑧 ) ( ) + ( ) = cos2 𝜔𝑡 + sin2 𝜔𝑡 = 1
𝛿𝑧 2 𝛿𝑡 𝐴 𝐵
𝛿2 𝛿2 𝐸𝑥 2 𝐸𝑦 2
( 2 ) (𝐻𝑥 𝑎̂𝑥 + 𝐻𝑦 𝑎̂𝑦 ) = 𝜇𝑜 𝜀𝑜 2 (𝐻𝑥 𝑎̂𝑥 + 𝐻𝑦 𝑎̂𝑦 ) ( ) +( ) =1
𝛿𝑧 𝛿𝑡 𝐴 𝐵
𝛿2 𝛿2 𝛿2 𝛿2
𝐻 𝑎̂ + 𝐻 𝑎̂ = 𝜇𝑜 𝜀𝑜 [ 2 𝐻𝑥 𝑎̂𝑥 + 2 𝐻𝑦 𝑎̂𝑦 ] CASE-I) 𝐸𝑦 = 0, 𝐸𝑥 is present (𝐸𝑥 ≠ 0). The wave is polarized in x direction.
𝛿𝑧 2 𝑥 𝑥 𝛿𝑧 2 𝑦 𝑦 𝛿𝑡 𝛿𝑡 (3) CIRCULAR POLARIZATION
Now, comparing above equation from LHS to RHS. We get CASE-II) 𝐸𝑥 = 0, 𝐸𝑦 is present (𝐸𝑦 ≠ 0). The wave is polarized in y direction. (i) Circular polarized is a special case of elliptical polarization.
𝛿2 𝛿2 CASE-Ⅲ) If both 𝐸𝑥 and 𝐸𝑦 are present in phase
𝐻𝑥 = 𝜇𝑜 𝜀𝑜 𝐻𝑥 (5) (ii) If 𝐸𝑥 and 𝐸𝑦 have equal magnitude and π/2 phase difference, then the locus of resultant
𝛿𝑧 2 𝛿𝑡 2
𝐸𝑥 electric field vector is a circular and the wave is said to be circular polarized.
𝛿2 𝛿2
𝐻𝑦 = 𝜇𝑜 𝜀𝑜 𝐻𝑦 (6) 𝜃 = tan−1 ( )
𝛿𝑧 2 𝛿𝑡 2 𝐸𝑦
Equation (3), (4), (5) and (6) are differential equation of second order.
𝐸 = √𝐸𝑥2 + 𝐸𝑦2
The general solution is
𝐸 = 𝑓1 (𝑧 − 𝑐𝑡) + 𝑓2 (𝑧 + 𝑐𝑡) If the direction of resultant vector is constant with time, → linearly polarized

Here,
𝑓1 (𝑧 − 𝑐𝑡) = represents wave travelling in +ve z diraction (2) ELIPTICAL POLARIZATION (ⅱi) The resultant electric field is
𝑓2 (𝑧 + 𝑐𝑡) = represents wave travelling in -ve z diraction (i) If both 𝐸𝑥 and 𝐸𝑦 component have π/2 phase difference and having different amplitudes, ⃗⃗ = 𝐸𝑥 𝑎̂𝑥 + 𝐸𝑦 𝑎̂𝑦
𝑬 (1)
then the locus of resultant electric field will be an ellipse, and the wave is said to be elliptically
If there is no reflecting surface, so 𝑓2 (𝑧 + 𝑐𝑡) = 0 polarized. Time varying field is
𝐸 = 𝑓1 (𝑧 − 𝑐𝑡) ⃗⃗ = 𝐴 cos 𝜔𝑡 𝑎̂𝑥 + (−𝐴 sin 𝜔𝑡 𝑎̂𝑦 )
𝑬 (2)
This is general solution of wave equation.
On comparing equation (1) and equation (2). We get
𝐸𝑥 = 𝐴 cos 𝜔𝑡 𝐸𝑦 = −𝐴 sin 𝜔𝑡
WAVE POLARIZATION 𝐸𝑥
𝐴
= cos 𝜔𝑡 (3)
(i) The polarization of uniform plane wave refers to the time varying behaviour of electric field
at some fixed point in a space. 𝐸𝑦
= − sin 𝜔𝑡 (4)
(ⅱ) The resultant electric field is 𝐴
(ⅱ) Orientation of electric field strength vector at some given time instant in space.
⃗⃗ = 𝐸𝑥 𝑎̂𝑥 + 𝐸𝑦 𝑎̂𝑦
𝑬 (1) After squaring and adding equation (3) and (4). We get
(iii) Polarization of electromagnetic wave are of 3 types.
⃗⃗ = 𝐴 cos 𝜔𝑡 𝑎̂𝑥 − 𝐵 sin 𝜔𝑡 𝑎̂𝑦 𝐸𝑥 2 𝐸𝑦 2
𝑬 (2) ( ) + ( ) = cos2 𝜔𝑡 + sin2 𝜔𝑡 = 1
a) Linear polarization 𝐴 𝐴
On comparing equation (1) and equation (2). We get
b) Elliptical polarization 𝐸𝑥2 + 𝐸𝑦2 = 𝐴2

Point P is lying towards south pole. → right circularly polarized. (ii) Maxwell 2nd Equation
(iii) If 𝛿 = +900
⃗ =0
∇. 𝐵
Point P is lying in northern hemisphere. → left elliptically polarized.
POINCARE SPHERE (iv) If 𝛿 = −900 (iii) Maxwell 3rd Equation
Point P is lying in southern hemisphere. → right elliptically polarized.
Geometrical representation of various polarization states and their evaluation 𝛿
∇ × 𝐸⃗ = − ⃗
𝐵
It gives an idea about the state of polarization of electrical wave. 𝛿𝑡
⃗ =𝜇𝐻
𝐵 ⃗
At equator, we always get linearly polarized electrical wave.
MAXWELL EQUATIONS IN PHASOR FORM 𝛿 𝛿
At North & South Poles, we always get circularly polarized electrical wave. ∇ × 𝐸⃗ = − ⃗ ) = −𝜇 𝐻
(𝜇 𝐻 ⃗
(1) Maxwell’s equations for time varying field 𝛿𝑡 𝛿𝑡
(i) At North Pole, we get left circularly polarized electrical wave.
(i) Maxwell 1st Equation ∇ × 𝐸⃗ = −𝑗𝜔 𝜇 𝐻
⃗
(ii) At South Pole, we will get right circularly polarized electrical wave.
At northern and southern hemisphere, we get elliptically polarized electrical wave. ⃗ =𝜌
∇. 𝐷 ∮𝐷 ⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ∮ 𝜌 . 𝑑𝑉
⃗ . 𝑑𝑆
𝑆 𝑉 (iv) Maxwell 4th Equation
Let us assume point P at distance (2r) w.r.t origin.
(ii) Maxwell 2nd Equation 𝛿
𝛿 = 𝑃ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 ⃗ =𝐽+
∇×𝐻 ⃗
𝐷
𝛿𝑡
⃗ =0
∇. 𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 0
⃗ . 𝑑𝑆
∮𝐵
𝑆 𝐽 = 𝜎 𝐸⃗ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ⃗ = 𝜀 𝐸⃗
𝐷
(iii) Maxwell 3rd Equation 𝛿 𝛿
⃗ = 𝜎 𝐸⃗ +
∇×𝐻 (𝜀 𝐸⃗ ) = 𝜎 𝐸⃗ + 𝜀 𝐸⃗ = 𝜎 𝐸⃗ + 𝑗 𝜔 𝜀 𝐸⃗
𝛿 𝛿 𝛿𝑡 𝛿𝑡
∇ × 𝐸⃗ = − 𝐵 ⃗ ∮ 𝐸⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑙 = − ∮ 𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗ . 𝑑𝑆
𝛿𝑡 𝐿 𝑆 𝛿𝑡 ⃗ = (𝜎 + 𝑗𝜔𝜀)𝐸⃗
∇×𝐻
(iv) Maxwell 4th Equation
𝛿 𝛿 (3) Maxwell’s equations in phasor form for free space
⃗ =𝐽+
∇×𝐻 ⃗
𝐷 ⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗
∮𝐻 𝑑𝑙 = 𝐽 + ∮ ⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐷 𝑑𝑆
𝛿𝑡 𝐿 𝑆 𝛿𝑡
We do not have free charge i.e. 𝜎 = 0
Where
There is no charge distribution i.e. 𝜌 = 0
𝐷⃗ = Displacement density
𝜌 = Volume charge density
𝐵⃗ = Magnetic flux density (i) Maxwell 1st Equation
𝐸⃗ = Electric field. ⃗ =𝜌
∇. 𝐷
𝐻⃗ = magnetic field intensity
𝐽 = Current density. ⃗ = 𝜀 𝐸⃗
𝐷 ∇. (𝜀 𝐸⃗ ) = 𝜌
𝛿
⃗ = displacement current.
𝐷
𝛿𝑡 ∇. (𝜀 𝐸⃗ ) = 0 ∇. 𝐸⃗ = 0
CASE-I) 𝛿 = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝛿 = ±1800 (ii) Maxwell 2nd Equation
We get linearly polarized electrical wave. ⃗ =0
∇. 𝐵
(2) Maxwell’s equations in phasor form for general conducting medium
CASE-II) 𝛿 = ±900 → Circularly polarized → elliptically polarized. ⃗ =𝜇𝐻
⃗ ⃗)=0
𝐵 ∇. (𝜇 𝐻
(i) Maxwell 1st Equation
(i) If 𝛿 = +900 𝑎𝑛𝑑 2𝜀 = 900
⃗)=0
∇. (𝜇 𝐻 ⃗ =0
∇. 𝐻
Point P is lying towards north pole. → left circularly polarized. ⃗ =𝜌
∇. 𝐷
(ii) If 𝛿 = −900 𝑎𝑛𝑑 2𝜀 = −900 (iii) Maxwell 3rd Equation
 𝛿 0 − ∇2 𝐸⃗ = −𝑗𝜔 𝜇(𝜎 + 𝑗𝜔𝜀) 𝐸⃗ 𝛼 2 + 2𝑗𝛼𝛽 − 𝛽 2 = 𝑗𝜔 𝜇(𝜎 + 𝑗𝜔𝜀)
∇ × 𝐸⃗ = − ⃗
𝐵
𝛿𝑡
∇2 𝐸⃗ = 𝑗𝜔 𝜇(𝜎 + 𝑗𝜔𝜀) 𝐸⃗ 𝛼 2 − 𝛽 2 + 2𝑗𝛼𝛽 = −𝜔2 𝜇𝜀 + 𝑗𝜔 𝜇𝜎
⃗ =𝜇𝐻
𝐵 ⃗
Assume After comparing real part. We get
𝛿 𝛿
∇ × 𝐸⃗ = − ⃗ ) = −𝜇 𝐻
(𝜇 𝐻 ⃗ 𝛼 2 − 𝛽 2 = −𝜔2 𝜇𝜀 (5)
𝛿𝑡 𝛿𝑡 𝛾 2 = 𝑗𝜔 𝜇(𝜎 + 𝑗𝜔𝜀) 𝛾 = √𝑗𝜔 𝜇(𝜎 + 𝑗𝜔𝜀)
Solving equation (4) and (5). We get
∇ × 𝐸⃗ = −𝑗𝜔 𝜇 𝐻
⃗ It is called propagation constant.
Attenuation constant
∇2 𝐸⃗ = 𝛾 2 𝐸⃗ ∇2 𝐸⃗ − 𝛾 2 𝐸⃗ = 0
(iv) Maxwell 4th Equation This is equation of plane wave for electric field. 𝜇𝜀 𝜎 2
𝛼 = 𝜔√ [√1 + ( ) − 1 ]
𝛿 2 𝜔𝜀
⃗ =𝐽+
∇×𝐻 ⃗
𝐷
𝛿𝑡
PROPAGATION CONSTANT, ATTENUATION AND PHASE CONSTANT
𝐽 = 𝜎 𝐸⃗ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ⃗ = 𝜀 𝐸⃗
𝐷 Phase constant
From equation of plane wave. We have
𝛿 𝛿
⃗ = 𝜎 𝐸⃗ +
∇×𝐻 (𝜀 𝐸⃗ ) = 𝜎 𝐸⃗ + 𝜀 𝐸⃗ = 𝜎 𝐸⃗ + 𝑗 𝜔 𝜀 𝐸⃗ 𝛾 2 = 𝑗𝜔 𝜇(𝜎 + 𝑗𝜔𝜀) 𝜇𝜀 𝜎 2
𝛿𝑡 𝛿𝑡 𝛽 = 𝜔√ [√1 + ( ) + 1 ]
2 𝜔𝜀
⃗ = (𝜎 + 𝑗𝜔𝜀)𝐸⃗ = (0 + 𝑗𝜔𝜀)𝐸⃗
∇×𝐻 𝛾 = √𝑗𝜔 𝜇(𝜎 + 𝑗𝜔𝜀) (1)

⃗ = 𝑗𝜔 𝜀 𝐸⃗
∇×𝐻 This is called propagation constant. Phase Velocity
𝛾 = 𝛼 + 𝑗𝛽 (2) 𝜔
𝑣𝑝 =
𝛽
EQUATION OF PLANE WAVE FOR ELECTRIC FIELD Where,
Intrinsic Impedance
According to Maxwell 3rd Equation 𝛾 = Propagation constant

𝛿 𝛼 = Attenuation Constant 𝑗𝜔 𝜇
∇ × 𝐸⃗ = − ⃗
𝐵 𝜂=√
𝛿𝑡 𝜎 + 𝑗𝜔𝜀
𝛽 = Phase Constant
⃗ =𝜇𝐻
𝐵 ⃗ Now comparing equation (1) and (2). We get
𝛿 𝛿
𝛾 = 𝛼 + 𝑗𝛽 = √𝑗𝜔 𝜇(𝜎 + 𝑗𝜔𝜀) (3) WAVE PROPAGATION IN LOSSLESS MEDIUM
∇ × 𝐸⃗ = − ⃗ ) = −𝜇 𝐻
(𝜇 𝐻 ⃗
𝛿𝑡 𝛿𝑡
A lossless medium is a medium with zero conductivity and finite permeability and permittivity.
𝛾 = 𝛼 + 𝑗𝛽 = √𝑗𝜔 𝜇𝜎 − 𝜔 2 𝜇𝜀 = √−𝜔 2 𝜇𝜀 + 𝑗𝜔 𝜇𝜎
∇ × 𝐸⃗ = −𝑗𝜔 𝜇 𝐻
⃗
When EM wave propagates through lossless medium them the amplitude of its electric field or
Taking curl on both side. We get |𝛾| = √𝛼 2 + 𝛽 2 = √√(−𝜔 2 𝜇𝜀)2 + (𝑗𝜔 𝜇𝜎)2 magnetic field remains constant throughout the propagation.

∇ × (∇ × 𝐸⃗ ) = −𝑗𝜔 𝜇 (∇ × 𝐻
⃗) For Lossless Medium,
Squaring both side. We get
By vector identity 𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 (𝜇) = 𝜇𝑜 𝜇𝑟 𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 (𝜀) = 𝜀𝑜 𝜀𝑟
𝛼 2 + 𝛽 2 = √(−𝜔 2 𝜇𝜀)2 + (𝑗𝜔 𝜇𝜎)2 = √𝜔 4 𝜇 2 𝜀 2 + 𝜔 2 𝜇 2 𝜎 2
𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 (𝜎) = 0
∇ × (∇ × 𝐴) = ∇(∇. 𝐴) − ∇2 𝐴
𝜎 2
𝛼 + 𝛽 = 𝜔 𝜇𝜀 √1 + (𝜔𝜀)
2 2 2
(4) (i) Propagation Constant
Applying, vector identity. We get
Squaring both side of equation (3). We get 𝛾 = √𝑗𝜔 𝜇(𝜎 + 𝑗𝜔𝜀)
∇(∇. 𝐸⃗ ) − ∇2 𝐸⃗ = −𝑗𝜔 𝜇 (∇ × 𝐻
⃗)
2 Put all value in above equation. We get
∇. 𝐸⃗ = 0 ⃗ = (𝜎 + 𝑗𝜔𝜀) 𝐸⃗
∇×𝐻 (𝛼 + 𝑗𝛽)2 = (√𝑗𝜔 𝜇(𝜎 + 𝑗𝜔𝜀))
𝛾 = √𝑗𝜔 𝜇𝑜 𝜇𝑟 (0 + 𝑗𝜔𝜀𝑜 𝜀𝑟 ) = √𝑗𝜔 𝜇𝑜 𝜇𝑟 𝑗𝜔𝜀𝑜 𝜀𝑟 = 𝑗𝜔 √𝜇𝑜 𝜇𝑟 𝜀𝑜 𝜀𝑟
Putting these value in above equation. We get

𝛾 = 𝑗𝜔 √𝜇𝑜 𝜇𝑟 𝜀𝑜 𝜀𝑟 𝛽 = 𝜔√𝜇𝑜 𝜇𝑟 𝜀𝑜 𝜀𝑟

(ii) Attenuation constant WAVE PROPAGATION IN CONDUCTION (LOSSY) MEDIUM (iv) Phase Velocity
A lossy medium can be described as a medium where some fraction of power of 𝜔
electromagnetic wave is lost as it propagations. 𝑣𝑝 =
𝜇𝜀 𝜎 2 𝛽
𝛼 = 𝜔√ [√1 + ( ) − 1 ]
2 𝜔𝜀 This power loss is due to power conduction. For lossy medium, put the value of β in above equation and get
For Lossy Medium, 𝜔 1
For lossless medium, put above value in equation () and get 𝑣𝑝 = =
𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 (𝜇) = 𝜇𝑜 𝜇𝑟 𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 (𝜀) = 𝜀𝑜 𝜀𝑟 𝜔√𝜇𝑜 𝜇𝑟 𝜀𝑜 𝜀𝑟 √𝜇𝑜 𝜇𝑟 𝜀𝑜 𝜀𝑟

𝜇𝑜 𝜇𝑟 𝜀𝑜 𝜀𝑟 0 2 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 (𝜎) ≠ 0 𝜎 ≪ 𝜔𝜀 (v) Intrinsic Impedance

𝛼 = 𝜔√ [√1 + ( ) −1]=0
2 𝜔𝜀𝑜 𝜀𝑟
(i) Propagation Constant 𝑗𝜔 𝜇
𝜂=√
𝛼=0 𝛾 = √𝑗𝜔 𝜇(𝜎 + 𝑗𝜔𝜀) 𝜎 + 𝑗𝜔𝜀

(iii) Phase constant Put all value in above equation. We get For lossy medium, put above value in equation () and get

𝜎 𝑗𝜔 𝜇𝑜 𝜇𝑟 𝑗𝜔 𝜇𝑜 𝜇𝑟 𝑗𝜔 𝜇𝑜 𝜇𝑟 𝜇𝑜 𝜇𝑟
𝜇𝜀 𝜎 2 𝛾 = √𝑗𝜔 𝜇𝑜 𝜇𝑟 (𝜎 + 𝑗𝜔𝜀𝑜 𝜀𝑟 ) = √𝑗𝜔 𝜇𝑜 𝜇𝑟 𝑗𝜔𝜀𝑜 𝜀𝑟 ( + 1) = 𝑗𝜔 √𝜇𝑜 𝜇𝑟 𝜀𝑜 𝜀𝑟 𝜂=√ = =√ =√
𝛽 = 𝜔√ [√1 + ( ) + 1 ] 𝑗𝜔𝜀 𝜎 + 𝑗𝜔𝜀𝑜 𝜀𝑟 √𝑗𝜔𝜀 𝜀 ( 𝜎 + 1) 𝑗𝜔𝜀𝑜 𝜀𝑟 (0 + 1) 𝜀𝑜 𝜀𝑟
2 𝜔𝜀 𝑜 𝑟 𝑗𝜔𝜀 𝜀
𝑜 𝑟
𝛾 = 𝑗𝜔 √𝜇𝑜 𝜇𝑟 𝜀𝑜 𝜀𝑟
For lossless medium, put above value in equation () and get
(ii) Attenuation constant
WAVE PROPAGATION THROUGH FREE SPACE
𝜇𝑜 𝜇𝑟 𝜀𝑜 𝜀𝑟 0 2 𝜇𝑜 𝜇𝑟 𝜀𝑜 𝜀𝑟
𝛽 = 𝜔√ [√1 + ( ) + 1 ] = 𝜔√ . 2 = 𝜔√𝜇𝑜 𝜇𝑟 𝜀𝑜 𝜀𝑟 𝜇𝜀 𝜎 2 For free space Medium,
2 𝜔𝜀𝑜 𝜀𝑟 2 𝛼 = 𝜔√ [√1 + ( ) − 1 ]
2 𝜔𝜀 𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 (𝜇) = 𝜇𝑜 , 𝜇𝑟 = 1 𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 (𝜀) = 𝜀𝑜 , 𝜀𝑟 = 1
𝛽 = 𝜔√𝜇𝑜 𝜇𝑟 𝜀𝑜 𝜀𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 (𝜎) = 0
For lossy medium, put above value in equation () and get
(iv) Phase Velocity (i) Propagation Constant
𝜔 𝜇𝑜 𝜇𝑟 𝜀𝑜 𝜀𝑟 𝜎 2 𝜇𝑜 𝜇𝑟 𝜀𝑜 𝜀𝑟
𝑣𝑝 = 𝛼 = 𝜔√ [√1 + ( ) − 1 ] = 𝜔√ [√1 + 0 − 1 ] = 0 𝛾 = √𝑗𝜔 𝜇(𝜎 + 𝑗𝜔𝜀)
𝛽 2 𝜔𝜀𝑜 𝜀𝑟 2
Put all value in above equation. We get
For lossless medium, put the value of β in above equation and get
𝛼=0 𝛾 = √𝑗𝜔 𝜇𝑜 (0 + 𝑗𝜔𝜀𝑜 ) = √𝑗𝜔 𝜇𝑜 𝑗𝜔𝜀𝑜 = 𝑗𝜔 √𝜇𝑜 𝜀𝑜
𝜔 1
𝑣𝑝 = =
𝜔√𝜇𝑜 𝜇𝑟 𝜀𝑜 𝜀𝑟 √𝜇𝑜 𝜇𝑟 𝜀𝑜 𝜀𝑟 (iii) Phase constant 𝛾 = 𝑗𝜔 √𝜇𝑜 𝜀𝑜
(v) Intrinsic Impedance (ii) Attenuation constant
𝜇𝜀 𝜎 2
𝛽 = 𝜔√ [√1 + ( ) + 1 ]
𝑗𝜔 𝜇 2 𝜔𝜀
𝜂=√ 𝜇𝜀 𝜎 2
𝜎 + 𝑗𝜔𝜀 𝛼 = 𝜔√ [√1 + ( ) − 1 ]
For lossy medium, put above value in equation () and get 2 𝜔𝜀
For lossless medium, put above value in equation () and get
For free space medium, put above value in equation () and get
𝜇𝑜 𝜇𝑟 𝜀𝑜 𝜀𝑟 𝜎 2 𝜇𝑜 𝜇𝑟 𝜀𝑜 𝜀𝑟 𝜇𝑜 𝜇𝑟 𝜀𝑜 𝜀𝑟
𝑗𝜔 𝜇𝑜 𝜇𝑟 𝜇𝑜 𝜇𝑟 𝛽 = 𝜔√ [√1 + ( ) + 1 ] = 𝜔√ [√1 + 0 + 1 ] = 𝜔√ .2
𝜂=√ =√ 2 𝜔𝜀𝑜 𝜀𝑟 2 2
0 + 𝑗𝜔𝜀𝑜 𝜀𝑟 𝜀𝑜 𝜀𝑟
 (i) Propagation Constant 𝜔𝜇𝑜 𝜇𝑟 𝜎
𝜇𝑜 𝜀𝑜 0 2 𝜇𝑜 𝜀𝑜 𝛽=√ =𝛼
𝛼 = 𝜔√ [√1 + ( ) − 1 ] = 𝜔√ [√1 + 0 − 1 ] = 0 2
2 𝜔𝜀𝑜 2 𝛾 = √𝑗𝜔 𝜇(𝜎 + 𝑗𝜔𝜀)
(iv) Phase Velocity
Put all value in above equation. We get
𝜔
𝛼=0 𝑣𝑝 =
𝜎 𝛽
(iii) Phase constant 𝛾 = √𝑗𝜔 𝜇𝑜 𝜇𝑟 (𝜎 + 𝑗𝜔𝜀𝑜 𝜀𝑟 ) = √𝑗𝜔 𝜇𝑜 𝜇𝑟 𝑗𝜔𝜀𝑜 𝜀𝑟 ( + 1)
𝑗𝜔𝜀𝑜 𝜀𝑟 For good conducting medium, put the value of β in above equation and get

𝜇𝜀 𝜎 2 𝜎 𝜔 2𝜔
𝛽 = 𝜔√ [√1 + ( ) + 1 ] = √𝑗𝜔𝜇𝑜 𝜇𝑟 𝑗𝜔𝜀𝑜 𝜀𝑟 𝑣𝑝 = =√
2 𝜔𝜀 𝑗𝜔𝜀𝑜 𝜀𝑟 𝜇𝑜 𝜇𝑟 𝜎
𝜔𝜇𝑜 𝜇𝑟 𝜎
√
2
𝛾 = √𝑗𝜔𝜇𝑜 𝜇𝑟 𝜎
For free space medium, put above value in equation () and get (v) Intrinsic Impedance
(ii) Attenuation constant
𝜇𝑜 𝜀𝑜 0 2 𝜇𝑜 𝜀𝑜 𝜇𝑜 𝜀𝑜 𝑗𝜔 𝜇
𝛽 = 𝜔√ [√1 + ( ) + 1 ] = 𝜔√ [√1 + 0 + 1 ] = 𝜔√ .2 𝜂=√
2 𝜔𝜀𝑜 2 2 𝜇𝜀 𝜎 2 𝜎 + 𝑗𝜔𝜀
𝛼 = 𝜔√ [√1 + ( ) − 1 ]
2 𝜔𝜀
For good conducting medium, put above value in equation () and get
𝛽 = 𝜔√𝜇𝑜 𝜀𝑜
For good conducting medium, put above value in equation () and get 𝑗𝜔 𝜇𝑜 𝜇𝑟 𝑗𝜔 𝜇𝑜 𝜇𝑟 𝑗𝜔 𝜇𝑜 𝜇𝑟 𝑗𝜔 𝜇𝑜 𝜇𝑟 𝜇𝑜 𝜇𝑟
(iv) Phase Velocity 𝜂=√ = = =√ =√
𝜔 𝜎 + 𝑗𝜔𝜀𝑜 𝜀𝑟 √𝑗𝜔𝜀 𝜀 ( 𝜎 + 1) √𝑗𝜔𝜀𝑜 𝜀𝑟 𝜎 𝜎 𝜀𝑜 𝜀𝑟
𝑣𝑝 = 𝜇𝑜 𝜇𝑟 𝜀𝑜 𝜀𝑟 𝜎 2 𝜇𝑜 𝜇𝑟 𝜀𝑜 𝜀𝑟 𝜎 2
𝑜 𝑟 𝑗𝜔𝜀 𝜀
𝑜 𝑟
𝑗𝜔𝜀𝑜 𝜀𝑟
𝛽 𝛼 = 𝜔√ [√1 + ( ) − 1 ] = 𝜔√ [√( ) −1]
2 𝜔𝜀𝑜 𝜀𝑟 2 𝜔𝜀𝑜 𝜀𝑟
For free space medium, put the value of β in above equation and get 𝑗𝜔 𝜇𝑜 𝜇𝑟
𝜂=√
𝜔 1 𝜇𝑜 𝜇𝑟 𝜀𝑜 𝜀𝑟 𝜎 𝜇𝑜 𝜇𝑟 𝜀𝑜 𝜀𝑟 𝜎 𝜔 2 𝜇𝑜 𝜇𝑟 𝜀𝑜 𝜀𝑟 𝜎 𝜎
𝑣𝑝 = = = 𝜔√ [( ) − 1 ] = 𝜔√ ( )=√
𝜔√𝜇𝑜 𝜀𝑜 √𝜇𝑜 𝜀𝑜 2 𝜔𝜀𝑜 𝜀𝑟 2 𝜔𝜀𝑜 𝜀𝑟 2𝜔𝜀𝑜 𝜀𝑟

(v) Intrinsic Impedance 𝜔𝜇𝑜 𝜇𝑟 𝜎 PHASE VELOCITY

𝛼=√
2
𝑗𝜔 𝜇 Phase Velocity is the rate at which the wave changes its phase in order to undergo a phase shift
𝜂=√ (iii) Phase constant of 2𝜋 radians.
𝜎 + 𝑗𝜔𝜀
𝜆
For free space medium, put above value in equation () and get 𝜇𝜀 𝜎 2 𝑣=
𝛽 = 𝜔√ [√1 + ( ) + 1 ] 𝑇
2 𝜔𝜀
𝑗𝜔 𝜇𝑜 𝑗𝜔 𝜇𝑜 𝜇𝑜 1
𝜂=√ =√ = √ = 120𝜋 𝑣=𝜆𝑓 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑓 =
0 + 𝑗𝜔𝜀𝑜 𝑗𝜔𝜀𝑜 𝜀𝑜 𝑇
For good conducting medium, put above value in equation () and get
On multiply the numerator and denominator with 2𝜋

𝜇𝑜 𝜇𝑟 𝜀𝑜 𝜀𝑟 𝜎 2 𝜇𝑜 𝜇𝑟 𝜀𝑜 𝜀𝑟 𝜎 2 2𝜋 2𝜋𝑓𝜆 2𝜋𝑓
𝛽 = 𝜔√ [√1 + ( ) + 1 ] = 𝜔√ [√( ) +1] 𝑣 =𝜆𝑓× = =
2 𝜔𝜀𝑜 𝜀𝑟 2 𝜔𝜀𝑜 𝜀𝑟 2𝜋 2𝜋 2𝜋
( )
𝜆
WAVE PROPAGATION THROUGH GOOD CONDUCTING MEDIUM
𝜇𝑜 𝜇𝑟 𝜀𝑜 𝜀𝑟 𝜎 𝜇𝑜 𝜇𝑟 𝜀𝑜 𝜀𝑟 𝜎 𝜔2𝜇 2𝜋
For good conducting Medium, 𝑜 𝜇𝑟 𝜀𝑜 𝜀𝑟 𝜎 𝛽= 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓
= 𝜔√ [( ) + 1 ] = 𝜔√ ( )=√ 𝜆
2 𝜔𝜀𝑜 𝜀𝑟 2 𝜔𝜀𝑜 𝜀𝑟 2𝜔𝜀𝑜 𝜀𝑟
𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 (𝜇) = 𝜇𝑜 𝜇𝑟 𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 (𝜀) = 𝜀𝑜 𝜀𝑟 Put these value in velocity equation. We get
𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 (𝜎) ≈ ∞ 𝜎 ≫ 𝜔𝜀

𝜔 1 ⃗
𝑣= 𝛿= 𝛿𝐵 𝛿 𝛿 1
𝛽 ⃗.
−𝐻 ⃗ . (𝜇 𝐻
= −𝐻 ⃗ )=− ( 𝜇𝐻⃗ 2)
√𝜋𝑓𝜇𝜎 𝛿𝑡 𝛿𝑡 𝛿𝑡 2
This is equation for phase velocity.
Phase velocity (𝑣𝑝 ) −𝐸⃗ . 𝐽 = −𝐸⃗ . (𝜎 𝐸⃗ ) = −𝜎𝐸⃗ 2
𝜔 ⃗
𝛿𝐷 𝛿 𝛿 1
𝑣𝑝 = −𝐸⃗ . = −𝐸⃗ . (𝜀 𝐸⃗ ) = − ( 𝜀 𝐸⃗ 2 )
GROUP VELOCITY 𝛽 𝛿𝑡 𝛿𝑡 𝛿𝑡 2
(i) Group Velocity is defined as a rate at which the wave propagates through the waveguide. 𝛽 = 𝛼 in good conducting medium. 𝛿 1 𝛿 1
∇. (𝐸⃗ × 𝐻
⃗)=− ⃗ 2 ) − 𝜎𝐸⃗ 2 − ( 𝜀 𝐸⃗ 2 )
( 𝜇𝐻
(ii) Group Velocity is the rate at which modulated envelope travels as compared to the carrier 𝜔 𝜔 𝛿𝑡 2 𝛿𝑡 2
𝑣𝑝 = = = 𝜔𝛿
alone. 𝛽 𝛼 𝛿 1 1
∇. (𝐸⃗ × 𝐻
⃗)=− ⃗ 2 + 𝜀 𝐸⃗ 2 ) − 𝜎𝐸⃗ 2
( 𝜇𝐻
This modulated wave travels through the waveguide. 𝛿𝑡 2 2
Taking volume integral on both side.
(iii) The equation for group velocity is
𝛿 1 1
𝑑𝜔 POWER FLOW AND POYNTING THEOREM ∮ ∇. (𝐸⃗ × 𝐻
⃗)=− ∮( 𝜇𝐻⃗ 2 + 𝜀 𝐸⃗ 2 ) 𝑑𝑉 − ∮ 𝜎𝐸⃗ 2
𝑣𝑔 = 𝑉 𝛿𝑡 𝑉 2 2 𝑉
𝑑𝛽
Statement: The vector product of electric field intensity (𝐸⃗ ) and the magnetic field intensity
Applying divergence theorem. We get
⃗ ) at any point is a measure of rate of energy flow at that paint.
(𝐻
𝛿 1 1
SKIN DEPΤΗ
𝑃⃗ = 𝐸⃗ × 𝐻
⃗ ∮ (𝐸⃗ × 𝐻
⃗ ) 𝑑𝑆 = − ⃗ 2 + 𝜀 𝐸⃗ 2 ) 𝑑𝑉 − ∮ 𝜎𝐸⃗ 2 𝑑𝑉
∮ ( 𝜇𝐻
𝑆 𝛿𝑡 𝑉 2 2 𝑉
(i) Skin Depth is defined as the depth in which the wave has been attenuated to 1/𝑒 or 37% Where,
approx of its initial value.
𝑃⃗ = Power flow. POWER FLOW AND POYNTING THEOREM
𝐸⃗ = Electric field intensity
Pointing theorem states that,
𝐻⃗ = Magnetic field intensity
𝑃⃗ = 𝐸⃗ × 𝐻
⃗

DERIVATION OF POYNTING THEOREM Where,

𝛿 𝑃⃗ = Power flow.
∇ × 𝐸⃗ = − ⃗
𝐵
𝛿𝑡 𝐸⃗ = Electric field intensity
𝛿 𝐻⃗ = Magnetic field intensity
⃗ =𝐽+
∇×𝐻 ⃗
𝐷
(ii) Skin Depth is denoted by 𝛿 𝛿𝑡 Cross product of 𝐸⃗ and 𝐻
⃗ appearing in the expression of pointing theorem is called pointing
(iii) Skin depth is also called depth of penetration. According to vector identity vector.

(iv) In Good conducting medium, rate of attenuation is very high. ⃗ ) = 𝐵(∇ × 𝐴) − 𝐴(∇ × 𝐵) 𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑡 = 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡/𝑚2
∇. (𝐴 × 𝐵
1 Direction of energy flow is perpendicular to direction of 𝐸⃗ and 𝐻
⃗.
𝛿= ∇. (𝐸⃗ × 𝐻
⃗)=𝐻
⃗ (∇ × 𝐸⃗ ) − 𝐸⃗ (∇ × 𝐻
⃗)
𝛼
On substituting values,
𝛿𝛼 = 1
SURFACE CURRENT
⃗
𝛿𝐵 𝛿
We have ∇. (𝐸⃗ × 𝐻
⃗)=𝐻
⃗ (− ) − 𝐸⃗ . (𝐽 + 𝐷 ⃗)
𝛿𝑡 𝛿𝑡 The wave travels inside the conductor which is given as 𝐸𝑜 𝑒 −𝛾𝑧 where 𝛾 is propagation
𝜔𝜇𝜎 constant.
𝛼=√ = √𝜋𝑓𝜇𝜎 ⃗
2 𝛿𝐵 𝛿
∇. (𝐸⃗ × 𝐻
⃗ ) = −𝐻
⃗. − 𝐸⃗ . 𝐽 − 𝐸⃗ . 𝐷 ⃗
After putting the value of α in above equation. We get 𝛿𝑡 𝛿𝑡
We can write,
 1 𝜎 2
𝑊= √ ⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑜 |
|𝐸
2√2 𝜔𝜇𝑜 𝜇𝑟

Conduction current density,

𝜎𝐸𝑜
𝐽𝑠 = 𝑥̂
𝛾
The propagation constant for good conductor are If we take unit area on conducting surface of depth 𝑑𝑧 then, Area of cross section 𝑑𝑧
Total power loss per unit area
Conductivity of slab is represented as 𝜎 2
𝛾 = √𝑗𝜔𝜇𝑜 𝜇𝑟 𝜎 1 1 𝜎 2 1 𝜎 𝐽⃗⃗𝑠 𝛾 1 |𝛾|2 𝜎 2
Resistivity of slab is represented as 𝜎 𝑊= √ ⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑜 | =
|𝐸 √ | | = √ |𝐽⃗⃗𝑠 |
𝛾 = 𝛼 + 𝑗𝛽 So, resistance of slab of depth (𝑑𝑧) is 2√2 𝜔𝜇𝑜 𝜇𝑟 2√2 𝜔𝜇𝑜 𝜇𝑟 𝜎 2√2 𝜎 2 𝜔𝜇𝑜 𝜇𝑟
1 1 1 2
For good conductor, 𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 𝜎 . 𝑑𝑧 = 𝜎 𝑑𝑧 (1) 1 |√𝑗𝜔𝜇𝑜 𝜇𝑟 𝜎| 𝜎 2 1 𝜔𝜇𝑜 𝜇𝑟 𝜎 𝜎 2
= √ |𝐽⃗⃗ | = √ |𝐽⃗⃗ |
𝜔𝜇𝑜 𝜇𝑟 𝜎 Current flowing inside the slab is given as 2√2 𝜎2 𝜔𝜇𝑜 𝜇𝑟 𝑠 2√2 𝜎 2 𝜔𝜇𝑜 𝜇𝑟 𝑠
𝛽=√ =𝛼 ∞
2 ⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑜 𝑒 −𝛾𝑧 𝑑𝑧
𝐽 𝑑𝑧 = ∫ 𝜎𝐸 1 (𝜔𝜇𝑜 𝜇𝑟 )2 𝜎 2 1 2 𝜔𝜇𝑜 𝜇𝑟
𝜔𝜇𝑜 𝜇𝑟 𝜎 𝜔𝜇𝑜 𝜇𝑟 𝜎 0 = √ |𝐽⃗⃗𝑠 | = |𝐽⃗⃗𝑠 | √
𝛾=√ + 𝑗√ 2√2 (𝜎)2 𝜔𝜇𝑜 𝜇𝑟 2 2𝜎
2 2 Ohmic losses in the slab of depth (𝑑𝑧) is
1 2 𝜔𝜇𝑜 𝜇𝑟
Lets assume that a thin slab is here, having depth of 𝑑𝑧 Conduction current density is given as 1 2 𝑊= |𝐽⃗⃗ | √
𝑑𝜔 = |𝐼| 𝑅 2 𝑠 2𝜎
2 Power loss is inversely to conductivity.
𝐽 = 𝜎𝐸⃗ = 𝜎𝐸𝑜 𝑒 −𝛾𝑧 𝑥̂ = 𝜎𝐸𝑜 𝑒 −(𝛼+𝑗𝛽)𝑧 𝑥̂ = 𝜎𝐸𝑜 𝑒 −𝛼𝑧 𝑒 −𝛽𝑧 𝑥̂
1 2 1 1 2 1 1 2 For ideal conductor,
⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑜 𝑒 −𝛾𝑧 𝑑𝑧| .
𝑑𝜔 = |𝜎𝐸 ⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑜 | 𝑒 −2(𝛼+𝑗𝛽)𝑧 (𝑑𝑧)2 .
= 𝜎 2 |𝐸 ⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑜 | 𝑒 −2𝛼𝑧 𝑑𝑧
= 𝜎|𝐸
So, current flowing inside the slab of 𝑑𝑧 is 2 𝜎 𝑑𝑧 2 𝜎 𝑑𝑧 2 Conductivity (𝜎) = ∞
1 Ohmic losses = 0
𝐼(𝑧) = ⃗𝐽 (𝑧). 𝑑𝑧 2
⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑜 | 𝑒 −2𝛼𝑧 𝑑𝑧
𝑑𝜔 = 𝜎|𝐸
2
𝐼(𝑧) = 𝜎𝐸𝑜 𝑒 −𝛾𝑧 𝑑𝑧
So, total power loss under unit area on surface,
On integrating the current, we get surface current as ∞
1 ∞
2
⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑜 | 𝑒 −2𝛼𝑧 𝑑𝑧]
𝑊 = ∫ 𝑑𝜔 = ∫ [ 𝜎|𝐸
∞
0 0 2
𝐽𝑠 = ∫ 𝜎𝐸𝑜 𝑒 −𝛾𝑧 𝑑𝑧 𝑥̂ ∞ −2𝛼𝑧 ∞
1 2 1 2 𝑒
0
𝑊= ⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑜 | ∫ 𝑒 −2𝛼𝑧 𝑑𝑧 = 𝜎|𝐸
𝜎|𝐸 ⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑜 | [ ]
2 2 −2𝛼 𝑜
Since, true current exist only if conductivity is infinite (limit o to ∞) 0
1 2 1 𝜎 2
𝜎𝐸𝑜 −𝛾𝑧 ∞ 𝜎𝐸𝑜 −∞ 𝜎𝐸𝑜 𝜎𝐸𝑜 ⃗⃗⃗⃗
= 𝜎|𝐸𝑜 | −∞
[𝑒 − 𝑒 ] = 0 ⃗⃗⃗⃗
|𝐸 |
𝐽𝑠 = [𝑒 ]𝑜 𝑥̂ = [𝑒 − 𝑒 𝑜 ] 𝑥̂ = [0 − 1] 𝑥̂ = 𝑥̂ 2 (−2𝛼) 4𝛼 𝑜
−𝛾 −𝛾 −𝛾 𝛾 𝜎 2
𝑊= ⃗⃗⃗⃗ |
|𝐸
𝜎𝐸𝑜 4𝛼 𝑜
𝐽𝑠 = 𝑥̂
𝛾
For good conductor,
This is surface current. 𝜔𝜇𝑜 𝜇𝑟 𝜎
𝛽=√ =𝛼
2
𝛾 = √𝑗𝜔𝜇𝑜 𝜇𝑟 𝜎

POWER LOSS IN A CONDUCTOR Put these value in power equation. We get

𝜎 2 𝜎 2 1 𝜎 2
𝑊= ⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑜 | =
|𝐸 ⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑜 | =
|𝐸 √ ⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑜 |
|𝐸
𝜔𝜇𝑜 𝜇𝑟 𝜎 2 √2 √𝜔𝜇𝑜 𝜇𝑟 𝜎 2√2 𝜔𝜇𝑜 𝜇𝑟
4√ 2

Module – 4 ⃗ =𝛽
𝐾 ⏟cos 𝜙𝑥 𝑥̂ + ⏟
𝛽 cos 𝜙𝑦 𝑦̂ + ⏟
𝛽 cos 𝜙𝑧 𝑧̂ 𝐸⃗𝑖 + 𝐸⃗𝑟 = 𝜂2 𝐻
⃗𝑡
𝐾𝑥 𝐾𝑦 𝐾𝑧
1
PLANE WAVE IN ARBITRARY DIRECTION 𝜂2
(𝐸⃗𝑖 + 𝐸⃗𝑟 ) = 𝐻
⃗𝑡 (6)
⃗ = 𝐾𝑥 𝑥̂ + 𝐾𝑦 𝑦̂ + 𝐾𝑧 𝑧̂
𝐾
Consider a wave is propagation in arbitrary direction.
⃗ and electric field are perpendicular to each other.
This direction of 𝐾
Substituting the value of equation (1) and (2) in equation (5). We get
𝐸⃗ . 𝐾
⃗ =0
1 1
𝐸⃗ − 𝐸⃗ = 𝐻
⃗𝑡
𝜂1 𝑖 𝜂1 𝑟
1
(𝐸⃗𝑖 − 𝐸⃗𝑟 ) = 𝐻
⃗𝑡 (7)
𝜂1
REFLECTION AND REFRACTION AT DIELECTRIC INTERFACE
After equating the values from equation (6) and (7). We get
When the plane electromagnetic wave incident at dieletric interface, then some part of energy 1 1
So, unit vector is transmitted and remaining part is reflected. (𝐸⃗ − 𝐸⃗𝑟 ) = (𝐸⃗ + 𝐸⃗𝑟 )
𝜂1 𝑖 𝜂2 𝑖
𝑛̂ = cos 𝜙𝑥 𝑥̂ + cos 𝜙𝑦 𝑦̂ + cos 𝜙𝑧 𝑧̂ (1) 𝜂2 (𝐸⃗𝑖 − 𝐸⃗𝑟 ) = 𝜂1 (𝐸⃗𝑖 + 𝐸⃗𝑟 )
Where cos 𝜙𝑥 , cos 𝜙𝑦 𝑎𝑛𝑑 cos 𝜙𝑧 are direction cosines of this wave.
𝐸⃗𝑖 (𝜂2 − 𝜂1 ) = 𝐸⃗𝑟 (𝜂1 + 𝜂2 )
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑥 𝑥̂ + 𝑦 𝑦̂ + 𝑧 𝑧̂
𝑂𝑃 (2) 𝐸⃗𝑟 (𝜂 −𝜂1 )
= (𝜂2 (8)
The equation of constant phase plane is 𝐸⃗𝑖 1 +𝜂2 )

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = |𝑂𝐴| = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 A perfect dielectric is one with zero conductivity (𝜎 = 0). Therefore, there will be no losses of This is called reflection coefficient.
𝑛̂. 𝑂𝑃 (3)
power occur.
Substituting the values from equation (1) and (2) in (3). After dividing equation (4) by 𝐸⃗𝑖 . We get
Let
(cos 𝜙𝑥 𝑥̂ + cos 𝜙𝑦 𝑦̂ + cos 𝜙𝑧 𝑧̂ ). (𝑥 𝑥̂ + 𝑦 𝑦̂ + 𝑧 𝑧̂ ) = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝐸⃗𝑖 + 𝐸⃗𝑟 𝐸⃗𝑡 𝐸⃗𝑟 𝐸⃗𝑡
𝐸⃗𝑖 = Electric field for incident wave. = 1+ =
𝐸⃗𝑖 𝐸⃗𝑖 𝐸⃗𝑖 𝐸⃗𝑖
(𝑥 cos 𝜙𝑥 + 𝑦 cos 𝜙𝑦 + 𝑧 cos 𝜙𝑧 ) = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝐸⃗𝑟 = Electric field for reflected wave. 𝐸⃗𝑡 𝐸⃗𝑟
Phase plane is = 𝛽 |𝑂𝐴| =1+ (9)
𝐸⃗𝑖 𝐸⃗𝑖
𝐸⃗𝑡 = Electric field for transmitted wave.
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ )
= 𝛽(𝑛̂. 𝑂𝑃 from equation (3) After putting value of equation (8) in (9). We get
𝜂 = Impedance
= 𝛽(𝑛̂. 𝛾 ) 𝐸⃗𝑡 (𝜂 −𝜂1 ) 2 𝜂2
⃗ 𝑖, 𝐻
𝐻 ⃗ 𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐻
⃗ 𝑡 are the magnetic field intensity. = 1 + (𝜂2 = (10)
𝐸⃗𝑖 1 +𝜂2 ) 𝜂1 +𝜂2
The electric field corresponding to wave propagation is
𝐸⃗𝑖 = 𝜂1 𝐻
⃗𝑖 ⃗ 𝑖 = 1 𝐸⃗𝑖
𝐻 (1) This is called transmission coefficient.
𝜂
𝐸⃗ = ⃗𝑜
𝐸
⏟ . 𝑒 −𝑗𝛽𝑛̂.𝛾⃗
⏟ 1

𝑀𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 𝑃ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 1 Similarly,

𝐸⃗𝑟 = −𝜂1 𝐻
⃗𝑟 ⃗ 𝑟 = − 𝐸⃗𝑟
𝐻 𝜂
(2)
1
𝐸⃗𝑜 . 𝑛̂ = 0 Reflection coefficient for magnetic field H.
1
𝐸⃗𝑡 = 𝜂2 𝐻
⃗𝑡 ⃗𝑡 =
𝐻 𝐸⃗𝑡 (3)
Electric field must be perpendicular to direction of wave propagation. 𝜂2 After dividing equation (2) by (1). We get
According to boundary condition, ⃗𝑟 𝐸⃗𝑟
Wave vector 𝐻
=− (11)
⃗𝑖
𝐻 𝐸⃗𝑖
⃗ = 𝛽 𝑛̂ 𝐸⃗𝑖 + 𝐸⃗𝑟 = 𝐸⃗𝑡 (4)
𝐾
Putting the value of equation (8) in equation (11). We get
⃗𝑖 +𝐻
𝐻 ⃗𝑟 =𝐻
⃗𝑡 (5)
⃗ = 𝛽(cos 𝜙𝑥 𝑥̂ + cos 𝜙𝑦 𝑦̂ + cos 𝜙𝑧 𝑧̂ )
𝐾
Substituting the value of equation (3) in equation (4). We get
 ⃗𝑟
𝐻 (𝜂2 − 𝜂1 ) 𝜂1 − 𝜂2 (1) REFLECTION
=− =
⃗𝑖
𝐻 (𝜂1 + 𝜂2 ) 𝜂1 + 𝜂2 When a way of light incident on a smooth polished surface, then it get bounces back.
Transmission coefficient for magnetic field H. CRITICAL ANGLE
After dividing equation (3) by (1). We get That angle of incidence for which angle of refraction is 900 is called as critical angle.
⃗𝑡
𝐻 𝜂1 𝐸⃗𝑡
⃗𝑖
= (12)
𝐻 𝜂2 𝐸⃗𝑖

Putting the value of equation (10) in equation (12). We get

⃗𝑡 𝜂
𝐻 2 𝜂2 2 𝜂1
= 1( )=
⃗ 𝑖 𝜂2 𝜂1 + 𝜂2
𝐻 𝜂1 + 𝜂2 LAWS of reflection
Permeability for perfect dielectric does not differ. The incident may, reflected ray & normal all lies in same plane.
Total Internal Reflection
𝜇1 = 𝜇2 = 𝜇𝑜 Angle of incidence = Angle of reflection
When the angle of incidence is greater than critical angle, the wave gets totally reflected back
𝜇 𝜃𝑖 = 𝜃𝑟 into the same medium.
𝜂=√ 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝜇 = 𝜇𝑜 𝜇𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜀 = 𝜀𝑜 𝜀𝑟
𝜀

𝜇1 𝜇2 (2) REFRACTION
𝜂1 = √ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜂2 = √
𝜀1 𝜀2
Refraction is defined as change in direction of wave passing from one medium to another
medium.
After putting the value of 𝜂1 and 𝜂2 in equation (8). We get
It refers to bending of light which is caused due to change in density of medium.
𝜇 𝜇 𝜇 𝜇 1 1
(√ 𝜀 2 − √ 𝜀1 ) (√ 𝜀𝑜 − √ 𝜀𝑜 ) √𝜇𝑜 (√𝜀 − √𝜀 ) CASE-I) When light ray travels from Rarer → Denser medium
𝐸⃗𝑟 (𝜂2 − 𝜂1 ) 2 1 2 1 2 1 √𝜀1 − √𝜀2
= = = = =
𝐸⃗𝑖 (𝜂1 + 𝜂2 ) 𝜇 𝜇
(√ 𝜀1 + √ 𝜀 2 )
𝜇 𝜇
(√ 𝜀𝑜 + √ 𝑜 ) 1 1 √𝜀1 + √𝜀2 Conditions
1 2 1 𝜀2 √𝜇𝑜 (√𝜀 + √𝜀 )
1 2
(i) Wave should travel from Denser to Rarer medium.
𝜇 𝜇
𝐸⃗𝑡 2 𝜂2 2 √𝜀2 2 √𝜀 𝑜 2 √𝜀1 (ⅱ) Angle of incidence (𝜃𝑖 ) > Critical Angle (𝜃𝑐 )
2 2
= = = =
𝐸⃗𝑖 𝜂1 + 𝜂2 𝜇1 𝜇2 𝜇𝑜 𝜇𝑜 √𝜀1 + √𝜀2
√
𝜀1 + √ 𝜀2 √
𝜀1 + √ 𝜀2
WAVE POLARIZATION AT MEDIA INTERFACE
𝜇1 𝜇2 𝜇𝑜 𝜇𝑜 1 1
√
⃗ 𝑟 (𝜂1 − 𝜂2 ) (√ 𝜀1 − √ 𝜀2 ) (√ 𝜀1 − √ 𝜀2 ) √𝜇𝑜 (√𝜀1 − 𝜀2 ) √𝜀2 − √𝜀1
𝐻
Consider a wave incident at media interface,
= = = = =
⃗ 𝑖 (𝜂1 + 𝜂2 ) 𝜇 𝜇 𝜇 𝜇 𝜀 + 𝜀 CASE-II) When light ray travel from Denser → Rarer Medium
𝐻 (√ 𝜀1 + √ 𝜀 2 ) (√ 𝜀𝑜 + √ 𝜀 𝑜 ) √𝜇𝑜 (√ 1 + √ 1 ) √ 1 √ 2
1 2 1 2 𝜀1 𝜀2

𝜇 𝜇
⃗𝑡
𝐻 2 𝜂1 2 √𝜀 1 2 √𝜀 𝑜 2 √𝜀2
1 2
= = = =
⃗ 𝑖 𝜂1 + 𝜂2
𝐻 𝜇1 𝜇2 𝜇𝑜 𝜇𝑜 √𝜀1 + √𝜀2
√
𝜀1 + √ 𝜀2 √ 𝜀1 + √ 𝜀2

The electric field equation will be.

TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION

𝜋
For Incident wave Phase Difference 𝜙 = ± ⃗ 𝑖 = (−𝐻𝑖 sin 𝜃 𝑥̂ − 𝐻𝑖 cos 𝜃 𝑧̂ ) 𝑒 −𝑗𝛽(−𝑥 cos 𝜃+𝑧 sin 𝜃)
𝐻
2

𝐸⃗𝑖 = 𝐸⃗𝑖∥ + 𝐸⃗𝑖⊥ 𝑒 𝑗𝜙 Γ∥ and Γ⊥ are complex ⃗ 𝑖 = − 𝐸𝑖 (sin 𝜃 𝑥̂ + cos 𝜃 𝑧̂ ) 𝑒 −𝑗𝛽(−𝑥 cos 𝜃+𝑧 sin 𝜃)
𝐻 (4)
𝜂
For Reflected Wave |Γ∥ | = |Γ⊥ | ⃗ 𝑟 = (−𝐻𝑟 sin 𝜃 𝑥̂ + 𝐻𝑟 cos 𝜃 𝑧̂ ) 𝑒 −𝑗𝛽(𝑥 cos 𝜃+𝑧 sin 𝜃)
𝐻
𝐸⃗𝑟 = 𝐸⃗𝑟∥ + 𝐸⃗𝑟⊥ 𝑒 𝑗𝜙 So, reflected wave will become elliptically polarized.
⃗ 𝑟 = 𝐸𝑟 (− sin 𝜃 𝑥̂ + cos 𝜃 𝑧̂ ) 𝑒 −𝑗𝛽(𝑥 cos 𝜃+𝑧 sin 𝜃)
𝐻 (5)
𝜂
𝐸⃗𝑟 = Γ∥ 𝐸⃗𝑖∥ + Γ⊥ 𝐸⃗𝑖⊥ 𝑒 𝑗𝜙
On applying boundary condition
For Transmitted Wave CASE-III) When the incident wave is elliptically Polarized
Electric field equation for dielectric medium is
Similarly, it might become Linearly Polarized based on its parameter or Circularly
𝐸⃗𝑡 = 𝜏∥ 𝐸⃗𝑖∥ + 𝜏⊥ 𝐸⃗𝑖⊥ 𝑒 𝑗𝜙
Polarized, based on its parameter. 𝐸⃗ = 𝐸⃗𝑖 + 𝐸⃗𝑟

𝐸⃗ = 𝐸𝑖 𝑒 −𝑗𝛽(−𝑥 cos 𝜃+𝑧 sin 𝜃) 𝑦̂ + 𝐸𝑟 𝑒 −𝑗𝛽(𝑥 cos 𝜃+𝑧 sin 𝜃) 𝑦̂

CONCLUSION
𝐸⃗ = 𝐸𝑖 𝑒 −𝑗𝛽𝑧 sin 𝜃 ( 𝐸𝑟 𝑒 𝑗𝛽𝑥 cos 𝜃 + 𝐸𝑟 𝑒 −𝑗𝛽𝑥 cos 𝜃 ) 𝑦̂
CASE-I) When incident wave is Linearly Polarized Media Interface, can be used to alter the state of polarization.
𝑒 𝑗𝛽𝑥 cos 𝜃 − 𝑒 −𝑗𝛽𝑥 cos 𝜃
(i) Normal Reflection 𝐸⃗ = 2𝑗𝐸𝑖 𝑒 −𝑗𝛽𝑧 sin 𝜃 ( ) 𝑦̂
2𝑗
Phase Difference 𝜙 = 0
𝐸⃗ = 2𝑗𝐸𝑖 𝑒 −𝑗𝛽𝑧 sin 𝜃 sin(𝛽𝑥 cos 𝜃) 𝑦̂
Γ∥ and Γ⊥ are real REFLECTION FROM CONDUCTING BOUNDARY
𝐸⃗ = 2𝑗𝐸𝑖 sin(𝛽𝑥
⏟ cos 𝜃) 𝑒 −𝑗𝛽𝑧 sin 𝜃
⏟ 𝑦̂ (6)
|Γ∥ | ≠ |Γ⊥ | 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒

So, reflected wave will remain Linearly Polarized.

(ii) Total Internal Reflection Magnetic field in X-direction is
Phase Difference 𝜙 = 0 (Ignore the Z-direction field)
Γ∥ and Γ⊥ are complex From equation (4) and (5)

|Γ∥ | = |Γ⊥ | = 1 𝐸𝑖
⃗𝑖 =−
𝐻 (sin 𝜃 𝑥̂ + cos 𝜃 𝑧̂ ) 𝑒 −𝑗𝛽(−𝑥 cos 𝜃+𝑧 sin 𝜃)
𝜂
So, reflected wave will become elliptically polarized.
𝐸𝑖
Consider a medium divided in 2 parts by conducting boundary. ⃗𝑖 =−
𝐻 sin 𝜃 𝑥̂ 𝑒 −𝑗𝛽(−𝑥 cos 𝜃+𝑧 sin 𝜃)
𝜂
CASE-II) When incident wave is Circularly Polarized (i) Ideal Dielectric medium is present above boundary. 𝐸𝑟
⃗𝑟 =
𝐻 (− sin 𝜃 𝑥̂ + cos 𝜃 𝑧̂ ) 𝑒 −𝑗𝛽(𝑥 cos 𝜃+𝑧 sin 𝜃)
(i) Normal Reflection (ii) Ideal Conducting medium is present below boundary. 𝜂

Phase Difference 𝜙 = ± 2
𝜋
Equation of electric field are :- 𝐸𝑟
⃗𝑟 =
𝐻 (−sin 𝜃 𝑥̂) 𝑒 −𝑗𝛽(𝑥 cos 𝜃+𝑧 sin 𝜃)
𝜂
Γ∥ and Γ⊥ are real 𝐸⃗𝑖 = 𝐸𝑖 𝑒 −𝑗𝛽(−𝑥 cos 𝜃+𝑧 sin 𝜃) 𝑦̂ (1)
⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑥 = 𝐻
𝐻 ⃗𝑖 +𝐻
⃗𝑟
𝑥 𝑥
|Γ∥ | ≠ |Γ⊥ | 𝐸⃗𝑟 = 𝐸𝑟 𝑒 −𝑗𝛽(𝑥 cos 𝜃+𝑧 sin 𝜃) 𝑦̂ (2)
𝐸𝑖 𝐸𝑟
𝜋 𝐸⃗𝑖 𝐸⃗𝑟 ⃗𝑥 =−
𝐻 sin 𝜃 𝑥̂ 𝑒 −𝑗𝛽(−𝑥 cos 𝜃+𝑧 sin 𝜃) + (−sin 𝜃 𝑥̂) 𝑒 −𝑗𝛽(𝑥 cos 𝜃+𝑧 sin 𝜃)
So, reflected wave will become Elliptically Polarized with tilt angle of 00 𝑜𝑟 2 . ⃗𝑖
= ⃗𝑟
=𝜂 (3) 𝜂 𝜂
𝐻 𝐻

(ii) Total Internal Reflection 𝐸𝑖

Equation of magnetic field are :- ⃗𝑥 =−
𝐻 sin 𝜃 (𝑒 −𝑗𝛽𝑥 cos 𝜃 − 𝑒 −𝑗𝛽𝑥 cos 𝜃 )𝑒 −𝑗𝛽𝑧 sin 𝜃 𝑥̂
𝜂
 ⃗ 𝑥 = −2𝑗
𝐻
𝐸𝑖
sin 𝜃 (
𝑒 −𝑗𝛽𝑥 cos 𝜃 − 𝑒 −𝑗𝛽𝑥 cos 𝜃 −𝑗𝛽𝑧 sin 𝜃
)𝑒 𝑥̂ Module - 5 Characteristic of transverse field are controlled more by 𝐸𝑧 than 𝐻𝑧 .
𝜂 2𝑗 (4) HE MODE
WAVEGUIDE
𝐸 It is also defined as Hybrid Mode.
⃗ 𝑥 = −2𝑗 𝑖 sin 𝜃 sin(𝛽𝑥 cos 𝜃) 𝑒 −𝑗𝛽𝑧 sin 𝜃 𝑥̂
𝐻 Any structure that guides the electromagnetic wave, can be considered as wave guide.
𝜂
In case of HE Mode, there is not zero component of electric and magnetic field in the direction
of propagation of EM wave.
Magnetic field in Z-direction is 𝐸𝑧 ≠ 0 𝐻𝑧 ≠ 0
(Ignore the x-direction field) Characteristic of transverse field are controlled more by 𝐻𝑧 than 𝐸𝑧 .
From equation (4) and (5)
𝐸𝑖 Waveguides are coaxial lines without center conductor. (5) TEM MODE
⃗𝑖 =−
𝐻 (sin 𝜃 𝑥̂ + cos 𝜃 𝑧̂ ) 𝑒 −𝑗𝛽(−𝑥 cos 𝜃+𝑧 sin 𝜃)
𝜂 Waveguides are generally constructed from conducting medium.
It is defined as Transverse Electromagnetic Mode.
𝐸𝑖
⃗𝑖 =−
𝐻 cos 𝜃 𝑧̂ 𝑒 −𝑗𝛽(−𝑥 cos 𝜃+𝑧 sin 𝜃) It is also known as Transmission Line Mode.
𝜂 WAVEGUIDE MODES
𝐸𝑟 Every type of waveguide has an infinite number of distinct electromagnetic field configurations These mode can exist only if second conductor exist within the waveguide.
⃗𝑟 =
𝐻 (− sin 𝜃 𝑥̂ + cos 𝜃 𝑧̂ ) 𝑒 −𝑗𝛽(𝑥 cos 𝜃+𝑧 sin 𝜃)
𝜂 that can exist inside it. In case of TEM Mode, there is no component of electric and magnetic field in the direction of
𝐸 These configurations, are called as MODES propagation of EM wave.
⃗ 𝑟 = 𝑟 cos 𝜃 𝑧̂ 𝑒 −𝑗𝛽(𝑥 cos 𝜃+𝑧 sin 𝜃)
𝐻
𝜂 𝐸𝑧 = 0 𝐻𝑧 = 0
Following 5 modes are-
⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑧 = 𝐻
𝐻 ⃗𝑖 +𝐻
⃗𝑟
𝑧 𝑧 (1) TE MODE
𝐸 𝐸 It is defined as Transverse Electric Mode. DEGENERATE MODE
⃗ 𝑥 = − 𝑖 cos 𝜃 𝑥̂ 𝑒 −𝑗𝛽(−𝑥 cos 𝜃+𝑧 sin 𝜃) + 𝑟 cos 𝜃 𝑧̂ 𝑒 −𝑗𝛽(𝑥 cos 𝜃+𝑧 sin 𝜃)
𝐻
𝜂 𝜂 Whenever two or more modes, have same cutoff frequency then, these modes are called
In case of TE Mode, there is no component of electric field in the direction of propagation of
𝐸𝑖 EM wave. Degenerate Modes.
⃗𝑥 =−
𝐻 cos 𝜃 (𝑒 −𝑗𝛽𝑥 cos 𝜃 + 𝑒 −𝑗𝛽𝑥 cos 𝜃 )𝑒 −𝑗𝛽𝑧 sin 𝜃 𝑧̂
𝜂 Cut-off frequency (𝑓𝑐 )
𝐸𝑧 = 0 𝐻𝑧 ≠ 0
𝐸𝑖 𝑒 −𝑗𝛽𝑥 cos 𝜃 + 𝑒 −𝑗𝛽𝑥 cos 𝜃 −𝑗𝛽𝑧 sin 𝜃
⃗ 𝑥 = −2
𝐻 sin 𝜃 ( )𝑒 𝑧̂ 𝑐 𝑚 2 𝑛 2
𝜂 2 𝑓𝑐 = √( ) + ( )
(2) TM MODE 2 𝑎 𝑏
𝐸𝑖
⃗ 𝑥 = −2
𝐻 cos 𝜃 cos(𝛽𝑥 cos 𝜃) 𝑒 −𝑗𝛽𝑧 sin 𝜃 𝑧̂
𝜂 It is defined as Transverse Magnetic Mode. Where,
In case of TM Mode, there is no component of magnetic field in the direction of propagation 𝑓𝑐 = Cut-off frequency
of EM wave.
𝑐 = Velocity of light in vacuum
𝐻𝑧 = 0 𝐸𝑧 ≠ 0
𝑎 & 𝑏 = Dimension of wave guide
In case of rectangular waveguide, the 𝑇𝐸𝑚𝑛 and 𝑇𝑀𝑚𝑛 mode are considered as degenerate
(3) EH MODE modes.
It is defined as Hybrid Mode. Example:- Degenerate Mode
In case of EH Mode, there is not zero component of electric and magnetic field in the direction 𝑇𝐸11 and 𝑇𝑀11
of propagation of EM wave.
𝑚 = 1&𝑛 =1 and 𝑚 = 1&𝑛 =1
𝐸𝑧 ≠ 0 𝐻𝑧 ≠ 0

H represents Magnetic field. 𝐻𝑥 = 0, 𝐻𝑦 ≠ 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐻𝑧 ≠ 0 𝜙(𝑥, 0) = 𝐴 + 𝐵 × 0 = 𝐴 = 0

DOMINANT MODE TE :- E represents Electric field. 𝐸𝑥 = 0, 𝐸𝑦 ≠ 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐸𝑧 ≠ 0 𝐴=0 (5)
The mode with lowest cutoff frequency in a particular guide, is considered as dominant Modes. H represents Magnetic field. 𝐻𝑥 ≠ 0, 𝐻𝑦 ≠ 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐻𝑧 ≠ 0
Cut-off frequency (𝑓𝑐 ) Applying second boundary condition. We get

TM :- E represents Electric field. 𝐸𝑥 ≠ 0, 𝐸𝑦 ≠ 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐸𝑧 ≠ 0 𝜙(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝐴 + 𝐵𝑦 = 𝑉𝑜

𝑐 𝑚 2 𝑛 2
𝑓𝑐 = √( ) + ( )
2 𝑎 𝑏 H represents Magnetic field. 𝐻𝑥 = 0, 𝐻𝑦 ≠ 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐻𝑧 ≠ 0 𝜙(𝑥, 𝑑) = 𝐴 + 𝐵 × 𝑑 = 𝑉𝑜

Where, 𝜙(𝑥, 𝑑) = 0 + 𝐵 × 𝑑 = 𝑉𝑜
𝑉𝑜
𝑓𝑐 = Cut-off frequency TEM MODE FOR PARALLEL PLATE WAVE GUIDE 𝐵=
𝑑
(6)

𝑐 = Velocity of light in vacuum Putting the value of equation (5) and (6) in (4). We get
𝑎 & 𝑏 = Dimension of wave guide 𝜙(𝑥, 𝑦) =
𝑉𝑜
𝑦 (7)
𝑑
In case of rectangular waveguide, the 𝑇𝐸𝑚𝑛 and 𝑇𝑀𝑚𝑛 mode are considered as dominant
This is the general equation of helmbotz.
modes.
Transverse of Electric field is
Example:- Dominant Mode
𝑒(𝑥, 𝑦) = −∇𝑡 𝜙(𝑥, 𝑦)
𝑇𝐸10 and 𝑇𝑀01
𝛿 𝛿 𝛿
𝑚 = 1&𝑛 =0 and 𝑚 = 0&𝑛 =1 𝑒(𝑥, 𝑦) = − ( 𝜙(𝑥, 𝑦) 𝑥̂ + 𝜙(𝑥, 𝑦) 𝑦̂ + 𝜙(𝑥, 𝑦) 𝑧̂ )
𝛿𝑥 𝛿𝑦 𝛿𝑧
𝛿 𝑉𝑜 𝛿 𝑉𝑜 𝛿 𝑉𝑜
𝑒(𝑥, 𝑦) = − ( ( 𝑦) 𝑥̂ + 𝜙 ( 𝑦) 𝑦̂ + 𝜙 ( 𝑦) 𝑧̂ )
WAVE PROPAGATION IN PARALLEL PLATE WAVE GUIDE The helmboltz equation in potential form is 𝛿𝑥 𝑑 𝛿𝑦 𝑑 𝛿𝑧 𝑑
These are two parallel plates termed as parallel plate waveguide, and seperation between these 0≤𝑥≤𝑤 𝑉𝑜
plate is "d". ∇2𝑡 𝜙(𝑥, 𝑦) = 0 {𝑓𝑜𝑟 (1) = − (0 𝑥̂ + 𝑦̂ + 0 𝑧̂ )
0≤𝑦≤𝑑 𝑑

Boundary condition 𝑉𝑜
𝑒(𝑥, 𝑦) = − 𝑦̂
𝑑
(i) The bottom plate is at 0 potential
Total electric field is
𝜙(𝑥, 0) = 0 (2)
𝐸(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = 𝑒(𝑥, 𝑦) 𝑒 −𝑗𝑘𝑧
(ii) The top plate is at +ve potential
𝑉𝑜 −𝑗𝑘𝑧
𝜙(𝑥, 𝑑) = 𝑉𝑜 (3) 𝐸(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = − 𝑒 𝑦̂
𝑑
𝑉𝑜 = potential for top parallel plate. Total magnetic field is
These 2 parallel plates are being seperated dielectric material having permeability (𝜇) and 1
permittivity (𝜀). 𝐻(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = 𝑧̂ × 𝐸(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)
𝜂
General equation of helmbotz is
Seperation (d) is very very less than width of parallel plates. 1 𝑉𝑜 1 𝑉𝑜 1 𝑉𝑜
𝜙(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝐴 + 𝐵𝑦 (4) 𝐻(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = 𝑧̂ × − 𝑒 −𝑗𝑘𝑧 𝑦̂ = (− ) 𝑒 −𝑗𝑘𝑧 ( 𝑧̂ × 𝑦̂) = (− ) 𝑒 −𝑗𝑘𝑧 (−𝑥̂)
It supports 3 modes of propagation. TEM, TE, TM 𝜂 𝑑 𝜂 𝑑 𝜂 𝑑
𝑉𝑜 −𝑗𝑘𝑧
𝐻(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = 𝑒 𝑥̂
Applying first boundary condition. We get 𝜂𝑑
TEM :- E represents Electric field. 𝐸𝑥 = 0, 𝐸𝑦 ≠ 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐸𝑧 ≠ 0
𝜙(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝐴 + 𝐵𝑦 = 0
 𝑒𝑧 (𝑥, 𝑦) = 0 𝑎𝑡 𝑦 = 𝑑 (3) 𝛽 = √𝐾 2 − 𝐾𝑐2
(i) Voltage on top plate is General equation of helmbotz is (i) Cut off frequency (𝑓𝑐 ) is
𝑦=𝑑 𝑦=𝑑
𝑉𝑜 −𝑗𝑘𝑧 𝑒𝑧 (𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝐴 sin(𝐾𝑐 𝑦) + 𝐵 cos(𝐾𝑐 𝑦) (4) 𝜔 𝐾𝑐 𝑉𝑃 𝑛𝜋 1 1 𝑛
−∫ 𝐸𝑦 𝑑𝑦 = − ∫ (− 𝑒 ) 𝑑𝑦 = 𝑉𝑜 𝑒 −𝑗𝑘𝑧 𝑓𝑐 = = = ( )( ) =
𝑦=0 𝑦=0 𝑑 Applying first boundary condition. We get 2𝜋 2𝜋 𝑑 √𝜇𝜀 2𝜋 2𝑑 √𝜀𝜇
(ii) Current on top plate is 𝑒𝑧 (𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝐴 sin(𝐾𝑐 𝑦) + 𝐵 cos(𝐾𝑐 𝑦) (ii) Wave Impedance (𝑍𝑇𝑀 ) is
𝑥=𝑤 𝑥=𝑤 𝑥=𝑤 𝑥=𝑤 𝐸𝑦 𝛽
𝑉𝑜 −𝑗𝑘𝑧 𝑒𝑧 (𝑥, 𝑦) = 0 = 𝐴 sin 00 + 𝐵 cos 00 = 0 + 𝐵
∫ ( 𝐽𝑠 . 𝑧̂ ) 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ ⃗ ). 𝑧̂ ) 𝑑𝑥 = ∫
((−𝑦̂ × 𝐻 ⃗ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫
𝐻 ( 𝑒 ) 𝑑𝑥 𝑍𝑇𝑀 = − =
𝑥=0 𝑥=0 𝑥=0 𝑥=0 𝜂𝑑 𝐻𝑥 𝜔𝜀
𝐵=0 (5)
𝑥=𝑤
𝑉𝑜 −𝑗𝑘𝑧 𝑉𝑜 −𝑗𝑘𝑧 𝑥=𝑤 𝑤𝑉𝑜 −𝑗𝑘𝑧 (iii) Phase velocity is
∫ ( 𝑒 ) 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑒 ∫ 1 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑒
𝑥=0 𝜂𝑑 𝜂𝑑 𝑥=0 𝜂𝑑 𝜔 1
Applying second boundary condition. We get 𝑉𝑝 = =
(iii) Characteristic Impedance is 𝛽 √𝜀𝜇
𝑒𝑧 (𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝐴 sin(𝐾𝑐 𝑦) + 𝐵 cos(𝐾𝑐 𝑦)
𝑉 𝑉𝑜 𝑒 −𝑗𝑘𝑧 𝑉𝑜 𝜂𝑑
𝑍𝑜 = = = = 𝑒𝑧 (𝑥, 𝑦) = 0 = 𝐴 sin(𝐾𝑐 𝑑) + 0 cos(𝐾𝑐 𝑑)
𝐼 𝑤𝑉𝑜 𝑒 −𝑗𝑘𝑧 𝑤𝑉𝑜 𝑤 TE MODE FOR PARALLEL PLATE WAVE GUIDE
𝜂𝑑 𝜂𝑑
𝐴 sin(𝐾𝑐 𝑑) = 0
(iv) Phase velocity is
sin(𝐾𝑐 𝑑) = sin(𝑛𝜋)
𝜔 1
𝑉𝑝 = = 𝐾𝑐 𝑑 = 𝑛𝜋 𝐾𝑐 =
𝑛𝜋
(6)
𝛽 √𝜀𝜇 𝑑

TM MODE FOR PARALLEL PLATE WAVE GUIDE Putting the value of equation (5) and (6) in (4). We get
𝑛𝜋
𝑒𝑧 (𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝐴 sin ( 𝑦) + 0 cos(𝐾𝑐 𝑦)
𝑑
𝑛𝜋
𝑒𝑧 (𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝐴 sin (
𝑑
𝑦) (7)

This is the general equation of helmbotz. The helmboltz equation in potential form is
Transverse component are given as (
𝛿2
+ 𝐾𝑐2 ) ℎ𝑧 (𝑥, 𝑦) = 0 (1)
𝛿𝑦 2
𝑗𝜔𝜀 𝑛𝜋
𝐻𝑥 = 𝐴 cos ( 𝑦) 𝑒 −𝑗𝛽𝑧 𝑬𝒙 = 𝟎
𝐾𝑐 𝑑
𝑗𝛽 𝑛𝜋 Boundary condition
𝐸𝑦 = 𝐴 cos ( 𝑦) 𝑒 −𝑗𝛽𝑧
𝐾𝑐 𝑑 (i) The bottom plate is at 0 potential
The helmboltz equation in potential form is
𝐸𝑥 = 0 𝐻𝑦 = 0 𝐸𝑥 (𝑥, 𝑦) = 0 𝑎𝑡 𝑦 = 0 (2)
𝛿2
(𝛿𝑦 2 + 𝐾𝑐2 ) 𝑒𝑧 (𝑥, 𝑦) = 0 (1) Total electric field is (ii) The top plate is at +ve potential

Boundary condition 𝐸(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = 𝑒𝑧 (𝑥, 𝑦) 𝑒 −𝑗𝛽𝑧 𝐸𝑥 (𝑥, 𝑦) = 0 𝑎𝑡 𝑦 = 𝑑 (3)

(i) The bottom plate is at 0 potential 𝑛𝜋 General equation of helmbotz is

𝐸(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = 𝐴 sin ( 𝑦) 𝑒 −𝑗𝛽𝑧 𝑦̂
𝑑
𝑒𝑧 (𝑥, 𝑦) = 0 𝑎𝑡 𝑦 = 0 (2) ℎ𝑧 (𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝐴 sin(𝐾𝑐 𝑦) + 𝐵 cos(𝐾𝑐 𝑦) (4)
Where,
(ii) The top plate is at +ve potential In term of electric field

𝐸𝑥 = −
𝑗𝜔𝜇
(𝐴 cos(𝐾𝑐 𝑦) − 𝐵 sin(𝐾𝑐 𝑦))𝑒 −𝑗𝛽𝑧 (5) 𝛽 = √𝐾 2 − 𝐾𝑐2 Putting the value of equation (1), (2) and (3) in Maxwell equation. We get
𝐾𝑐

(i) Cut off frequency (𝑓𝑐 ) is 𝛿

Applying first boundary condition. We get (∇ 𝑇 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑇 + 𝐸𝐿 𝑧̂ ) = −𝑗𝜔𝜇(𝐻
𝑧̂ ) × (𝐸 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑇 + 𝐻𝐿 𝑧̂ )
𝛿𝑧
𝑗𝜔𝜇 𝜔 𝐾𝑐 𝑉𝑃 𝑛𝜋 1 1 𝑛
𝐸𝑥 = − (𝐴 cos(𝐾𝑐 𝑦) − 𝐵 sin(𝐾𝑐 𝑦))𝑒 −𝑗𝛽𝑧 𝑓𝑐 = = = ( )( ) = 𝛿 𝛿
𝐾𝑐 2𝜋 2𝜋 𝑑 √𝜇𝜀 2𝜋 2𝑑 √𝜀𝜇 ⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑇 + ∇ 𝑇 × (𝐸𝐿 𝑧̂ ) + (
∇𝑇 × 𝐸 ⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑇 + ( 𝑧̂ ) × (𝐸𝐿 𝑧̂ ) = −𝑗𝜔𝜇 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑧̂ ) × 𝐸 𝐻𝑇 − 𝑗𝜔𝜇 𝐻𝐿 𝑧̂
𝛿𝑧 𝛿𝑧
𝑗𝜔𝜇 𝑗𝜔𝜇 (ii) Wave Impedance (𝑍𝑇𝑀 ) is
𝐸𝑥 = 0 = − (𝐴 cos(00 ) − 𝐵 sin(00 ))𝑒 −𝑗𝛽𝑧 = − (𝐴 − 0)𝑒 −𝑗𝛽𝑧 𝛿
⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑇 + ∇ 𝑇 × (𝐸𝐿 𝑧̂ ) + ( 𝑧̂ ) × ⃗⃗⃗⃗
∇𝑇 × 𝐸 𝐸𝑇 + 0 = −𝑗𝜔𝜇 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐻𝑇 − 𝑗𝜔𝜇 𝐻𝐿 𝑧̂
𝐾𝑐 𝐾𝑐 𝐸𝑥 𝜔𝜇 𝛿𝑧
𝑍𝑇𝑀 = =
𝐴=0 (6) 𝐻𝑦 𝛽 After comparing transverse component. We get
Applying second boundary condition. We get (iii) Phase velocity is 𝛿
∇ 𝑇 × (𝐸𝐿 𝑧̂ ) + ( 𝑧̂ ) × ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐸𝑇 = −𝑗𝜔𝜇 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐻𝑇
𝑗𝜔𝜇 𝜔 1 𝛿𝑧
𝐸𝑥 = − (𝐴 cos(𝐾𝑐 𝑦) − 𝐵 sin(𝐾𝑐 𝑦))𝑒 −𝑗𝛽𝑧 𝑉𝑝 = =
𝐾𝑐 𝛽 √𝜀𝜇 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑇 = 1 𝛿
𝐻 [∇ 𝑇 × (𝐸𝐿 𝑧̂ ) + ( 𝑧̂ ) × ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐸𝑇 ] (4)
−𝑗𝜔𝜇 𝛿𝑧
𝑗𝜔𝜇 𝑗𝜔𝜇
𝐸𝑥 = 0 = − (0 cos(𝐾𝑐 𝑑) − 𝐵 sin(𝐾𝑐 𝑑))𝑒 −𝑗𝛽𝑧 = − (0 − 𝐵 sin(𝐾𝑐 𝑑))𝑒 −𝑗𝛽𝑧
𝐾𝑐 𝐾𝑐
(iii) Maxwell’s equation gives
sin(𝐾𝑐 𝑑) = 0 ANALYSIS OF WAVEGUIDE GENERAL APPROACH
⃗ = −𝑗𝜔𝜀𝐸⃗
∇×𝐻
sin(𝐾𝑐 𝑑) = sin(𝑛𝜋) We have arbitrary shaped waveguide.
𝑛𝜋 Putting the value of equation (1), (2) and (3) in Maxwell equation. We get
𝐾𝑐 𝑑 = 𝑛𝜋 𝐾𝑐 = 𝑑
(7)
𝛿
(∇ 𝑇 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑇 + 𝐻𝐿 𝑧̂ ) = −𝑗𝜔𝜀(𝐸
𝑧̂ ) × (𝐻 ⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑇 + 𝐸𝐿 𝑧̂ )
𝛿𝑧
Putting the value of equation (6) and (7) in (4). We get 𝛿 𝛿
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑇 + ∇ 𝑇 × (𝐻𝐿 𝑧̂ ) + ( 𝑧̂ ) × ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
∇𝑇 × 𝐻 𝐻𝑇 + ( 𝑧̂ ) × (𝐻𝐿 𝑧̂ ) = −𝑗𝜔𝜀 ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐸𝑇 − 𝑗𝜔𝜀 𝐸𝐿 𝑧̂
𝑛𝜋 𝛿𝑧 𝛿𝑧
ℎ𝑧 (𝑥, 𝑦) = 0 sin(𝐾𝑐 𝑦) + 𝐵 cos ( 𝑦)
𝑑 𝛿
(i) Electric field and magnetic field is ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑇 + ∇ 𝑇 × (𝐻𝐿 𝑧̂ ) + (
∇𝑇 × 𝐻 𝑧̂ ) × ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐻𝑇 + 0 = −𝑗𝜔𝜀 ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐸𝑇 − 𝑗𝜔𝜀 𝐸𝐿 𝑧̂
ℎ𝑧 (𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝐵 cos (
𝑛𝜋
𝑦) (8) 𝛿𝑧
𝑑
𝐸⃗ = ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐸𝑇 + 𝐸𝐿 𝑧̂ (1) After comparing transverse component. We get
This is the general equation of helmbotz.
⃗ = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐻 𝐻𝑇 + 𝐻𝐿 𝑧̂ (2) 𝛿
Transverse component are given as ∇ 𝑇 × (𝐻𝐿 𝑧̂ ) + ( 𝑧̂ ) × ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐻𝑇 = −𝑗𝜔𝜀 ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐸𝑇
Where, 𝛿𝑧
𝑗𝜔𝜇 𝑛𝜋
𝐸𝑥 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = 𝐵 sin ( 𝑦) 𝑒 −𝑗𝛽𝑧 ⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑇 = 1 [∇ 𝑇 × (𝐻𝐿 𝑧̂ ) + ( 𝛿 𝑧̂ ) × ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐸 𝐻𝑇 ] (5)
𝐾𝑐 𝑛 𝑑 𝐸⃗𝑇 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐸𝑥 𝑥̂ + ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐸𝑦 𝑦̂ −𝑗𝜔𝜀 𝛿𝑧

𝑗𝛽 𝑛𝜋 ⃗ 𝑇 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐻 𝐻𝑥 𝑥̂ + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐻𝑦 𝑦̂ Substituting the value of equation (4) in equation (5). We get
𝐻𝑦 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = − 𝐵 sin ( 𝑦) 𝑒 −𝑗𝛽𝑧
𝐾𝑐 𝑛 𝑑 1 𝛿
𝛿 ⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑇 =
∇= ∇ 𝑇 + 𝑧̂ (3) 𝐸 [∇ × (𝐻𝐿 𝑧̂ ) + ( 𝑧̂ ) × ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐻𝑇 ]
𝐸𝑦 = 0 𝐻𝑥 = 0 𝛿𝑧 −𝑗𝜔𝜀 𝑇 𝛿𝑧
Here, 1 𝛿 1 𝛿
Total magnetic field is ⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑇 =
𝐸 [∇ × (𝐻𝐿 𝑧̂ ) + ( 𝑧̂ ) × ( ⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑇 ])]
[∇ × (𝐸𝐿 𝑧̂ ) + ( 𝑧̂ ) × 𝐸
𝛿 𝛿 −𝑗𝜔𝜀 𝑇 𝛿𝑧 −𝑗𝜔𝜇 𝑇 𝛿𝑧
𝐻𝑧 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = ℎ𝑧 (𝑥, 𝑦) 𝑒 −𝑗𝛽𝑧 ∇𝑇 = 𝑥̂ + 𝑦̂
𝛿𝑥 𝛿𝑦 1 1 𝛿 1 𝛿
𝑛𝜋 = [∇ × (𝐻𝐿 𝑧̂ )] − [( 𝑧̂ ) × ( ⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑇 ])]
[∇ × (𝐸𝐿 𝑧̂ ) + ( 𝑧̂ ) × 𝐸
𝐻𝑧 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = 𝐵 cos ( 𝑦) 𝑒 −𝑗𝛽𝑧 (ii) Maxwell’s equation gives −𝑗𝜔𝜀 𝑇 −𝑗𝜔𝜀 𝛿𝑧 −𝑗𝜔𝜇 𝑇 𝛿𝑧
𝑑
1 1 𝛿 𝛿
Where, ∇ × 𝐸⃗ = −𝑗𝜔𝜇𝐻
⃗ = [∇ × (𝐻𝐿 𝑧̂ )] − 2 [( 𝑧̂ ) × (∇ 𝑇 × (𝐸𝐿 𝑧̂ ) + ( 𝑧̂ ) × ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐸𝑇 )]
−𝑗𝜔𝜀 𝑇 𝜔 𝜇𝜀 𝛿𝑧 𝛿𝑧
 1 1 𝛿 𝛿 𝛿 𝐸𝐿 ≠ 0 , 𝐻𝐿 = 0, we get TM wave. 2𝑎𝑏
⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐸𝑇 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑇 )]
[∇ × (𝐻𝐿 𝑧̂ )] − 2 [(( 𝑧̂ ) × ∇ 𝑇 × (𝐸𝐿 𝑧̂ )) + (( 𝑧̂ ) × ( 𝑧̂ ) × 𝐸 𝜆𝑐 =
−𝑗𝜔𝜀 𝑇 𝜔 𝜇𝜀 𝛿𝑧 𝛿𝑧 𝛿𝑧 𝐸𝐿 = 0 , 𝐻𝐿 = 0, we get TEM wave. √(𝑚𝑏)2 + (𝑛𝑎)2

Vector triple product is Example

⃗ × 𝐶 = (𝐴. 𝐶 )𝐵
𝐴×𝐵 ⃗ − (𝐴. 𝐵
⃗ )𝐶 RECTANGULAR WAVEGUIDE 𝑇𝐸10 𝑚 = 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑛 = 0

A rectangular waveguide is a hollow metallic tube with rectangular cross section area. 2𝑎𝑏
𝛿 𝛿 𝛿 𝛿 𝜆𝑐 = 𝑓𝑐 = 2𝑎
( 𝑧̂ ) × ∇ 𝑇 × (𝐸𝐿 𝑧̂ ) = {( 𝑧̂ ) . (𝐸𝐿 𝑧̂ )} ∇ 𝑇 − {( 𝑧̂ ) . ∇ 𝑇 } (𝐸𝐿 𝑧̂ ) = 𝐸𝐿 ∇ 𝑇 √(1 𝑏)2 + (0 𝑎)2
𝛿𝑧 𝛿𝑧 𝛿𝑧 𝛿𝑧 The conducting walls of waveguide confines the electromagnetic fields, and there by guide the
𝛿 𝛿 𝛿 𝛿 𝛿 𝛿 𝛿2 EM wave.
( 𝑧̂ ) × ( 𝑧̂ ) × ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐸𝑇 = {( 𝑧̂ ) . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐸𝑇 } ( 𝑧̂ ) − {( 𝑧̂ ) . ( 𝑧̂ )} ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐸𝑇 = − 2 ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐸
𝛿𝑧 𝛿𝑧 𝛿𝑧 𝛿𝑧 𝛿𝑧 𝛿𝑧 𝛿𝑧 𝑇 Rectangular waveguide only supports TE & TM mode. It does mat support TEM.
1 1 𝛿 𝛿2 When the wave travels longitudinally down the guide, the plane waves are reflected from wall
⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑇 =
𝐸 [∇ × (𝐻𝐿 𝑧̂ )] − 2 [( 𝐸𝐿 ∇ 𝑇 ) + (− 2 ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐸 )]
−𝑗𝜔𝜀 𝑇 𝜔 𝜇𝜀 𝛿𝑧 𝛿𝑧 𝑇 to wall. This process result in component of electric field or magnetic field in the direction of
propagation of resultant wave.
𝑗 2 𝜔𝜇 1 𝛿 𝛿2
⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑇 = −
𝐸 [∇ × (𝐻𝐿 𝑧̂ )] − 2 [( 𝐸𝐿 ∇ 𝑇 ) + (− 2 ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐸 )]
−𝑗𝜔𝜀𝜔𝜇 𝑇 𝜔 𝜇𝜀 𝛿𝑧 𝛿𝑧 𝑇 Rectangular waveguide are used as Transmission Lines

𝛿 𝛿2 The power flow is in form of electric & magnetic field.

⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑇 = −𝑗𝜔𝜇[∇ 𝑇 × (𝐻𝐿 𝑧̂ )] − [( 𝐸𝐿 ∇ 𝑇 ) + (−
𝜔2 𝜇𝜀 𝐸 ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐸 )]
𝛿𝑧 𝛿𝑧 2 𝑇

𝛿 𝛿2 Conditions of wave propagation Internal Reflection (𝜎 = ∞) by the walls of waveguide.

2 ⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑇 = −𝑗𝜔𝜇[∇ 𝑇 × (𝐻𝐿 𝑧̂ )] − 𝐸𝐿 ∇ 𝑇 +
𝜔 𝜇𝜀 𝐸 ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐸
𝛿𝑧 𝛿𝑧 2 𝑇 𝑐
(i) 𝜆𝑐 > 𝜆𝑜 𝑓=
𝛿2 𝛿 𝜆
⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑇 +
2
(𝜔 𝜇𝜀 𝐸 ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐸 ) = −𝑗𝜔𝜇[∇ 𝑇 × (𝐻𝐿 𝑧̂ )] + 𝐸𝐿 ∇ 𝑇 Where,
𝛿𝑧 2 𝑇 𝛿𝑧 c= velocity of light in vaccum.
𝜆𝑐 = cutoff wavelength
𝛿2 𝛿 (i) 𝜆𝑛 represents normal component to the wall of waveguide.
(𝜔2 𝜇𝜀 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗ = −𝑗𝜔𝜇[∇ 𝑇 × (𝐻𝐿 𝑧̂ )] + 𝐸𝐿 ∇ 𝑇
)𝐸
𝛿𝑧 2 𝑇 𝛿𝑧 𝜆𝑜 = cutoff wavelength
(ⅱ)𝜆𝑝 represent parallel component to the wall of waveguide.
For traveling wave in Z-direction (ii) 𝑓𝑐 > 𝑓𝑜
𝜆 𝜆
𝜆𝑛 = 𝜆𝑝 =
𝛿 𝛿 2 For Rectangular Waveguide, 𝑇𝐸10 is dominant mode. cos 𝜃 sin 𝜃
= −𝛾 𝑎𝑛𝑑 = 𝛾2
𝛿𝑧 𝛿𝑧 2 Cut off frequency
⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑇 = −𝑗𝜔𝜇[∇ 𝑇 × (𝐻𝐿 𝑧̂ )] − 𝛾 𝐸𝐿 ∇ 𝑇
(𝜔2 𝜇𝜀 + 𝛾 2 )𝐸 SOLUTION OF WAVE EQUATION IN RECTANGULAR WAVEGUIDE
𝑐 𝑚 2 𝑛 2
Assuming, (𝜔2 𝜇𝜀 + 𝛾 2 ) = ℎ2 𝑓𝑐 = √( ) + ( )
2 𝑎 𝑏
𝑗𝜔𝜇 𝛾
⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑇 = −
𝐸 [∇ 𝑇 × (𝐻𝐿 𝑧̂ )] − 2 𝐸𝐿 ∇ 𝑇 Example
ℎ2 ℎ
𝑗𝜔𝜀 𝛾 𝑇𝐸10 𝑚 = 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑛 = 0
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑇 = −
𝐻 [∇ × (𝐸𝐿 𝑧̂ )] − 2 𝐻𝐿 ∇ 𝑇
ℎ2 𝑇 ℎ
𝑐 1 2 0 2 𝑐
CONCLUSION 𝑓𝑐 = √( ) + ( ) 𝑓𝑐 =
2 𝑎 𝑏 2𝑎
(i) Both 𝐸𝐿 and 𝐻𝐿 cannot be zero except when ℎ = 0
(ii) When ℎ = 0 , 𝐸𝐿 and 𝐻𝐿 must be zero.
Cut off wavelength
(iii) When 𝐸𝐿 = 0 , 𝐻𝐿 ≠ 0, we get TE wave.
(i) The electric and magnetic wave equation in frequency domain, is

∇2 𝐸 = 𝛾 2 𝐸 (1) 𝑋 = 𝐴 sin(𝐾𝑋 𝑥) + 𝐵 cos(𝐾𝑋 𝑥) (7)

𝐾𝐶2 𝑓𝑐 2
𝛾𝑔 = ±𝑗√𝜔 2 𝜇𝜀 − 𝐾𝐶2 = ±𝑗√𝜔 2 𝜇𝜀 (1 − ) = ± 𝑗𝜔√𝜇𝜀√(1 − ( ) ) = ±𝑗𝛽𝑔
∇2 𝐻 = 𝛾 2 𝐻 (2) 𝑌 = 𝐶 sin(𝐾𝑌 𝑦) + 𝐷 cos(𝐾𝑌 𝑦) (8) 𝜔 2 𝜇𝜀 𝑓
Where, 𝑍 = 𝐸 sin(𝐾𝑍 𝑧) + 𝐹 cos(𝐾𝑍 𝑧) (9) Case-III
𝛾 = 𝛼 + 𝑗𝛽 = √𝑗𝜔𝜇(𝜎 + 𝑗𝜔𝜀) Substituting the value of X, Y, Z in equation (4). We get
If 𝜔2 𝜇𝜀 < 𝐾𝐶2
𝜓 = (𝐴 sin(𝐾𝑋 𝑥) + 𝐵 cos(𝐾𝑋 𝑥))(𝐶 sin(𝐾𝑌 𝑦) + 𝐷 cos(𝐾𝑌 𝑦))(𝐸 sin(𝐾𝑍 𝑧) + 𝐹 cos(𝐾𝑍 𝑧)) The wave will attenuate.
(ⅱ) The rectangular components of E and M satisfy Helmhotz equation (i) Propagation constant
𝐾2 𝑓𝑐 2
∇2 𝜓 = 𝛾 2 𝜓 𝛾 = 𝛼 + 𝑗𝛽 𝛾𝑔 = ±𝑗√𝜔 2 𝜇𝜀 − 𝐾𝐶2 = ±𝑗√−𝜔 2 𝜇𝜀 ( 2𝐶 − 1) = ± 𝜔√𝜇𝜀√(( ) − 1) = ± 𝛼𝑔
𝜔 𝜇𝜀 𝑓
Where, For lossless dielectric
The solution of Helmholtz equation is
𝛿2 𝛿2 𝛿2 𝛾 = 𝑗𝜔√𝜇𝜀
∇2 = + + 𝜓 = (𝐴 sin(𝐾𝑋 𝑥) + 𝐵 cos(𝐾𝑋 𝑥))(𝐶 sin(𝐾𝑌 𝑦) + 𝐷 cos(𝐾𝑌 𝑦)) 𝑒 −𝑗𝛽𝑔 𝑧
𝛿𝑥 2 𝛿𝑦 2 𝛿𝑧 2
𝛾 2 = −𝜔2 𝜇𝜀
𝛿2 𝜓 𝛿2 𝜓 𝛿2𝜓
+ + = 𝛾 2𝜓 (3)
𝛿𝑥 2 𝛿𝑦 2 𝛿𝑧 2

So, by method variable separation (ii) Propagation constant

TRANSVERSE ELECTRIC MODE (TE MODE) IN RECTANGULAR WAVEGUIDE
𝜓 = 𝑋𝑌𝑍 (4) 𝐾𝐶 = √𝐾𝑋2 + 𝐾𝑌2
𝑋 = is function of x coordinate only
𝑌 = is function of y coordinate only
(ii) Propagation constant for the wave in waveguide
𝑍 = is function of z coordinate only
𝛾𝑔2 = 𝛾 2 + 𝐾𝐶2
After substituting the value of equation (4) in equation (3). We get
𝛿 2 (𝑋𝑌𝑍) 𝛿 2 (𝑋𝑌𝑍) 𝛿 2 (𝑋𝑌𝑍) 𝛾𝑔 = ±𝑗√𝜔 2 𝜇𝜀 − 𝐾𝐶2
+ + = 𝛾 2 (𝑋𝑌𝑍)
𝛿𝑥 2 𝛿𝑦 2 𝛿𝑧 2
Case-I
𝛿 2𝑋 𝛿 2𝑌 𝛿 2𝑍
𝑌𝑍 + 𝑋𝑍 2 + 𝑋𝑌 2 = 𝛾 2 (𝑋𝑌𝑍) If 𝜔2 𝜇𝜀 = 𝐾𝐶2
𝛿𝑥 2 𝛿𝑦 𝛿𝑧 (i) The 𝑇𝐸𝑚𝑛 mode in rectangular waveguide is characterized by
1 𝛿2 𝑋 1 𝛿2 𝑌 1 𝛿2 𝑍
There will be no wave propagation.
𝑋 𝛿𝑥 2
+ 𝑌 𝛿𝑦 2 + 𝑍 𝛿𝑧 2 = 𝛾 2 (5) 𝐸𝑧 = 0
𝛾𝑔 = ±𝑗√𝜔 2 𝜇𝜀 − 𝐾𝐶2 = ±𝑗√0 = 0 (ⅱ) The Helmhotz equation for rectangular waveguide is
−𝐾𝑋2 − 𝐾𝑌2 − 𝐾𝑍2 =𝛾 2
(6)
Cutoff frequency is ∇2 𝐻𝑧 = 𝛾 2 𝐻𝑧 (1)
Comparing equation (5) and (6). We get
1 ∇2 𝜓 = 𝛾 2 𝜓
1 𝛿 2𝑋 𝛿 2𝑋
= −𝐾𝑋2 = −𝑋𝐾𝑋2 𝑓𝑐 = √𝐾𝑋2 + 𝐾𝑌2
𝑋 𝛿𝑥 2 𝛿𝑥 2 2𝜋√𝜇𝜀 Where,
1 𝛿 2𝑌 𝛿 2𝑌 𝛿2 𝛿2 𝛿2
= −𝐾𝑌2 = −𝑌𝐾𝑌2 ∇2 = + +
𝑌 𝛿𝑦 2 𝛿𝑦 2 𝛿𝑥 2 𝛿𝑦 2 𝛿𝑧 2
Case-II
1 𝛿 2𝑍 𝛿 2𝑍 𝜓 = (𝐴 sin(𝐾𝑋 𝑥) + 𝐵 cos(𝐾𝑋 𝑥))(𝐶 sin(𝐾𝑌 𝑦) + 𝐷 cos(𝐾𝑌 𝑦)) 𝑒 −𝑗𝛽𝑔 𝑧
= −𝐾𝑍2 = −𝑍𝐾𝑍2 If 𝜔2 𝜇𝜀 > 𝐾𝐶2
𝑍 𝛿𝑧 2 𝛿𝑧 2
The wave will propagate. 𝐻𝑧 = (𝐴𝑚 sin(𝐾𝑋 𝑥) + 𝐵𝑚 cos(𝐾𝑋 𝑥))(𝐶𝑛 sin(𝐾𝑌 𝑦) + 𝐷𝑛 cos(𝐾𝑌 𝑦)) 𝑒 −𝑗𝛽𝑔 𝑧
The general solution of equation gives
On applying boundary condition, 𝛿 𝛿 𝛿 𝛿
∇= 𝑖̂ + 𝑗̂ + 𝑘̂ 𝐻 + 𝑗𝛽𝑔 𝐻𝑥 = −𝑗𝜔𝜀 𝐸𝑦
𝑚𝜋 𝑛𝜋 𝛿𝑥 𝛿𝑦 𝛿𝑧 𝛿𝑥 𝑧
𝐾𝑋 = 𝐾𝑌 =
𝑎 𝑏 𝐸⃗ = 𝐸𝑥 𝑖̂ + 𝐸𝑦 𝑗̂ + 𝐸𝑧 𝑘̂ 𝛿 𝛿 𝛿 𝛿
𝐻 − 𝐻 = −𝑗𝜔𝜀 𝐸𝑧 𝐻 − 𝐻 = −𝑗𝜔𝜀 0
After applying boundary condition in Helmhotz equation. We get 𝛿𝑥 𝑦 𝛿𝑦 𝑥 𝛿𝑥 𝑦 𝛿𝑦 𝑥
⃗ = 𝐻𝑥 𝑖̂ + 𝐻𝑦 𝑗̂ + 𝐻𝑧 𝑘̂
𝐻
𝛿 𝛿
𝐻𝑧 = (𝐴𝑚 sin(𝐾𝑋 𝑥) + 𝐵𝑚 cos(𝐾𝑋 𝑥))(𝐶𝑛 sin(𝐾𝑌 𝑦) + 𝐷𝑛 cos(𝐾𝑌 𝑦)) 𝑒 −𝑗𝛽𝑔 𝑧 𝐻 − 𝐻 =0
On substituting values in equation (3). We get 𝛿𝑥 𝑦 𝛿𝑦 𝑥
𝑚𝜋 𝑚𝜋 𝑛𝜋 𝑛𝜋
𝐻𝑧 = (𝐴𝑚 sin ( 𝑥) + 𝐵𝑚 cos ( 𝑥)) (𝐶𝑛 sin ( 𝑏 𝑦) + 𝐷𝑛 cos ( 𝑏 𝑦)) 𝑒 −𝑗𝛽𝑔 𝑧 (2)
𝑎 𝑎 𝛿 𝛿 𝛿 Solution is given as
( 𝑖̂ + 𝑗̂ + 𝑘̂) × (𝐻𝑥 𝑖̂ + 𝐻𝑦 𝑗̂ + 𝐻𝑧 𝑘̂) = −𝑗𝜔𝜀 (𝐸𝑥 𝑖̂ + 𝐸𝑦 𝑗̂ + 𝐸𝑧 𝑘̂)
𝛿𝑥 𝛿𝑦 𝛿𝑧 𝑗𝜔𝜇 𝛿
𝐸𝑥 = − 𝐾𝑐2 𝛿𝑦
𝐻𝑧 (11)
Maxwell’s equation in frequency domain for Electric field is 𝑖̂ 𝑗̂ 𝑘̂
𝑗𝜔𝜇 𝛿
|| 𝛿 𝛿 𝛿|
| = −𝑗𝜔𝜀 (𝐸𝑥 𝑖̂ + 𝐸𝑦 𝑗̂ + 𝐸𝑧 𝑘̂)
𝐸𝑦 = − 𝐻𝑧 (12)
∇ × 𝐸⃗ = −𝑗𝜔𝜇𝐻
⃗ (3) 𝛿𝑥 𝛿𝑦 𝛿𝑧
𝐾𝑐2 𝛿𝑥

Here, 𝐻𝑥 𝐻𝑦 𝐻𝑧 𝐸𝑧 = 0 (13)
𝛿 𝛿 𝛿 𝛿 𝛿 𝛿 𝑗𝛽𝑔 𝛿
𝛿 𝛿 𝛿 𝐻𝑥 = − 𝐻𝑧 (14)
∇= 𝑖̂ + 𝑗̂ + 𝑘̂ ( 𝐻 − 𝐻 ) 𝑖̂ − ( 𝐻𝑧 − 𝐻𝑥 ) 𝑗̂ + ( 𝐻𝑦 − 𝐻 ) 𝑘̂ = −𝑗𝜔𝜀 (𝐸𝑥 𝑖̂ + 𝐸𝑦 𝑗̂ + 𝐸𝑧 𝑘̂) 𝐾𝑐2 𝛿𝑥
𝛿𝑥 𝛿𝑦 𝛿𝑧 𝛿𝑦 𝑧 𝛿𝑧 𝑦 𝛿𝑥 𝛿𝑧 𝛿𝑥 𝛿𝑦 𝑥
𝑗𝛽𝑔 𝛿
After comparing the coefficient of 𝑖̂, 𝑗̂ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑘̂ . We get 𝐻𝑦 = − 𝐻𝑧 (15)
𝐸⃗ = 𝐸𝑥 𝑖̂ + 𝐸𝑦 𝑗̂ + 𝐸𝑧 𝑘̂ 𝐾𝑐2 𝛿𝑦

𝛿 𝛿 𝑚𝜋 𝑚𝜋 𝑛𝜋 𝑛𝜋
⃗ = 𝐻𝑥 𝑖̂ + 𝐻𝑦 𝑗̂ + 𝐻𝑧 𝑘̂
𝐻 𝛿𝑦
𝐻𝑧 − 𝛿𝑧 𝐻𝑦 = −𝑗𝜔𝜀 𝐸𝑥 (8) 𝐻𝑧 = (𝐴𝑚 sin ( 𝑥) + 𝐵𝑚 cos ( 𝑥)) (𝐶𝑛 sin ( 𝑦) + 𝐷𝑛 cos ( 𝑦)) 𝑒 −𝑗𝛽𝑔 𝑧 (16)
𝑎 𝑎 𝑏 𝑏

On substituting values in equation (3). We get 𝛿

𝐻𝑧 −
𝛿
𝐻𝑥 = +𝑗𝜔𝜀 𝐸𝑦 (9) 𝛿
𝛿𝑥 𝛿𝑧 𝐸𝑥 = 0 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝐻 =0 𝑎𝑡 𝑦 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 = 𝑏; 𝐶𝑛 = 0
𝛿 𝛿 𝛿 𝛿𝑦 𝑧
( 𝑖̂ + 𝑗̂ + 𝑘̂) × (𝐸𝑥 𝑖̂ + 𝐸𝑦 𝑗̂ + 𝐸𝑧 𝑘̂) = −𝑗𝜔𝜇 (𝐻𝑥 𝑖̂ + 𝐻𝑦 𝑗̂ + 𝐻𝑧 𝑘̂) 𝛿
𝐻𝑦 −
𝛿
𝐻𝑥 = −𝑗𝜔𝜀 𝐸𝑧 (10)
𝛿𝑥 𝛿𝑦 𝛿𝑧 𝛿𝑥 𝛿𝑦 𝛿
𝐸𝑦 = 0 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝐻 =0 𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 = 𝑎; 𝐴𝑚 = 0
𝛿𝑥 𝑧
𝑖̂ 𝑗̂ 𝑘̂ Now substituting
𝛿
= −𝑗𝛽𝑔 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐸𝑧 = 0 in equation (4), (5), (6), (8), (9) and (10). We get
𝛿𝑧 𝛿
|| 𝛿 𝛿 𝛿|
| = −𝑗𝜔𝜇 (𝐻𝑥 𝑖̂ + 𝐻𝑦 𝑗̂ + 𝐻𝑧 𝑘̂) 𝐸𝑧 = 0 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝐻 =0
𝛿𝑥 𝛿𝑦 𝛿𝑧 𝛿 𝛿 𝛿 𝛿𝑥 𝑧
𝐸 − 𝐸 = −𝑗𝜔𝜇 𝐻𝑥 0 − (−𝑗𝛽𝑔 )𝐸𝑦 = −𝑗𝜔𝜇 𝐻𝑥
𝐸𝑥 𝐸𝑦 𝐸𝑧 𝛿𝑦 𝑧 𝛿𝑧 𝑦 𝛿𝑦 Putting above value in equation (16). We get
𝛿 𝛿 𝛿 𝛿 𝛿 𝛿 𝛽𝑔 𝐸𝑦 = 𝜔𝜇 𝐻𝑥 𝑚𝜋 𝑛𝜋
( 𝐸𝑧 − 𝐸𝑦 ) 𝑖̂ + ( 𝐸𝑧 − 𝐸𝑥 ) 𝑗̂ + ( 𝐸𝑦 − 𝐸 ) 𝑘̂ = −𝑗𝜔𝜇 (𝐻𝑥 𝑖̂ + 𝐻𝑦 𝑗̂ + 𝐻𝑧 𝑘̂) 𝐻𝑧 = 𝐻𝑜𝑧 cos ( 𝑥) cos ( 𝑦) 𝑒 −𝑗𝛽𝑔 𝑧
𝛿𝑦 𝛿𝑧 𝛿𝑥 𝛿𝑧 𝛿𝑥 𝛿𝑦 𝑥 𝛿 𝛿 𝛿
𝑎 𝑏
𝐸 − 𝐸 = −𝑗𝜔𝜇 𝐻𝑦 0 − (−𝑗𝛽𝑔 )𝐸𝑥 = −𝑗𝜔𝜇 𝐻𝑦 𝑚𝜋 𝑛𝜋
After comparing the coefficient of 𝑖̂, 𝑗̂ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑘̂ . We get 𝛿𝑥 𝑧 𝛿𝑧 𝑥 𝛿𝑥 𝐸𝑥 = 𝐸𝑜𝑥 cos ( 𝑥) sin ( 𝑦) 𝑒 −𝑗𝛽𝑔 𝑧
𝑎 𝑏
𝛿 𝛿 𝛽𝑔 𝐸𝑥 = 𝜔𝜇 𝐻𝑦
𝐸𝑧 − 𝛿𝑧 𝐸𝑦 = −𝑗𝜔𝜇 𝐻𝑥 (4) 𝑚𝜋 𝑛𝜋
𝛿𝑦 𝐸𝑦 = 𝐸𝑜𝑦 sin ( 𝑥) cos ( 𝑦) 𝑒 −𝑗𝛽𝑔 𝑧
𝛿 𝛿 𝑎 𝑏
𝛿 𝛿 𝐸 − 𝐸 = −𝑗𝜔𝜇 𝐻𝑧
𝛿𝑥
𝐸𝑧 −
𝛿𝑧
𝐸𝑥 = −𝑗𝜔𝜇 𝐻𝑦 (5) 𝛿𝑥 𝑦 𝛿𝑦 𝑥 𝐸𝑧 = 0
𝛿 𝛿 𝛿 𝛿 𝛿 𝑚𝜋 𝑛𝜋
𝐸𝑦 − 𝛿𝑦 𝐸𝑥 = −𝑗𝜔𝜇 𝐻𝑧 (6) 𝐻 − 𝐻 = −𝑗𝜔𝜀 𝐸𝑥 𝐻 − (−𝑗𝛽𝑔 )𝐻𝑦 = −𝑗𝜔𝜀 𝐸𝑥 𝐻𝑥 = 𝐻𝑜𝑥 sin ( 𝑥) sin ( 𝑦) 𝑒 −𝑗𝛽𝑔 𝑧
𝛿𝑥 𝛿𝑦 𝑧 𝛿𝑧 𝑦 𝛿𝑦 𝑧 𝑎 𝑏
𝛿 𝑚𝜋 𝑛𝜋
𝐻 + 𝑗𝛽𝑔 𝐻𝑦 = −𝑗𝜔𝜀 𝐸𝑥 𝐻𝑦 = 𝐻𝑜𝑦 cos ( 𝑥) sin ( 𝑦) 𝑒 −𝑗𝛽𝑔 𝑧
𝛿𝑦 𝑧 𝑎 𝑏
Maxwell’s equation in frequency domain for Magnetic field is
𝛿 𝛿 𝛿 (i) Cutoff wave number
⃗ = −𝑗𝜔𝜀𝐸⃗
∇×𝐻 (7) 𝐻 − 𝐻 = −𝑗𝜔𝜀 𝐸𝑦 𝐻 − (−𝑗𝛽𝑔 )𝐻𝑥 = −𝑗𝜔𝜀 𝐸𝑦
𝛿𝑥 𝑧 𝛿𝑧 𝑥 𝛿𝑥 𝑧
Here,

𝛿2 𝛿2 𝛿2
𝑚𝜋 2 𝑛𝜋 2 ∇2 = + +
𝐾𝐶 = √( ) +( ) 𝛿𝑥 2 𝛿𝑦 2 𝛿𝑧 2
𝑎 𝑏 Maxwell’s equation in frequency domain for Magnetic field is
𝜓 = (𝐴 sin(𝐾𝑋 𝑥) + 𝐵 cos(𝐾𝑋 𝑥))(𝐶 sin(𝐾𝑌 𝑦) + 𝐷 cos(𝐾𝑌 𝑦)) 𝑒 −𝑗𝛽𝑔 𝑧 ⃗ = −𝑗𝜔𝜀𝐸⃗
(ii) Cutoff frequency ∇×𝐻 (7)
−𝑗𝛽𝑔 𝑧
𝐸𝑧 = (𝐴𝑚 sin(𝐾𝑋 𝑥) + 𝐵𝑚 cos(𝐾𝑋 𝑥))(𝐶𝑛 sin(𝐾𝑌 𝑦) + 𝐷𝑛 cos(𝐾𝑌 𝑦)) 𝑒 Here,
On applying boundary condition, 𝛿 𝛿 𝛿
𝑚 2 𝑛 2 𝑚𝜋 𝑛𝜋 ∇= 𝑖̂ + 𝑗̂ + 𝑘̂
𝑓𝐶 = √( ) + ( ) 𝛿𝑥 𝛿𝑦 𝛿𝑧
𝑎 𝑏 𝐾𝑋 = 𝐾𝑌 =
𝑎 𝑏
𝐸⃗ = 𝐸𝑥 𝑖̂ + 𝐸𝑦 𝑗̂ + 𝐸𝑧 𝑘̂
(iii) Propagation constant After applying boundary condition in Helmhotz equation. We get
⃗ = 𝐻𝑥 𝑖̂ + 𝐻𝑦 𝑗̂ + 𝐻𝑧 𝑘̂
𝐻
𝐸𝑧 = (𝐴𝑚 sin(𝐾𝑋 𝑥) + 𝐵𝑚 cos(𝐾𝑋 𝑥))(𝐶𝑛 sin(𝐾𝑌 𝑦) + 𝐷𝑛 cos(𝐾𝑌 𝑦)) 𝑒 −𝑗𝛽𝑔 𝑧
𝑓𝑐 2
𝛽𝑔 = 𝜔√𝜇𝜀√1 − ( ) 𝑚𝜋 𝑚𝜋 𝑛𝜋 𝑛𝜋 On substituting values in equation (3). We get
𝑓 𝐸𝑧 = (𝐴𝑚 sin ( 𝑎
𝑥) + 𝐵𝑚 cos ( 𝑎
𝑥)) (𝐶𝑛 sin ( 𝑏 𝑦) + 𝐷𝑛 cos ( 𝑏 𝑦)) 𝑒 −𝑗𝛽𝑔 𝑧 (2)
𝛿 𝛿 𝛿
( 𝑖̂ + 𝑗̂ + 𝑘̂) × (𝐻𝑥 𝑖̂ + 𝐻𝑦 𝑗̂ + 𝐻𝑧 𝑘̂) = −𝑗𝜔𝜀 (𝐸𝑥 𝑖̂ + 𝐸𝑦 𝑗̂ + 𝐸𝑧 𝑘̂)
(iv) Phase velocity 𝛿𝑥 𝛿𝑦 𝛿𝑧
𝜔 𝑉𝑃 Maxwell’s equation in frequency domain for Electric field is 𝑖̂ 𝑗̂ 𝑘̂
𝑣𝑔 = =
𝛽𝑔 𝛿 𝛿 𝛿|
2
∇ × 𝐸⃗ = −𝑗𝜔𝜇𝐻
⃗ (3) || | = −𝑗𝜔𝜀 (𝐸𝑥 𝑖̂ + 𝐸𝑦 𝑗̂ + 𝐸𝑧 𝑘̂)
√1 − (𝑓𝑐 ) 𝛿𝑥 𝛿𝑦 𝛿𝑧
𝑓
Here, 𝐻𝑥 𝐻𝑦 𝐻𝑧
𝛿 𝛿 𝛿 𝛿 𝛿 𝛿 𝛿 𝛿 𝛿
∇= 𝑖̂ + 𝑗̂ + 𝑘̂ ( 𝐻 − 𝐻 ) 𝑖̂ − ( 𝐻𝑧 − 𝐻𝑥 ) 𝑗̂ + ( 𝐻𝑦 − 𝐻 ) 𝑘̂ = −𝑗𝜔𝜀 (𝐸𝑥 𝑖̂ + 𝐸𝑦 𝑗̂ + 𝐸𝑧 𝑘̂)
𝛿𝑥 𝛿𝑦 𝛿𝑧 𝛿𝑦 𝑧 𝛿𝑧 𝑦 𝛿𝑥 𝛿𝑧 𝛿𝑥 𝛿𝑦 𝑥
TRANSVERSE MAGNETIC MODE (TM MODE) IN RECTANGULAR WAVEGUIDE 𝐸⃗ = 𝐸𝑥 𝑖̂ + 𝐸𝑦 𝑗̂ + 𝐸𝑧 𝑘̂ After comparing the coefficient of 𝑖̂, 𝑗̂ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑘̂ . We get
⃗ = 𝐻𝑥 𝑖̂ + 𝐻𝑦 𝑗̂ + 𝐻𝑧 𝑘̂
𝐻 𝛿 𝛿
𝐻𝑧 − 𝛿𝑧 𝐻𝑦 = −𝑗𝜔𝜀 𝐸𝑥 (8)
𝛿𝑦
On substituting values in equation (3). We get 𝛿 𝛿
𝛿𝑧
𝐻𝑥 − 𝛿𝑥 𝐻𝑧 = −𝑗𝜔𝜀 𝐸𝑦 (9)
𝛿 𝛿 𝛿
( 𝑖̂ + 𝑗̂ + 𝑘̂) × (𝐸𝑥 𝑖̂ + 𝐸𝑦 𝑗̂ + 𝐸𝑧 𝑘̂) = −𝑗𝜔𝜇 (𝐻𝑥 𝑖̂ + 𝐻𝑦 𝑗̂ + 𝐻𝑧 𝑘̂) 𝛿 𝛿
𝛿𝑥 𝛿𝑦 𝛿𝑧
𝛿𝑥
𝐻𝑦 − 𝛿𝑦 𝐻𝑥 = −𝑗𝜔𝜀 𝐸𝑧 (10)
𝑖̂ 𝑗̂ 𝑘̂ 𝛿
Now substituting = −𝑗𝛽𝑔 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐻𝑧 = 0 in equation (4), (5), (6), (8), (9) and (10). We get
|| 𝛿 𝛿 𝛿| 𝛿𝑧
| = −𝑗𝜔𝜇 (𝐻𝑥 𝑖̂ + 𝐻𝑦 𝑗̂ + 𝐻𝑧 𝑘̂)
𝛿𝑥 𝛿𝑦 𝛿𝑧 𝛿 𝛿 𝛿
𝐸𝑥 𝐸𝑦 𝐸𝑧 𝐸 − 𝐸 = −𝑗𝜔𝜇 𝐻𝑥 𝐸 − (−𝑗𝛽𝑔 )𝐸𝑦 = −𝑗𝜔𝜇 𝐻𝑥
𝛿𝑦 𝑧 𝛿𝑧 𝑦 𝛿𝑦 𝑧
𝛿 𝛿 𝛿 𝛿 𝛿 𝛿 𝛿
(i) The 𝑇𝑀𝑚𝑛 mode in rectangular waveguide is characterized by ( 𝐸𝑧 − 𝐸𝑦 ) 𝑖̂ − ( 𝐸𝑧 − 𝐸𝑥 ) 𝑗̂ + ( 𝐸𝑦 − 𝐸 ) 𝑘̂ = −𝑗𝜔𝜇 (𝐻𝑥 𝑖̂ + 𝐻𝑦 𝑗̂ + 𝐻𝑧 𝑘̂) 𝐸 + 𝑗𝛽𝑔 𝐸𝑦 = −𝑗𝜔𝜇 𝐻𝑥
𝛿𝑦 𝛿𝑧 𝛿𝑥 𝛿𝑧 𝛿𝑥 𝛿𝑦 𝑥 𝛿𝑦 𝑧
𝐻𝑧 = 0
After comparing the coefficient of 𝑖̂, 𝑗̂ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑘̂ . We get 𝛿 𝛿 𝛿
𝐸 − 𝐸 = −𝑗𝜔𝜇 𝐻𝑦 (−𝑗𝛽𝑔 )𝐸𝑥 − 𝐸 = −𝑗𝜔𝜇 𝐻𝑦
(ⅱ) The Helmhotz equation for rectangular waveguide is 𝛿 𝛿 𝛿𝑧 𝑥 𝛿𝑥 𝑧 𝛿𝑥 𝑧
𝐸𝑧 − 𝛿𝑧 𝐸𝑦 = −𝑗𝜔𝜇 𝐻𝑥 (4)
𝛿𝑦 𝛿
∇ 𝐸𝑧 = 𝛾 2 𝐸𝑧
2
(1)
𝑗𝛽𝑔 𝐸𝑥 + 𝐸 = 𝑗𝜔𝜇 𝐻𝑦
𝛿 𝛿
𝐸𝑥 − 𝛿𝑥 𝐸𝑧 = −𝑗𝜔𝜇 𝐻𝑦 (5) 𝛿𝑥 𝑧
∇2 𝜓 = 𝛾 2 𝜓 𝛿𝑧
𝛿 𝛿 𝛿 𝛿
Where, 𝛿 𝛿 𝐸 − 𝐸 = −𝑗𝜔𝜇 𝐻𝑧 𝐸 − 𝐸 = −𝑗𝜔𝜇 0
𝛿𝑥
𝐸𝑦 − 𝛿𝑦 𝐸𝑥 = −𝑗𝜔𝜇 𝐻𝑧 (6) 𝛿𝑥 𝑦 𝛿𝑦 𝑥 𝛿𝑥 𝑦 𝛿𝑦 𝑥
 𝛿 𝛿 𝑚𝜋 𝑛𝜋 ⃗⃗⃗ ⃗
𝐸 − 𝐸 =0 𝐻𝑦 = 𝐻𝑜𝑦 cos ( 𝑥) sin ( 𝑦) 𝑒 −𝑗𝛽𝑔 𝑧 𝐽𝑆 = 𝑛̂ × 𝐻
𝛿𝑥 𝑦 𝛿𝑦 𝑥 𝑎 𝑏

𝛿 𝛿 𝛿 𝐻𝑧 = 0
𝐻 − 𝐻 = −𝑗𝜔𝜀 𝐸𝑥 0 − (−𝑗𝛽𝑔 )𝐻𝑦 = −𝑗𝜔𝜀 𝐸𝑥 SURFACE CURRENT FOR TE, MODE INSIDE PARALLEL PLANE WAVEGUIDE
𝛿𝑦 𝑧 𝛿𝑧 𝑦 𝛿𝑦
𝛽𝑔 𝐻𝑦 = 𝜔𝜀 𝐸𝑥 (i) Cutoff wave number
𝛿 𝛿 𝛿
𝐻 − 𝐻 = −𝑗𝜔𝜀 𝐸𝑦 (−𝑗𝛽𝑔 )𝐻𝑥 − 0 = −𝑗𝜔𝜀 𝐸𝑦
𝛿𝑧 𝑥 𝛿𝑥 𝑧 𝛿𝑥
𝛽𝑔 𝐻𝑥 = −𝜔𝜀 𝐸𝑦 𝑚𝜋 2 𝑛𝜋 2
𝐾𝐶 = √( ) +( )
𝑎 𝑏
𝛿 𝛿 𝛿 𝛿
𝐻 − 𝐻 = −𝑗𝜔𝜀 𝐸𝑧 𝐻 − 𝐻 = −𝑗𝜔𝜀 𝐸𝑧 (ii) Cutoff frequency
𝛿𝑥 𝑦 𝛿𝑦 𝑥 𝛿𝑥 𝑦 𝛿𝑦 𝑥
𝛿 𝛿
𝐻 − 𝐻 = −𝑗𝜔𝜀 𝐸𝑧
𝛿𝑥 𝑦 𝛿𝑦 𝑥
𝑐 𝑚 2 𝑛 2 The magnetic field for TE, mode is
Solution is given as 𝑓𝐶 = √( ) + ( )
2 𝑎 𝑏
𝑗𝛽𝑔 𝛿 2𝐸𝑖𝑜 𝛽 −𝑗𝛽
𝐸𝑥 = − 𝐸 (11) 𝐻= . . 𝑒 𝑧 𝑧̂ 𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = 0
𝐾𝑐2 𝛿𝑥 𝑧 (iii) Propagation constant 𝜂1 𝛽1

𝐸𝑦 = −
𝑗𝛽𝑔 𝛿
𝐸 (12) 2 2𝐸𝑖𝑜 𝛽 −𝑗𝛽
𝐾𝑐2 𝛿𝑦 𝑧 𝑓𝑐 𝐻=− . . 𝑒 𝑧 𝑧̂ 𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = 𝑎
𝛽𝑔 = 𝜔√𝜇𝜀√1 − ( ) 𝜂1 𝛽1
𝑚𝜋 𝑚𝜋 𝑛𝜋 𝑛𝜋
𝑓
𝐸𝑧 = (𝐴𝑚 sin ( 𝑎
𝑥) + 𝐵𝑚 cos ( 𝑎
𝑥)) (𝐶𝑛 sin ( 𝑏 𝑦) + 𝐷𝑛 cos ( 𝑏 𝑦)) 𝑒 −𝑗𝛽𝑔 𝑧 (13) At 𝑥 = 0
(iv) wavelength
𝐻𝑥 =
𝑗𝜔𝜀 𝛿
𝐸𝑧 (14) 𝐽⃗⃗⃗𝑆 = 𝑛̂ × 𝐻
⃗
𝐾𝑐2 𝛿𝑦 𝜆
𝜆𝑔 = = 𝑥̂ × 𝑧̂ = −𝑦̂
𝑗𝜔𝜀 𝛿 2
𝐻𝑦 = − 𝐸𝑧 (15)
𝐾𝑐2 𝛿𝑥 √1 − (𝑓𝑐 ) At 𝑥 = 𝑎
𝑓
𝐻𝑧 = 0 (16)
(v) Phase velocity 𝐽⃗⃗⃗𝑆 = 𝑛̂ × 𝐻
⃗
𝐸𝑧 = 0 𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 = 𝑎; 𝐵𝑚 = 0
𝜔 𝑉𝑃 = (−𝑥̂) × (−𝑧̂ ) = −𝑦̂
𝐸𝑧 = 0 𝑎𝑡 𝑦 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 = 𝑏; 𝐷𝑛 = 0 𝑣𝑔 = =
𝛽𝑔 2
Solution is given as √1 − (𝑓𝑐 )
𝑓 CONCLUSIONS
𝑚𝜋 𝑛𝜋
𝐸𝑧 = 𝐸𝑜𝑧 sin ( 𝑥) sin ( 𝑦) 𝑒 −𝑗𝛽𝑔 𝑧 (i) Both the walls (Top, Bottom) have current flowing in (−𝑦̂) direction also equal amplitude.
𝑎 𝑏
Substituting the value of 𝐸𝑧 in equation (11), (12), (13), (14), (15) and (16). We get (ii) Since the direction of power flow is (+𝑧̂ ) direction. Current always flows perpendicular to
direction of power flow.
𝑚𝜋 𝑛𝜋 SURFACE CURRENT ON WAVE GUIDE WALLS
𝐸𝑥 = 𝐸𝑜𝑥 cos ( 𝑥) sin ( 𝑦) 𝑒 −𝑗𝛽𝑔 𝑧
𝑎 𝑏 (iii) There is no component of current in direction of power flow.
(i) The modal field inside the waveguide includes surface current on the walls of waveguide.
𝑚𝜋 𝑛𝜋 (iv) The direction of current reverses for every λ/2 distance in the direction of wave
𝐸𝑦 = 𝐸𝑜𝑦 sin ( 𝑥) cos ( 𝑦) 𝑒 −𝑗𝛽𝑔 𝑧
𝑎 𝑏 (ⅱ) Modal fields are also supported by surface current on the inner wall of waveguide. propagation.
𝑚𝜋 𝑛𝜋 (ⅲ) Modal field are time varying, that's why surface current also varies with time.
𝐻𝑥 = 𝐻𝑜𝑥 sin ( 𝑥) sin ( 𝑦) 𝑒 −𝑗𝛽𝑔 𝑧
𝑎 𝑏
(iv) The surface current is given as

FIELDS FOR TE MODE AND TM MODE 𝜎𝜂 Cutoff freq = 𝑓𝑐

𝛼𝑔 =
(i) TE Mode 𝑓 2 𝑓 ≪ 𝑓𝑐 E.M. will get attenuated.
2 √1 − ( 𝑐 )
𝑓
2𝜋 𝑓 2
Here, 𝛼𝑓 = √1 − ( )
𝜆𝑐 𝑓𝑐
𝑓𝑐 = cutoff frequency
Here,
𝑓 = operating frequency
𝜆𝑐 = Cutof wavelength
If 𝑓 < 𝑓𝑐 and > 𝜆𝑐 ; attenuated
(ii) For 𝑇𝑀𝑚𝑛 Mode
2𝜋
(ii) TM Mode 𝛼𝑐𝑢𝑡𝑜𝑓𝑓 =
𝜎𝜂 𝑓 2 𝜆𝑐
𝛼𝑔 = √1 − ( 𝑐 )
2 𝑓

Here,
𝑓𝑐 = cutoff frequency
𝑓 = operating frequency

(2) LOSSES IN GUIDE WALLS

Consider the power losses due to guide walls.
|𝐸| = |𝐸𝑜𝑧 | 𝑒 −𝛼𝑔𝑧
ATTENUATION IN A WAVE GUIDE
|𝐻| = |𝐻𝑜𝑧 | 𝑒 −𝛼𝑔𝑧
In case of rectangular waveguide, we assumed that walls of waveguide are perfectly conducting
and dielectric is also perfect. For low-loss guide, the time average power flow decreases, 𝑒 −𝛼𝑔𝑧

Also, the E.M. waves propagating through a waveguide suffers attenuation due to, 𝑃𝐿 = (𝑃𝑡𝑟 + 𝑃𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 ) 𝑒 −𝛼𝑔𝑧

(i) Losses in dielectric Here,

(ii) Losses in guide walls. 𝑃𝐿 = power loss per unit length.

(ⅲ) Losses occur when operating frequency << Cutoff frequency. 𝑃𝑡𝑟 = transmitted power.
𝑃𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 = Power loss

(1) LOSSES IN DIELECTRIC For 𝑃𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 ≪ 𝑃𝑡𝑟 and 2𝛼𝑔 𝑧 ≪ 1 22gz 1

Consider the power loss that are caused by dielectric attenuation. 𝑃𝐿

𝛼𝑔 =
2 𝑃𝑡𝑟
In case of low-loss dielectric,
𝜎 ≪ 𝜇𝜀
(3) LOSSES OCCUR WHEN OPERATING FREQ. <<< CUTOFF FREQ
(i) For 𝑇𝐸𝑚𝑛 Mode
Operating freq. = 𝑓
 𝜌
Module - 6 𝐸⃗ + 𝑗 𝜔 𝐴 = −∇𝑉
⃗ ∇. 𝐸⃗ = 𝜌 ⃗ + 𝑗 𝜔 𝐴)) =
∇. (−(∇𝑉
𝜀
SOLUTION FOR POTENTIAL FUNCTION 𝐸⃗ = −(∇𝑉
⃗ + 𝑗 𝜔 𝐴) (10) 𝜌
⃗ + 𝑗 𝜔 ∇. 𝐴 = −
∇2 𝑉 (15)
𝜀
We are given a current distribution on an antenna. This satisfies Maxwell’s 3rd equation.
Put the value of equation (13) in (15). We get
We need to determine the E and H fields due to this current distribution which satisfies all
𝜌
Maxwell's equations. ⃗ + 𝑗 𝜔 (−𝑗𝜔𝜇𝜀 𝑉
∇2 𝑉 ⃗)=−
(ⅠII) From Maxwell's 4th equation. 𝜀
(Ⅰ) Divergence of curl of vector field is zero. 𝜌
⃗ = 𝑗 𝜔𝜀𝐸⃗ + 𝐽
∇×𝐻 (11) ⃗ + 𝑗 𝜔2 𝜇𝜀 𝑉
∇2 𝑉 ⃗ =−
∇. ∇ × 𝐴 = 0 (1) 𝜀
Putting value of equation (6) and (10) in equation (11). We get 𝜌
⃗ + 𝑗 𝐾2 𝑉
∇2 𝑉 ⃗ =− (16)
Where, 𝜀
1
⃗ + 𝑗 𝜔 𝐴)] + 𝐽
∇ × [ (∇ × 𝐴)] = 𝑗 𝜔𝜀[−(∇𝑉
𝐴 = Magnetic vector potential 𝜇 This satisfies Maxwell’s 1st equation.

From Maxwell's 2nd equation. 1

⃗ + 𝑗 𝜔 𝐴) + 𝐽
∇ × ∇ × 𝐴 = −𝑗 𝜔𝜀(∇𝑉
𝜇 RADIATION FROM HERTZ DIPOLE
⃗ = 0
∇. 𝐵 (2)
Vector Identity Hertzian Dipole
On comparing equation (1) and (2). We get
∇ × ∇ × 𝐴 = ∇(∇. 𝐴) − ∇2 𝐴 It is an elementary source consisting of electric current element of an infinitesimal length in
⃗ = ∇×𝐴
𝐵 (3)
1 specified Direction.
We know that ⃗ + 𝑗 𝜔 𝐴) + 𝐽
(∇(∇. 𝐴) − ∇2 𝐴) = −𝑗 𝜔𝜀(∇𝑉
𝜇 Now consider a current carrying element excited by AC of infinitesimal length Idl on z axis
⃗ =𝜇𝐻
𝐵 ⃗ (4) and paint A in space at a distance r.
⃗ + 𝑗 𝜔 𝐴) + 𝜇 𝐽
∇(∇. 𝐴) − ∇2 𝐴 = −𝑗 𝜔𝜇𝜀(∇𝑉
Putting value of equation (4) in equation (3). We get
⃗ + 𝜔2 𝜇𝜀 𝐴 + 𝜇 𝐽
∇(∇. 𝐴) − ∇2 𝐴 = −𝑗 𝜔𝜇𝜀 ∇𝑉
⃗ = ∇×𝐴
𝜇𝐻 (5)
⃗)
∇2 𝐴 + 𝜔2 𝜇𝜀 𝐴 = −𝜇 𝐽 + ∇(∇. 𝐴 + 𝑗𝜔𝜇𝜀 𝑉 (12)
⃗ = 1 (∇ × 𝐴)
𝐻 (6)
𝜇 This satisfies Maxwell’s 4th equation.
This satisfies Maxwell’s 2nd equation. From equation (12) we have
⃗
∇. 𝐴 = −𝑗𝜔𝜇𝜀 𝑉 (13)
(ⅠI) From Maxwell's 3rd equation.
∇2 𝐴 + 𝜔2 𝜇𝜀 𝐴 = −𝜇 𝐽 (I) So, magnetic vector potential is given as
∇ × 𝐸⃗ = −𝑗 𝜔 𝜇 𝐻
⃗ (7)
If we assume ⃗⃗⃗ = 𝐴𝑧 𝑧̂
𝐴
Putting value of equation (5) in equation (7). We get
𝜔2 𝜇𝜀 = 𝐾 2 ⃗⃗⃗ 𝜇 𝑒 −𝑗𝛽𝑟
𝐴 = 4𝜋 𝐼𝑜 𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝑙 𝑧̂ (1)
∇ × 𝐸⃗ = −𝑗 𝜔 (∇ × 𝐴) Then
𝑟

In spherical co-ordinate system, components are

∇ × 𝐸⃗ + 𝑗 𝜔 (∇ × 𝐴) = 0 ∇2 𝐴 + 𝐾 2 𝐴 = −𝜇 𝐽 (14)
𝐴𝑟 = 𝐴𝑧 cos 𝜃
∇ × (𝐸⃗ + 𝑗 𝜔 𝐴) = 0 (8) From Maxwell’s First equation
𝐴𝜃 = −𝐴𝑧 sin 𝜃
Curl of gradient of scalar function is zero 𝜌
⃗ =𝜌
∇. 𝐷 ⃗ = 𝜀𝐸⃗
𝐷 ∇. 𝜀𝐸⃗ = 𝜌 ∇. 𝐸⃗ =
𝜀 𝐴𝜙 = 0
⃗ =0
∇ × ∇𝑉 (9)
From equation (10) we have
Comparing equation (7) and (8). We get

(II) The magnetic field is given by relation as 𝐸𝜙 = 0 (7) The value of 𝐸𝜃 and 𝐻𝜙 were evaluated in above discussion.
⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ∇ × 𝐴
𝜇𝐻 Now, Put these value in equation (2). We get
1 (Ⅳ) There are generally 3 types of fields generated by Hertzian Dipole 1
⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐻 = (∇ × 𝐴) 𝑃⃗𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 𝑅𝑒{𝐸𝜃 𝐻𝜙∗ 𝑟̂ }
𝜇 1 2
(i) Radiation Field → 𝑟 variation ∗
𝑟̂ 𝑟𝜃̂ 𝑟 sin 𝜃 𝜙̂ 1 𝐼𝑜 𝑑𝑙 sin 𝜃 𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑡−𝑗𝛽𝑟 𝑗𝛽 2 𝛽 𝑗 𝐼𝑜 𝑑𝑙 sin 𝜃 𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑡−𝑗𝛽𝑟 𝑗𝛽 1
1 1 𝛿 𝛿 𝛿
1
(ii) Induction Field → 𝑟 2 variation 𝑃⃗𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 𝑅𝑒 {( ( + 2 − 3 )) ( ( + 2 )) 𝑟̂ }
⃗⃗⃗⃗ =
𝐻 | | 2 4𝜋𝜔𝜀 𝑟 𝑟 𝑟 4𝜋 𝑟 𝑟
𝜇 𝑟 2 sin 𝜃 |𝛿𝑟 𝛿𝜃 𝛿𝜙 | 1
[ 𝐴𝑟 𝑟𝐴𝜃 𝑟 sin 𝜃 𝐴𝜙 ] (iii) Electrostatic Field → 𝑟 3 variation After solving above equation, we have
𝛿 2 𝛽2
⃗⃗⃗ on ϕ,
There is no dependent of 𝐴 =0 1 𝐼 𝑑𝑙 sin 𝜃
𝑃⃗𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 2 ( 𝑜 4𝜋𝑟 ) 𝑟̂ (3)
𝛿𝜙 𝜔𝜀

𝑟̂ 𝑟𝜃̂ 𝑟 sin 𝜃 𝜙̂
1
⃗⃗⃗⃗ =
𝐻 | 𝛿 𝛿
0 | Total radiated power by Hertz Dipole is
𝜇 𝑟 2 sin 𝜃 𝛿𝑟 𝛿𝜃
𝐴𝑧 cos 𝜃 −𝑟𝐴𝑧 sin 𝜃 0 𝑤 = ∬ 𝑃⃗𝑎𝑣𝑔 𝑟 2 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝜙 (4)
After solving above determinant. We get Put all value in equation (4). We get
𝐻𝑟 = 0 (2) 𝜃=𝜋
𝜙=2𝜋 2
1 𝐼𝑜 𝑑𝑙 sin 𝜃 𝛽2
𝐻𝜃 = 0 (3) Here 𝜆/6 is called look point where all the 3 fields becomes equal. 𝑤=∫ ∫ ( ( ) ) 𝑟 2 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝜙
𝜙=0 2 4𝜋𝑟 𝜔𝜀
𝜃=0
𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑡−𝑗𝛽𝑟 sin 𝜃 𝑗𝛽 1
𝐻𝜙 = 𝐼𝑜 𝑑𝑙 ( 𝑟 + 𝑟2) (4) 𝜃=𝜋
4𝜋 2
1 𝐼𝑜 𝑑𝑙 𝛽2 𝜙=2𝜋

(III) The electric field is given by relation as =( ( ) ) 𝑟2 ∫ ∫ sin3 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝜙

POWER RADIATED By HERTZIAN DIPOLE 2 4𝜋𝑟 𝜔𝜀 𝜙=0
𝜃=0
⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑗𝜔𝜀𝐸⃗
∇×𝐻 Power radiated by Hertz Dipole can be evaluated by following these steps 2
𝜃=𝜋
1 𝐼𝑜 𝑑𝑙 𝛽2 𝜙=2𝜋

⃗⃗⃗ =
1
⃗) STEP-1) Calculate poynting vector for the antenna. 𝑤=( ( ) ) 𝑟2 ∫ ∫ sin3 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝜙
𝐸 (∇ × 𝐻 2 4𝜋𝑟 𝜔𝜀 𝜙=0
𝑗𝜔𝜀 𝜃=0
STEP-2) Integrate poynting vector over total surface enclosing the antenna. 𝜃=𝜋
𝑟̂ 𝑟𝜃̂ 𝑟 sin 𝜃 𝜙̂ 4
1 1 𝛿 𝛿 𝛿 STEP-3) Calculate total radiated power by Hertz Dipole. 3
∫ sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 =
⃗⃗⃗ =
𝐸 | | 3
𝑗𝜔𝜀 𝑟 2 sin 𝜃 | 𝛿𝑟 𝛿𝜃 𝛿𝜙 | The average poynting vector is given as 𝜃=0

[ 𝐻𝑟 𝑟𝐻𝜃 𝑟 sin 𝜃 𝐻𝜙 ] 1 𝐼𝑜 𝑑𝑙 2
𝛽 2 𝜙=2𝜋
4 1 𝐼𝑜 𝑑𝑙 2 𝛽2 2 4 𝜙=2𝜋
1
𝑃⃗𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 2 𝑅𝑒{𝐸⃗ × ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐻∗} (1) 𝑤=( ( ) ) 𝑟2 ∫ ( ) 𝑑𝜙 = ( ( ) )𝑟 ( )∫ 𝑑𝜙
Putting the value of equation (2), (3) and (4) in above determinant. We get 2 4𝜋𝑟 𝜔𝜀 𝜙=0 3 2 4𝜋𝑟 𝜔𝜀 3 𝜙=0
in terms of θ and ϕ
𝑟̂ 𝑟𝜃̂ 𝑟 sin 𝜃 𝜙̂ 1 𝐼𝑜 𝑑𝑙 2
𝛽 2
4 1 𝐼2𝑜 𝑑𝑙2 𝛽2 2 4 𝐼2𝑜 𝑑𝑙2 𝛽2 4
1 𝛿 𝛿 1 =( ( ) ) 𝑟2 2𝜋 = 𝑟 2𝜋 =
⃗⃗⃗ =
𝐸 || || 𝑃⃗𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 2 𝑅𝑒{𝐸𝜃 𝐻𝜙∗ 𝑟̂ } (2) 2 4𝜋𝑟 𝜔𝜀 3 2 16 𝜋2 𝑟2 𝜔𝜀 3 16 𝜋 𝜔𝜀 3
0
𝑗𝜔𝜀 𝑟 2 sin 𝜃 𝛿𝑟 𝛿𝜃
0 0 𝑟 sin 𝜃 𝐻𝜙 Where, We have

After solving above determinant. We get 𝐼𝑜 𝑑𝑙 sin 𝜃 𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑡−𝑗𝛽𝑟 𝑗𝛽 2 𝛽 𝑗 𝛽 2 4𝜋 2

𝐸𝜃 = ( + 2 − 3) = 2 𝜂 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜂 = 120𝜋 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑒
𝜔𝜀 𝜆
𝐼𝑜 𝑑𝑙 cos 𝜃 𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑡−𝑗𝛽𝑟 𝛽 𝑗
4𝜋𝜔𝜀 𝑟 𝑟 𝑟
𝐸𝑟 = 4𝜋𝜔𝜀
(𝑟 2 − 𝑟 3 ) (5) 𝛽 2 480 𝜋 3
𝐼𝑜 𝑑𝑙 sin 𝜃 𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑡−𝑗𝛽𝑟 𝑗𝛽 1 =
𝐻𝜙 = ( + 2) 𝜔𝜀 𝜆2
𝐼𝑜 𝑑𝑙 sin 𝜃 𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑡−𝑗𝛽𝑟 𝑗𝛽 2 𝛽 𝑗
𝐸𝜃 = ( + 𝑟2 − 𝑟3) (6) 4𝜋 𝑟 𝑟
4𝜋𝜔𝜀 𝑟
 𝐼𝑜2 𝑑𝑙 2 480 𝜋 3 4 𝑑𝑙
2 The radiation in spherical co-ordinates is (b) BACK LOBE
𝑤= = 40 𝜋2 𝐼𝑜2 ( )
16 𝜋 𝜆2 3 𝜆 𝑑𝐴 = 𝑟 2 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝜙 It makes angle of 180° with respect to its beam.

Field Pattern Power Pattern It is just opposite to major lobe

RADIATION PARAMETERS OF ANTENNA It represents magnitude of electric or It represents square of magnitude of electric
magnetic field. or magnetic field. (3) ISOTROPIC, DIRECTIONAL AND OMNIDIRECTIONAL PATTERNS
(1) RADIATION PATTERN (i) ISOTROPIC RADIATOR (Antenna)
(2) RADIATION PATTERN LOBES It radiates equally in all the directions.
(3) ISOTROPIC, DIRECTIONAL AND OMNIDIRECTIONAL PATTERNS Radiation pattern of isotropic antenna is a sphere.
(4) BEAM SOLID ANGLE Here, an isotropic antenna is placed at centre which radiates equally in all the direction at
(5) RADIATION POWER DENSITY distance r.

(6) ANTENNA FIELD ZONS

(7) RADIATION INTENSITY
(8) BEAM WIDTH
(2) RADIATION PATTERN LOBES
(9) DIRECTIVITY
Radiation Lobe is a portion of radiation pattern bounded by regions of weak radiation intensity.
(10) ANTENNA EFFICIENCY
(A) MAJOR LOBE
(11) ANTENNA GAIN (ii) DIRECTIONAL RADIATOR (Antenna)
(B) MINOR LOBE
(12) RADIATION RESISTANCE (a) SIDE LOBE Directional antenna in can radiate effectively a particular direction.
(b) BACK LOBE
(13) ANTENNA INPUT IMPEDANCE Directivity of directional antenna is max.
(14) POLARIZATION Here, is a directional antenna, having directivity in y direction.
(15) ANTENNA TEMPERATURE

(1) RADIATION PATTERN

It is defined as graphical representation of radiation properties of an antenna, as a function of
space co-ordinates.

(iii) OMNI - DIRECTIONAL ANTENNA

Omni-directional antenna have
(A) Major Lobe: Lobe which contains the direction of maximum radiation.
Non directional pattern in any given plane.
(B) Minor Lobe: Minor lobes represents radiation in undesired direction.
Directional patten in orthogonal plane.
(a) SIDE LOBE
Here, is a directional antenna, having directivity in xz direction.
It is adjacent to major lobe.
It is defined for far fields only. It does not makes an angle of 180° with major lobe.
(4) BEAM SOLID ANGLE

Beam solid angle is defined as a solid angle at which all the power radiated by an antenna Where It is defined as angular seperation in which the magnitude of radiation pattern is -3dB from the
comes out, with maximum radiation intensity. L=Maximum dimension of antenna peak of main beam.
λ= Wavelength
Beam solid angle is also called Beam Area. HPBW =
70𝜆
𝐷
Denoted by ΩA 𝐿2
𝑅= Where, A = wavelength D= diameter.
𝜆
Its unit is watt.
(A) Near Field (Fresnal Zone) (1) FNBW
Mathematical Expression is
Field nearer to antenna is called near field. It stands for First Null beam width.
2𝜋 𝜋
Ω𝐴 = ∫ ∫ 𝑃(𝜃, 𝜙) 𝑑Ω 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡 Near field has an inductive effect. It is defined as angular seperation between the first nulls of radiation pattern.
0 0
70 𝜆 140 𝜆
It is also called inductive field. FNBW = 2 𝐻𝑃𝐵𝑊 = 2 × =
NOTE: Radiation Intensity 𝐷 𝐷

It should be maximum and constant throughout ΩA (B) Far Field (Fraunhafer Zone) Where, A = wavelength D= diameter.

It should be zero elsewhere. Field far to antenna is called far field.

Near field has a radiation effect.

(5) RADIATION POWER DENSITY AND RADIATED POWER It is also called radiation field.

It is defined as directional rate of transfer of energy per unit area of an electromagnetic field.
The instantaneous poynting vector is (7) RADIATION INTENSITY
Radiation Intensity is defined as power radiated by an antenna per unit Solid angle.
𝑊𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑡 = 𝐸𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑡 × 𝐻𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑡
𝑃𝑟𝑎𝑑
Here, Radiation Intensity =
ΩA

𝐸𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑡 = 𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑡. 𝐸⃗ Radiation Intensity is a far- field parameter.

(9) DIRECTIVITY
𝐻𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑡 ⃗
= 𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑡. 𝐻 It can be obtained by multiplying radiation power density with square of distance (r).
It is defined as ratio of radiation intensity in a given direction from an antenna to the radiation
Instantaneous power radiated by antenna is 𝑈 = 𝑊. 𝑟 2 intensity averaged over all direction.
Where 𝑈 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑃𝑖𝑛𝑡 = ∯ 𝑊𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑠 𝐷𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
𝑈𝑎𝑣𝑔 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑆 𝑊 = radiation power density
The radiation power density is Where
𝑈 = radiation intensity.
1 𝑈𝑎𝑣𝑔 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 =
𝑃𝑟𝑎𝑑
𝑊= 𝑅𝑒{𝐸⃗ × 𝐻
⃗⃗⃗⃗∗ } 4𝜋
2
(8) BEAM WIDTH 4𝜋 𝑈 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
The Power radiation by antenna is 𝐷𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
𝑃𝑟𝑎𝑑
Beam width is defined as the aperature angle from where most of power is radiated
1
𝑃𝑟𝑎𝑑 = ∯ (𝑅𝑒{𝐸⃗ × ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐻 ∗ }) 𝑑𝑠 If the direction is not specified, then direction of maximum radiation intensity is considered.
2 𝑆 There are 2 types of beam width.
4𝜋 𝑈𝑚𝑎𝑥
(1) HPBW (Half power beam width) 𝐷𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
𝑃𝑟𝑎𝑑
(6) ANTENNA FIELD ZONS (2) FNBW (First null beam width)
(1) HPBW
(10) ANTENNA EFFICIENCY
It stands for Half power beam width.
 4𝜋 𝑈𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝐴𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑛𝑎 𝐺𝑎𝑖𝑛 ( 𝑃𝑖𝑛 ) 𝑃𝑟𝑎𝑑
= =
𝐷𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 4𝜋 𝑈 𝑃𝑖𝑛
( 𝑃 𝑚𝑎𝑥 )
𝑟𝑎𝑑

𝐴𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑛𝑎 𝐺𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑃𝑟𝑎𝑑

= = 𝐴𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑛𝑎 𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 (𝐾)
It is defined as a ratio of power radiated by an antenna (𝑃𝑟𝑎𝑑 ) to input power supplied to an 𝐷𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑃𝑖𝑛
antenna (𝑃𝑖𝑛 ).
𝐴𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑛𝑎 𝐺𝑎𝑖𝑛 = 𝐾 . 𝐷𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝑃𝑟𝑎𝑑
𝐴𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑛𝑎 𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 = (12) RADIATION RESISTANCE
𝑃𝑖𝑛
Radiation resistance is a hypothetical resistance which is used to express the power dissipation
Efficiency of antenna explains the capability of antenna to deliver maximum power to its output in it. Input impedance is given as
with minimum loass.
𝑍𝐴 = 𝑅𝐴 + 𝑗𝑋𝐴
In ideal case,
Where,
𝑃𝑖𝑛 = 𝑃𝑟𝑎𝑑
𝑅𝐴 = 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑛𝑎. 𝑅𝐴 = 𝑅𝑟𝑎𝑑 + 𝑅𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠
Practically,
𝑋𝐴 = 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑃𝑎𝑟𝑡.
𝑃𝑖𝑛 > 𝑃𝑟𝑎𝑑
Input impedance of an antenna is impedance offered by an antenna at it's input terminal.
Power radiated by input terminal of antenna
Input impedance is defined as a ratio of voltage to current across the input terminal of antenna.
1
(11) ANTENNA GAIN 𝑃𝑖𝑛 = |𝐼 |2 𝑅𝑖𝑛
2 𝑖𝑛 𝑉
Antenna Gain is a parameter which measures the degree of directivity of antenna's radiation 𝑍𝐴 =
All input power is not radiated ideally, some power is lost. 𝐼
pattern.
Total input power = Radiated Power + Power loss
Antenna Gain is defined as ratio of radiation intensity in given direction of maximum radiation
(14) POLARIZATION
to radiation intensity obtained if the power accepted by the antenna was radiated isotropically 𝑃𝑖𝑛 = 𝑃𝑟𝑎𝑑 + 𝑃𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠
1 1 1 Polarization of antenna is defined as orientation of electric field vector (𝐸⃗ ) of the radiated
|𝐼 |2 𝑅𝑖𝑛 = |𝐼𝑟𝑎𝑑 |2 𝑅𝑟𝑎𝑑 + |𝐼𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 |2 𝑅𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 electromagnetic wave by the antenna.
2 𝑖𝑛 2 2
𝐼𝑖𝑛 = 𝐼𝑟𝑎𝑑 = 𝐼𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 Polarization represents that how electromagnetic waves are physically oriented in space.

1 1 1 Figure shows the representation of EM wave in free space.

|𝐼 |2 𝑅𝑖𝑛 = |𝐼𝑖𝑛 |2 𝑅𝑟𝑎𝑑 + |𝐼𝑖𝑛 |2 𝑅𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠
2 𝑖𝑛 2 2
Solving, above equation. We get
4𝜋 𝑈𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑅𝑖𝑛 = 𝑅𝑟𝑎𝑑 + 𝑅𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠
𝐴𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑛𝑎 𝐺𝑎𝑖𝑛 =
𝑃𝑖𝑛
RELATION BETWEEN GAIN AND DIRECTIVITY
4𝜋 𝑈𝑚𝑎𝑥 4𝜋 𝑈𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝐴𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑛𝑎 𝐺𝑎𝑖𝑛 = 𝐷𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 = (13) ANTENNA INPUT IMPEDANCE (i) Electric field vector is along the vertical plane, the EM wave is vertically polarized.
𝑃𝑖𝑛 𝑃𝑟𝑎𝑑
(ii) If the electric field vector is along horizontal plane, the EM wave call be horizontally
From above two relation. We can get
polarized

TYPES OF POLARIZATION

(A) LINEAR POLARIZATION

Type of polarization in which all the waves passes similar alignment in a space i.e. either RECIPROCITY THEOREM
vertical or horizontal is called Linear Polarization.
It states that, "In a linear time invariant system, ratio of response to the excitation remains same
(B) CIRCULAR POLARIZATION even if the points at which response and excitation measured were interchanged".
Antennas are designed to radiate, horizontally or vertically along all the plane in between is CASE-I
called circular polarization.
(C) ELLIPTICAL POLARIZATION
When two linearly polarized waves of unequal amplitude that are mutually perpendicular to
each other are combined, then elliptically polarized waves are produced.
One end of supply is connected to monopole antenna and other end is connected to ground.
Radiation pattern of Monopole Antenna is Omni-directional.
(15) ANTENNA TEMPERATURE
If 𝑣𝑎 emf is applied at antenna-1 EM transmitted by monopole antenna, gets reflected by the ground. These reflected waves
Antenna temperature (𝑇𝑎 ) is a parameter that describes how much noise an antenna produces forms the second part of monopole antenna.
in a given environment. EM waves will flow from Antenna-1 to Antenna-2
Physical length of monopole antenna = λ/4
This temperature is not a physical temperature of an antenna. It produces 𝐼𝑏 current
Physical length + Virtual length = λ/4 + λ/4 = λ/2
It depends on its pattern and the thermal environment in which it is located.
The noise (antenna) temperature is CASE-II
DIPOLE ANTENNA
1 2𝜋 𝜋
𝑇𝑎 = ∫ ∫ 𝑅(𝜃, 𝜙) 𝑇(𝜃, 𝜙) sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝜙 Dipole antenna consists of 2 straight poles that lie along same axis.
4 0 0
Here, Both ends of dipole antenna are connected to transmitter or receiver.

𝑅(𝜃, 𝜙) = radiation pattern of antenna Dipole antenna is also called as Doublet

𝑇(𝜃, 𝜙) = temperature distribution. The dipole antenna that are shorter than one half of wavelength are called short dipole antenna.
Types of dipole antenna are
𝑇(𝜃, 𝜙) i.e. temperature distribution is the temperature in every direction away from the
If 𝑣𝑏 emf is applied at antenna-2
antenna. (i) Half wave dipole antenna.
EM waves will flow from Antenna-2 to Antenna-1 (ii) Monopole antenna.
(iii) Quarter wave monopole antenna.
It produces 𝐼𝑎 current
RECEIVING ANTENNA (iv) Hertzian dipole antenna.
If 𝑉𝑎 = 𝑉𝑏 , then by reciprocity theorem.
It is defined as an antenna which is used to receive the electromagnetic waves incident on it.
𝐼𝑎 = 𝐼𝑏
We know that an antenna is a transducer which converts electrical quantity (voltage & current)
in EM waves.
Similarly, receiving antenna works like reverse transducer.
It receives the EM waves incident on it, and then converts it into electrical quantities like MONOPOLE ANTENNA
voltage and current.
Monopole antenna consist of single pale that is mounted on the ground.
But the characteristics of an antenna remain unchanged in both transmitting as well as receiving
mode. Mono → single
Pole → Stand