AERODYNAMICS 1

CHAPTER 2
FUNDAMENTAL EQUATIONS

The main part of the material presented herein is taken from J., D., Anderson “Fundamental of Aerodynamics” CURRAO
VECTOR CALCULUS

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VECTOR ALGEBRA

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 VECTOR FIELD
A vector (field) such as Velocity,
Often written as 𝑉(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧), or 𝑽(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)
In every point you have 2 information:
length of vector (scalar) and direction (vector)
𝑛
 The length of a vector 𝑉 is
𝑉= 𝑉 = 𝑉 + 𝑉 + 𝑉 = 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑎𝑟
This operation is called module/norm/length of the vector 𝑉

 The direction of a vector 𝑉 is

𝑉
𝑛= = 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟
𝑉
This is a vector parallel to 𝑉 but with length = 1, so

𝑉=𝑉𝑛

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VECTOR OPERATIONS
B is a vector parallel
to B with same
length and opposite
direction

𝑨+𝑩=𝑪 𝑨−𝑩=𝑪
Or 𝐴⃗ + 𝐵 = 𝐶⃗ Or 𝐴⃗ − 𝐵 = 𝐶⃗

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 SCALAR PRODUCT

The scalar product between two vectors is a SCALAR, is the length of a

vector times the “shadow” of this vector on the other vector
Projection of B on A =
𝑩 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 𝐵𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑨 𝑩 = 𝐿𝐸𝑁𝐺𝑇𝐻 𝑂𝐹 𝑉𝐸𝐶𝑇𝑂𝑅 𝑨 × 𝑃𝑅𝑂𝐽𝐸𝐶𝑇𝐼𝑂𝑁 𝑂𝐹 𝑩 𝑂𝑁 𝑨
= 𝐿𝐸𝑁𝐺𝑇𝐻 𝑂𝐹 𝑉𝐸𝐶𝑇𝑂𝑅 𝑩 × 𝑃𝑅𝑂𝐽𝐸𝐶𝑇𝐼𝑂𝑁 𝑂𝐹 𝑨 𝑂𝑁 𝑩 =

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 VECTOR PRODUCT
The scalar product is a vector G, also called
“Area vector” because:

 Length of G = Area parallelepiped formed of

A and B
Every pair of vectors with a
A A sin𝜃 length ≠ 0 define a plane
𝜃

 Direction of G = normal to plane of A and B

Area of this parallelepiped

is 𝐺 = 𝐴 𝐵 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃

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 RIGHT HAND RULE
𝑨×𝑩=𝑮
A
𝑩 × 𝑨 = −𝑮

Order important, help yourself with

the right-hand rule
B

Using the right-hand rule, please

confirm that this is the right
direction of the vector 𝑨 × 𝑩

A×B

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VECTOR ALGEBRA

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 ORTHOGONAL COORDINATE SYSTEM
Projection
of A on 𝒋

Projection
of A on 𝒙
𝒌 =𝑘=1 Projection
of A on 𝐤

Any vector can be obtained as a linear

combination of 𝒊, 𝒋, 𝒌. For example:

The vectors 𝒊, 𝒋, 𝒌 form an orthogonal coordinate systems 𝐴 = 𝐴 𝒊+𝐴 𝒋+𝐴 𝒌

because their mutual scalar product (i.e., the projection of
one vector on the other) is zero and their length is 1. They
are also called PHYSICAL COORDINATES
This means that any vector in space can be
obtained by multiplying 𝒊, 𝒋, 𝒌 by some
constants and summing them.
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CYLINDRICAL COORDINATE
y
SYSTEM
One coordinate is normal
to the radius
𝒆𝜽

𝒆𝒓
𝑟
θ One coordinate is
aligned with the
x
radius

Top view
N.B. Now the x and y
x
components are coupled
through r and 𝜃. Z is purely The vertical components
independent. z
coincides with the z axis of
a Cartesian system
It is convenient only for z
problems with cylindrical
symmetry, for example flow side view
through a tube

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CYLINDRICAL COORDINATE SYSTEM
N.B. Now the x and y
components are coupled
through r and 𝜃. Z is purely
independent.
It is convenient only for
problems with cylindrical
symmetry, for example flow
through a tube
Again, any vector can be obtained as a linear combination
of the vectors 𝒆𝜽 , 𝒆𝒓 , 𝒆𝒛 . For example:
𝑨 = 𝐴 𝒆𝒓 + 𝐴 𝒆𝜽 + 𝐴 𝒆𝒛
This means that any vector in space can be obtained by
multiplying the three unit vectors 𝒆𝜽 , 𝒆𝒓 , 𝒆𝒛 by some
constants.
Note however, that the orientation of 𝒆𝜽 , 𝒆𝒓 is different
for every point! This will have some consequences…
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SPHERICAL COORDINATES SYSTEM
Tangent to radius
direction

Normal to radius

Again, any vector can be obtained as a linear combination of

the vectors 𝒆𝜽 , 𝒆𝒓 , 𝒆𝝓 . For example:

𝑨 = 𝐴 𝒆𝒓 + 𝐴 𝒆𝜽 + 𝐴 𝒆𝝓

This means that any vector in space can be obtained by

multiplying the three unit vectors 𝒆𝒓 , 𝒆𝜽 , 𝒆𝝓 by some constants.
This time, their orientation is different for every point in space.

Useful for problem with spherical symmetry

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 OPERATIONS BETWEEN VECTORS
 Scalar product: i.e., the
projection of one vector times  Vector product: The area vector with the
its projection on the other one. orientation given by the right-hand rule. To
It is more practical to calculate calculate it you can simply use the determinant:
it as follows

Exactly the same holds for the other

two coordinates system

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 NABLA OPERATOR

It is a vector operator, and it behaves exactly as a vector. It is only defined in the physical coordinate
system .

 For example, 𝛁 times a scalar such as pressure p is like a product of a vector and a scalar, thus it is a
vector. The vector is called “Nabla p” or GRADIENT OF p:

𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕𝑝 𝜕𝑝 𝜕𝑝
GRADIENT of 𝑝 = 𝛁 ∗ 𝑝 = 𝛁𝒑 = 𝑝= = 𝑉𝐸𝐶𝑇𝑂𝑅
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

For example, 𝛁 times a vector such as velocity V is like a product of a vector times a vector, thus it is a
scalar. The scalar is called “Nabla V” or DIVERGENCE OF V:

𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑤
DIVERGENCE of V = 𝛁 ∗ 𝑽 = 𝛁𝑽 = 𝑢 𝑣 𝑤 = + + = 𝑆𝐶𝐴𝐿𝐴𝑅
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

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 GRADIENT (OF A SCALAR)
PRESSURE DISTRIBUTION:

𝑝 = 52 kPa

Iso-surface (in 2D is an iso-line)

Here the pressure is 𝑝(𝑥, 𝑦) = 52 kPa

∇𝑝(𝑥, 𝑦), is always pointing

towards increasing values of
pressure

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DIRECTIONAL DERIVATIVE (OF A SCALAR)
Simply the projection of the
gradient along a direction

The direction is simply given

𝒏 by a unit vector 𝒏

𝑑𝑝
= ∇𝑝 𝒏 = 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑎𝑟
𝑑𝑠

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 GRADIENT
Remember that even if you
change the coordinates, the
expression of ∇ remains the same,
CARTESIAN COORDINATES namely:

𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

CYLINDRICAL COORDINATES That’s the reason why in

cylindrical and spherical
coordinates the expression is
more complicated.

SPHERICAL COORDINATES

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 DIVERGENCE
PHYSICAL MEANING: if the divergence
changes along a streamline, for example is
decreasing

∇𝑉 > 0

it means that the volume of that particle of

fluid is increasing (density is decreasing
along the streamline).
For incompressible flows:

∇𝑉 = 0
See better later…

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 CURL OF A VECTOR
PHYSICAL MEANING: if the curl is different
from zero the flow is called rotational. In the
presence of a vortex or turning streamlines,
The vorticity:

1
𝜔 = ∇×𝑽≠𝟎
2

See later…

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LINE INTEGRAL OF A VECTOR ALONG A CURVE
Unit vector tangent 𝒕(𝑠)
locally to C 𝐿𝐼𝑁𝐸 𝐼𝑁𝑇𝐸𝐺𝑅𝐴𝐿 = 𝑽𝒅𝒔 = 𝑽 𝒕𝑑𝑠

It is the projection of the velocity on the tangent vector

𝑽(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) integrated along the whole curve. If the curve is closed:

𝑠 𝐶𝐿𝑂𝑆𝐸𝐷 𝐿𝐼𝑁𝐸 𝐼𝑁𝑇𝐸𝐺𝑅𝐴𝐿 = 𝑽 𝒅𝒔 = 𝑽𝒕 𝑑𝑠

𝑠 𝑽(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)

Vector field

This is the conventional direction of 𝑠, that is:

the internal area has to be on your left

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𝒏 is the local normal
vector to the surface S
SURFACE INTEGRALS
𝒅𝑺 = 𝒏 𝑑𝑆
Scalar (pressure, temperature..)
Isolines on the
surface, here p is  The surface integral of a scalar is a vector. For
constant example, pressure distribution over a surface will
result on a resultant force with magnitude and
direction:

𝑝 𝒅𝑺 = 𝑆𝐶𝐴𝐿𝐴𝑅 ∗ 𝒏 𝑑𝑆 = 𝑽𝑬𝑪𝑻𝑶𝑹
This is a 3D open surface 𝑆
delimited by a closed curve 𝐶.  Surface integral of a vector on a surface (i.e., how
much V is flowing through the surface)

𝑽 𝒅𝑺 = 𝑽𝑬𝑪𝑻𝑶𝑹 ∗ 𝒏 𝑑𝑆 = 𝑆𝐶𝐴𝐿𝐴𝑅
For closed surfaces:

𝛁 × 𝑽 𝒅𝑺 = 𝑽𝑬𝑪𝑻𝑶𝑹 ∗ 𝒏 𝑑𝑆 = 𝑆𝐶𝐴𝐿𝐴𝑅

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 VOLUME INTEGRALS

 The volume integral of a scalar is a scalar. For

example, the amount of mass within a volume is a
scalar:

𝜌 𝑑𝑉𝑜𝑙 = 𝑆𝐶𝐴𝐿𝐴𝑅

 The volume integral of a vector is a vector:

This is a volume enclosed
by a closed surface 𝑆
𝑽 𝑑𝑉𝑜𝑙 = 𝑽𝑬𝑪𝑻𝑶𝑹

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 STOKES THEOREM
Here there is a vorticose region, so
likely the curl of the velocity over
this 2D surface is ≠ 0
Called Circulation
(it is a scalar) if the Integral over the Integral over surface
vector is velocity as in curve enclosing the
this case surface
𝒕

∇×𝑽 𝒅𝑺 = 𝒏 𝑑𝑆
𝑽
𝒏
𝒅𝑠 = 𝒕 𝑑𝑠

𝑆 𝐶

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SOURCE FLOW:
This is a typical case where
∇𝑉 > 0 globally within Vol,
which results in a velocity
flow through the boundary
(we will study it much later)
Surface S
enclosing the
volume 𝑉𝑜𝑙
https://www.khanacademy.org/math/multivariable-calculus/multivariable-derivatives/divergence-grant-videos/v/divergence-intuition-part-1
DIVERGENCE THEOREM SINK FLOW:
This is a typical case where
∇𝑉 < 0 globally within Vol,
which results in a velocity
𝑺 𝑽𝒐𝒍 flow through the boundary
(we will study it much later)
OUTFLOW of V VOLUME CHANGE RATE
PHYSICAL INTUITIVE MEANING
The velocity flow through the boundary of the volume is
related to the compression (squeezing) of the fluid elements
within the volume Vol.
If in average ∇𝑉 > 0 within the open fixed volume, i.e.,
particles tend to diverge from each other, some particles have
to leave the volume and vice versa. Surface S
enclosing the
Intuitively ∇𝑉 < 0 = 𝑠𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑒𝑧𝑖𝑛𝑔, ∇𝑉 > 0 = 𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑎𝑤𝑎𝑦 of volume 𝑉𝑜𝑙
fluid particles
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 GRADIENT THEOREM

𝑺 𝑽
Vector
F = 1 atm × 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒
RESULTANT PRESSURE GRADIENT
FORCE INTGRATED OVER THE
VOLUME 𝒏

Iso-p It is the divergence theorem applied to a scalar,

surfaces pressure in this case 2 atm
𝒏 𝒏
The pressure gradient distribution
within the volume is such to 1 atm
𝒏
balance the pressure distribution
Vol on the surface.
1 𝑎𝑡𝑚 𝒏
∇𝑝 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 ∗ 𝑉𝑜𝑙 = ∗ ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 ∗ 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒
ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡

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MODELS OF THE FLUID

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 CONTROL VOLUME

It is easier to use because you don’t Used mainly for theoretical

have to track the motion of the considerations. The “bubble” has always
“bubble” to contain the same fluid element

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 INFINITESIMAL FLUID ELEMENT
Properties within the infinitesimal volume are uniform, in every
volume at a given time you can define p, T, V

This approach is used in CFD (computational

fluid-dynamics)
This time the very tiny bubble has only one
velocity value. This model is easier to use

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PHYSICAL MEANING OF
DIVERGENCE

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 PHYSICAL MEANING OF DIVERGENCE
Integrating on the control surface we get
the whole change in volume!

= infinitesimal change in volume due to the TOTAL Δ𝑉𝑂𝐿 = 𝑽Δ𝑡 𝒅𝑺 =

displacement of an infinitesimal surface dS along in the
direction of V.
Δ𝑉𝑂𝐿
𝑅𝐴𝑇𝐸 𝑂𝐹 𝐶𝐻𝐴𝑁𝐺𝐸 = 𝑽 𝒅𝑺 =
Δ𝑡

DIVERGENCE THEOREM

Model used: CLOSED VOLUME Δ𝑉𝑂𝐿

= ∇𝑉 𝑑𝑉𝑜𝑙
MOVING WITH THE FLOW Δ𝑡

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 PHYSICAL MEANING OF DIVERGENCE
Now assume that this volume is small. So
small that the properties within this . i.e Δ𝑉𝑂𝐿
we are passing from = ∇𝑉 𝑑𝑉𝑜𝑙
Δ𝑡

Now 𝑉𝑜𝑙 = 𝛿𝑉𝑜𝑙 is very small (infinitesimal) so the quantity in the

integral is constant within the volume.

Δ(𝛿𝑉𝑂𝐿)
= ∇𝑉 𝑑𝑉𝑜𝑙 =
Δ𝑡

To a fluid element Δ(𝛿𝑉𝑂𝐿)

= = ∇𝑉 𝛿𝑉𝑜𝑙
Δ𝑡

% change in volume of a fluid element = Δ(𝛿𝑉𝑂𝐿)/𝛿𝑉𝑂𝐿 × 100

𝑉𝑂𝐿𝑈𝑀𝐸 𝐶𝐻𝐴𝑁𝐺𝐸 𝑅𝐴𝑇𝐸 𝑂𝐹 𝐴 𝐹𝐿𝑈𝐼𝐷 𝐸𝐿𝐸𝑀𝐸𝑁𝑇 = ∇𝑉

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STEADY/TRANSIENT

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 STEADY/UNSTEADY
 Steady flow:
 Transient or unsteady flow,
The flow has reached an equilibrium. It
does not change (so much) with time What you see is a picture at an
anymore instant t.

𝑝 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑡
𝑝 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 𝑇 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑡
𝑇 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑡)
𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) 𝑽 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑡 = 𝑣(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑡)
𝑽 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 = 𝑣(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) 𝑤(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑡)
𝑤(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)

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CONTINUITY EQUATION

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 FLOW OF SOMETHING
FLOW OF SOMETHING = SPECIFIC SOMETHING VELOCITY AREA

For example, mass flow If we consider a fluid element:

𝒏
𝑽
Mass = 𝜌 𝑉𝑜𝑙 Mass = 𝜌 𝑑𝑉𝑜𝑙
Specific mass = density = 𝜌 Specific mass = density = 𝜌
𝑺=𝑆𝒏
Mass flow = 𝜌𝑽 𝑺 Mass flow = 𝜌𝑽 𝒅𝑺
𝑆

USING DIVERGENCE:

FLOW OF SOMETHING = SPECIFIC SOMETHING VELOCITY AREA = ∇ (SOMETHING VELOCITY)

𝐹𝐿𝑂𝑊 𝑂𝐹 𝑋𝑑𝑣𝑜𝑙 = 𝑋 𝑽 𝒅𝑺 = 𝛻 𝑋 𝑽 𝑑𝑣𝑜𝑙

CURRAO
 CONTINUITY EQUATION
NET MASS FLOW OUT THROUGH TIME RATE DECREASE OF MASS TIME RATE INCREASE OF MASS
= = −
CONTROL SURFACE WITHIN THE CONTROL VOLUME WITHIN THE CONTROL VOLUME
𝜌𝑽𝒅𝑺 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 = 𝜌𝑑𝑣𝑜𝑙
DIVERGENCE THEOREM

𝑁𝐸𝑇 𝑀𝐴𝑆𝑆 𝐹𝐿𝑂𝑊 𝑂𝑈𝑇 = 𝜌𝑽 𝒅𝑺 = ∇ 𝜌𝑽 𝑑𝑉𝑜𝑙

𝜕
𝑇𝐼𝑀𝐸 𝑅𝐴𝑇𝐸 𝐼𝑁𝐶𝑅𝐸𝐴𝑆𝐸 𝑂𝐹 𝑀𝐴𝑆𝑆 = 𝜌 𝑑𝑉𝑜𝑙
𝜕𝑡

FLUID MODEL:
Open volume of fluid

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 CONTINUITY EQUATION
NET MASS FLOW OUT THROUGH TIME RATE DECREASE OF MASS TIME RATE INCREASE OF MASS
= = −
CONTROL SURFACE WITHIN THE CONTROL VOLUME WITHIN THE CONTROL VOLUME

ALL TOGETHER

𝜕𝜌
+ ∇(𝜌𝑽) 𝑑𝑉𝑜𝑙 = 0
𝜕𝑡

Where the time derivative has been brought inside the integration because
the volume is fixed in space (doesn’t change with time).

FLUID MODEL:
Open volume of fluid

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 CONTINUITY EQUATION
Vol1 INTEGRAL FORM:

𝜕𝜌
+ ∇(𝜌𝑽) 𝑑𝑉𝑜𝑙 = 0
𝜕𝑡
Vol2
But this equation has to hold also for any volume of any shape. For
example, for both Vol 1 and Vol2. The only way this can be true is that the
equation is true for any infinitesimal fluid element dVol. So the equation
becomes:

𝜕𝜌
+ ∇(𝜌𝑽) = 0
𝜕𝑡

Which is the continuity equation in its DIFFERENTIAL FORM

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IF THE FLOW IS INCOMPRESSIBLE?

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INCOMPRESSIBLE CONTINUITY EQUATION
Density cannot change:

But we already knew this from the physical

meaning of divergence of velocity!

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 MOMENTUM EQUATION 1/3
MOMENTUM = 𝑚𝑽 = 𝜌 𝑣𝑜𝑙 𝑽
=
BODY FORCES ACTING PRESSURE FORCES ACTING ON THE SURFACE + VISCOUS FORCES ACTING ON
+
ON THE FLUID ELEMENTS ENCLOSING THE CONTROL VOLUME THE CONTROL SURFACE
𝜌𝒇𝑑𝑣𝑜𝑙 −𝑝𝒅𝑺 𝑭𝑽𝑰𝑺𝑪

= CHANGE IN MOMENTUM + MOMENTUM FLOW LEAVING THE

WITHIN THE VOLUME VOLUME THROUGH THE SURFACE
𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 = 𝜌𝑽𝑑𝑣𝑜𝑙 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 = 𝜌𝑽𝒅𝑺 𝑽

𝜕
𝜌𝒇𝑑𝑣𝑜𝑙 − 𝑝𝒅𝑺 + 𝑭𝑽𝑰𝑺𝑪 = 𝜌𝑽𝑑𝑣𝑜𝑙 + 𝜌𝑽𝒅𝑺 𝑽
𝜕𝑡

Such as gravity

CURRAO
 MOMENTUM EQUATION 2/3
MOMENTUM = 𝑚𝑽 = 𝜌 𝑣𝑜𝑙 𝑽
=
BODY FORCES ACTING PRESSURE FORCES ACTING ON THE SURFACE + VISCOUS FORCES ACTING ON
+
ON THE FLUID ELEMENTS ENCLOSING THE CONTROL VOLUME THE CONTROL SURFACE
𝜌𝒇𝑑𝑣𝑜𝑙 −𝑝𝒅𝑺 𝑭𝑽𝑰𝑺𝑪

= CHANGE IN MOMENTUM + MOMENTUM FLOW LEAVING THE

WITHIN THE VOLUME VOLUME THROUGH THE SURFACE
𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 = 𝜌𝑽𝑑𝑣𝑜𝑙 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 = 𝜌𝑽𝒅𝑺 𝑽

𝜕
𝜌𝒇𝑑𝑣𝑜𝑙 − ∇𝑝 𝑑𝑣𝑜𝑙 + 𝑭𝑽𝑰𝑺𝑪 = 𝜌𝑽𝑑𝑣𝑜𝑙 + 𝜌𝑽𝒅𝑺 𝑽
𝜕𝑡

Such as gravity

CURRAO
 ALONG x-DIRECTION
DIVERGENCE THEOREM
∯ 𝜌𝑢𝑽𝒅𝑺
𝜌𝑽𝒅𝑺 𝑽 =
∯ 𝜌𝑣𝑽𝒅𝑺
𝜌𝑢𝑽𝒅𝑺 = ∇ 𝜌𝑢𝑽 𝑑𝑣𝑜𝑙
∯ 𝜌𝑤𝑽𝒅𝑺

𝜕𝑝 𝜕
𝜌𝑓 𝑑𝑣𝑜𝑙 − 𝑑𝑣𝑜𝑙 + 𝐹 𝑑𝑣𝑜𝑙 = 𝜌𝑢𝑑𝑣𝑜𝑙 + ∇ 𝜌𝑢𝑽 𝑑𝑣𝑜𝑙
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑡

Differential form:
𝜕𝑝 𝜕(𝜌𝑢)
𝜌𝑓 − +𝐹 = + ∇ 𝜌𝑢𝑽
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑡

CURRAO
 MOMENTUM EQUATIONS 3/3
External flow
BOUNDARY LAYER (VISCOUS)
Boundary layer
𝜕(𝜌𝑢) 𝜕𝑝
+ ∇ 𝜌𝑢𝑽 = − +𝐹
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥

𝜕(𝜌𝑣) 𝜕𝑝
+ ∇ 𝜌𝑣𝑽 = − +𝐹
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑦
EXTERNAL FLOW (INVISCID) 𝜕(𝜌𝑤) 𝜕𝑝
+ ∇ 𝜌𝑤𝑽 = − +𝐹
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑧
𝜕(𝜌𝑢) 𝜕𝑝
+ ∇ 𝜌𝑢𝑽 = −
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥

𝜕(𝜌𝑣) 𝜕𝑝
+ ∇ 𝜌𝑣𝑽 = −
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑦 Gravity can be neglected 𝜌𝒇 = 0 (as it is typically))

𝜕(𝜌𝑤) 𝜕𝑝
+ ∇ 𝜌𝑤𝑽 = −
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑧

CURRAO
 ENERGY EQUATION

, first law
If you divide by dt you get energy rate

RATE OF HEAT ADDED TO THE RATE OF WORK DONE ON THE FLUID

FLUID INSIDE THE VOLUME + THROUGH THE CONTROL SURFACE =
𝜌𝑞̇ 𝑑𝑣𝑜𝑙 + 𝑄 ̇ , with 𝑞̇ = 𝑑𝑞/𝑑𝑡 −p𝒅𝑺 𝑽 + 𝑊̇

RATE OF CHANGE IN ENERGY

𝑉 ENERGY FLOW OUT THE
𝜌 𝑒+ 𝑑𝑣𝑜𝑙 CONTROL SURFACE
= 2 + 𝑉
(internal + kinetic energy) 𝜌 𝑒+ 𝑽𝒅𝑺
Changes in potential energy due to 2
change in height can be neglected
*I neglected body forces 𝜌𝒇 = 0
CURRAO
 ENERGY EQUATION

INTEGRAL FORM

𝜕 𝑉 𝑉
𝜌 𝑒+ 𝑑𝑣𝑜𝑙 + 𝜌 𝑒+ 𝑽𝒅𝑺 = 𝜌𝑞̇ 𝑑𝑣𝑜𝑙 + 𝑄̇ − 𝑝𝑽𝒅𝑺 + 𝑊̇
𝜕𝑡 2 2

DIFFERENTIAL FORM
𝜕 𝑉 𝑉
𝜌 𝑒+ +∇ 𝜌 𝑒+ 𝑽 = 𝜌𝑞̇ + 𝑄̇′ − ∇ 𝑝𝑽 + 𝑊′̇
𝜕𝑡 2 2

=𝐶 𝑇

CURRAO
APPLICATION OF MOMENTUM
EQUATION: DRAG OF 2D BODY

CURRAO
 LOW SPEED WIND TUNNEL

From Wikipedia CURRAO

 VELOCITY MEASUREMENTS
How to visualize the flow? One way is introducing smoke or colored particle. In this case a two hot wires were
made rapidly incandescent. The wires created bubbles that traveled downstream revealing the velocity profile
𝑡 𝑡 𝑡 𝑡 𝑡 𝑡 𝑡 𝑡 𝑡 𝑡 𝑡 𝑡

Δ𝑥 Bubbles traveling
downstream with
the flow

Δx
𝑣= In the wake the
Δ𝑡
speed is lower due
to friction

↑ Hot wires ↑

From Wikipedia CURRAO

 PRESSURE AND VELOCITY MEASUREMENTS
Pitot rake is a series of pressure transducers along one or more axis so as to measure the pressure distribution
and velocity (we will discuss later about this …)
Pressure transducer

Pitot Rake

From Wikipedia CURRAO

 APPLICATION OF MOMENTUM EQUATION
 Calculating only DRAG ⟹ ONLY X-EQUATION

 STEADY ⟹ DROP 𝜕/𝜕𝑡

 GRAVITY EFFECT NEGLIGIBLE ⟹ DROP 𝜌𝑓

 VISCOSITY ON THE OUTER BOUNDARY

(A – B – H – I ) NEGLIGIBLE ⟹ DROP 𝐹

Or

CURRAO
 MOMENTUM FLOW
𝟐

n
n
 NO FLOW ACROSS A STREAMLINE
VERY FAR AWAY
 INTEGRAL ON CD AND FG DELETE
EACH OTHER

∬ 𝜌𝑢 𝑑𝑦= - DRAG

-D

=− 𝜌𝑢 𝑑𝑦 + 𝜌𝑢 𝑑𝑦 + 𝜌𝑢 𝑑𝑦 + 𝜌𝑢 𝑑𝑦 + 𝜌𝑢 𝑑𝑦 + 𝜌𝑢 𝑑𝑦 + 𝜌𝑢 𝑑𝑦 + 𝜌𝑢 𝑑𝑦

CURRAO
DRAG FROM THE PROFILE

CURRAO
 MOMENTUM FLOW

n
n

Minus sign because

the inlet surface is
oriented towards
negative x

CURRAO
 RESULTANT PRESSURE FORCE

n
-n

(y)

The net force acting only depends on the large

area (that is the outlet of the domain) because
everywhere else the pressure is constant = 𝑝

CURRAO
ALL TOGETHER

n
-n

(y)

CURRAO
ALL TOGETHER

n
-n

(y)

CURRAO
 APPLICATION OF CONTINUITY EQUATION
For continuity, the massflow =
𝜌𝑢𝐴 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡
n
− 𝜌𝑢 𝑑𝑦 = 𝜌𝑢 𝑑𝑦 -n

Multiplying by a constant 𝑢 (y)

− 𝜌𝑢 𝑑𝑦 = 𝜌𝑢 𝑢 𝑑𝑦

CURRAO
DRAG INDIRECT MEASUREMENTS

n
-n

(y)

CURRAO
SUBSTANTIAL DERIVATIVE

CURRAO
 SUBSTANTIAL DERIVATIVE
FLOW FIELD
𝜌
Instantaneous change in density
as the fluid element moves
𝜌 through point 1 (the derivative
point1 are taken at point 1 = (𝑥 , 𝑦 ))
V(x,y,t) point2 along a streamline (because it
depends on u and v at point 1,
and V is always aligned with the
𝒚 streamline at point 1)

streamline Chain rule

𝒙 𝜕𝜌 𝜕𝜌 𝜕𝜌
𝜌 = 𝜌 + d𝜌 = 𝜌 + 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑑𝑦 + 𝑑𝑡
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑡
FLUID MODEL: Dividing by dt
Fluid element moving 𝑑𝜌 𝜕𝜌 𝜕𝜌 𝑑𝑥 𝜕𝜌 𝑑𝑦 𝜕𝜌 𝜕𝜌 𝜕𝜌
with the flow = + + = + 𝑢+ 𝑣
𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑦 𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
CURRAO
 SUBSTANTIAL DERIVATIVE
FLOW FIELD
𝜌
Instantaneous change in density
as the fluid element moves
𝜌 through point 1 (the derivative
point1 are taken at point 1 = (𝑥 , 𝑦 ))
V(x,y,t) point2 along a streamline (because it
depends on u and v at point 1,
and V is always aligned with the
𝒚 streamline at point 1)

streamline Chain rule

𝒙 𝜕𝜌 𝜕𝜌 𝜕𝜌
𝜌 = 𝜌 + d𝜌 = 𝜌 + 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑑𝑦 + 𝑑𝑡
We call it so to to 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑡
FLUID MODEL: not confounding it Dividing by dt
Fluid element moving with 𝑑𝜌/𝑑𝑡 see 𝐷𝜌 𝜕𝜌 𝜕𝜌 𝑑𝑥 𝜕𝜌 𝑑𝑦 𝜕𝜌 𝜕𝜌 𝜕𝜌
with the flow next…
= + + = + 𝑢+ 𝑣
𝐷𝑡 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥
CURRAO
 SUBSTANTIAL DERIVATIVE
 CASE 𝜌 = 𝜌 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑡 (substantial derivative case)
Density depends on both space and time. But now we
 CASE 𝜌 = 𝜌 𝑡 (differential case) consider a particle moving along a streamline; in this
Density is only a function of time. For example, the air way we are already giving a space information (i.e.
trapped in a piston. No spatial information needed velocity of fluid is parallel to the streamline)
𝑑𝜌
𝜌 = 𝜌 𝑡 → 𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑑𝜌 = ∗ 𝑑𝑡 In this case:
𝑑𝑡

 CASE 𝜌 = 𝜌 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑡 (partial differential case) 𝜌 = 𝜌 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑡 → 𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑑𝜌

Density depends on both space and time. For example, 𝐷𝜌
= 𝑑𝑡 𝑜𝑛 𝑎 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑚𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒
the air passing through a point in space will depend on 𝐷𝑡
time and space Chain rule
We call it to distinguish from the first case 𝜌 = 𝜌 𝑡 .
𝜕𝜌 𝜕𝜌 𝜕𝜌 This form is saying that, if the streamline was fixed (path
𝜌 = 𝜌 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑡 → 𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑑𝜌 = 𝑑𝑡 + 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑑𝑦
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 does not change with time), then density of a particle
will only be a function of time.

CURRAO
 SUBSTANTIAL DERIVATIVE
It is then a derivative in time along a direction given by V (which is
tangent to the streamline)

Only change in Change induced by the

time not related to movement of the particle
the trajectory. along the trajectory

Also called the transport of T

CURRAO
 GOVERNING EQUATION AGAIN
MOMENTUM

CONTINUITY (← You need the

continuity equation
to express it like so)

ENERGY

( ↑ You need both continuity and momentum equation to express it like so)
CURRAO
PATHLINES, STREAMLINES AND
STREAMTUBES

CURRAO
 PATHLINE
Is the trace left by a particle, or the path of that particle over time

Both element (or particles or tracers

or bubbles) pass by POINT1 at a
certain time. In general their velocity
at POINT 1 is different

The concept of pathlines are used

mainly for unsteady problems.

CURRAO
 PATHLINE
From CFD:
TRANSIENT SIMULATION

You can track the path of a

single particle through the
domain. You can plot also
the distance travelled by
the particle over time

THE PATH IS SPECIFIC OF A

PARTICLE. THE NEXT
PARTICLE MIGHT FOLLOW
A DIFFERENT PATH

https://www.simscale.com/docs/tutorials/compressible-cfd-simulation-golf-ball/ CURRAO
 SIMILAR TO LONG-EXPOSURE PHOTOS

This particle (a car in

this case) is following
this path. The next
particle (another car)
might go straight
instead

The next car might

also have different
speed here
(analogous to a
transient flow)

CURRAO
 STREAMLINE
It is a curve that is always tangent to the local velocity vector

It is defined at a certain time t. If

the flow is unsteady, at 𝑡 + Δ𝑡 the
streamlines will be different

CURRAO
IT IS LIKE AN ISTANTANEOUS PHOTO
At a certain time t
STEADY: PATHLINES STREAMLINES

There is always a wake (unsteady)

behind the body but, if it is small,
we can consider the flow steady
overall
 PHOTO ANALOGY

If the cars do not change lane and

speed, the car flow is steady as in
this highway

Streamline and pathlines are the

same
STREAMLINE MATHEMATICALLY
Locally parallel to the velocity vector

𝒅𝒔 × 𝑽 = 0
Curve length vector
𝒅𝒔 = 𝒕 𝑑𝑠,
t = tangent unit vector

𝒔
 STREAMLINE MATHEMATICALLY
Locally parallel to the velocity vector

𝒅𝒔 × 𝑽 = 0

So, the component along I, j and k Integrating you can

have to be zero and you get: get the equation of
the curve C: f(x,y,z)=0
 STREAMLINE MATHEMATICALLY
Locally parallel to the velocity vector

𝒅𝒔 × 𝑽 = 0

In 2D space:

𝑑𝑦 𝑣
𝑣𝑑𝑥 – 𝑢 𝑑𝑦 = 0 ⇒ =
𝑑𝑥 𝑢

See also example 2.3 on the book

 STREAMTUBE
The tube formed by all the infinite streamlines in space passing
through a surface bounded by a closed curve
 STREAMTUBE
The tube formed by all the infinite streamlines in space passing
through a surface bounded by a closed curve

STEADY:
A2

n2
A1
𝑁𝐸𝑇 𝑀𝐴𝑆𝑆 𝐹𝐿𝑂𝑊 𝑂𝑈𝑇 = 𝜌𝑽 𝒅𝑺 = ∇ 𝜌𝑽 𝑑𝑉𝑜𝑙 =0
n1

𝜕
𝑇𝐼𝑀𝐸 𝑅𝐴𝑇𝐸 𝐼𝑁𝐶𝑅𝐸𝐴𝑆𝐸 𝑂𝐹 𝑀𝐴𝑆𝑆 = 𝜌 𝑑𝑉𝑜𝑙
𝜕𝑡

No flow through a streamline because the velocity is parallel to

the surface. So the massflow through A2 = massflow through A1
(always remember the orientation of the surface i.e., the direction
of the normal n)
PHYSICAL MEANING OF CURL

CURRAO
 FLUID ELEMENT DEFORMATION
As for the divergence we are again considering a fluid element
going through translation, rotation and deformation

B C
B C

streamline
A
D
A D This is a translation + a
rotation + a deformation
 This happens because at time 𝑡, the
velcocity of point A, B, C and D is in
general different. So at time 𝑡 + Δ𝑡, the
shape might be distorted

What’s the contribution of rotation and of

deformation?
 2D CASE Positive sense of
angles is clockwise

Net displacement in x direction of

B relative to A:
𝜕𝑢
𝑢Δ𝑡 𝑑𝑦 Δ𝑡 = 𝑑y tan(Δ𝜃 )
𝜕𝑦

𝜕𝑢 -Δ𝜃
𝑢+ 𝑑𝑦 C Net displacement in y direction of
𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑦
𝑣+ 𝑑𝑦 C relative to A:
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑣
B A 𝑑𝑥 Δ𝑡 ≃ 𝑑𝑥 tan(Δ𝜃 )
+Δ𝜃 𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑣 𝑣Δ𝑡
𝑣 𝑣+ 𝑑𝑥
𝜕𝑥
A 𝑢 C
𝜕𝑢
𝑢+ 𝑑𝑥
𝜕𝑥
 2D CASE Positive sense of
angles is clockwise

Net displacement in x direction of

B relative to A:
𝜕𝑢
𝑢Δ𝑡 𝑑𝑦 Δ𝑡 = −𝑑y tan(Δ𝜃 ) 𝑑𝜃 𝜕𝑢
𝜕𝑦 =−
For a small dt 𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑦
B tan Δ𝜃 ≃ Δ𝜃 = d𝜃

𝜕𝑢 -Δ𝜃
𝑢+ 𝑑𝑦 C Net displacement in y direction of
𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑦
𝑣+ 𝑑𝑦 C relative to A: 𝑑𝜃 𝜕𝑣
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑣 =
B A 𝑑𝑥 Δ𝑡 ≃ 𝑑𝑥 tan(Δ𝜃 ) 𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑦
+Δ𝜃 𝜕𝑥
For a small dt
𝜕𝑣 𝑣Δ𝑡
𝑣 𝑣+ 𝑑𝑥 tan Δ𝜃 ≃ Δ𝜃 = 𝑑𝜃
𝜕𝑥
A 𝑢 C
𝜕𝑢
𝑢+ 𝑑𝑥
𝜕𝑥
 2D CASE Positive sense of
angles is clockwise

𝑢d𝑡 Angular velocity of AB segment

𝑑𝜃 𝜕𝑢
𝜔 = =−
B 𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑦

-Δ𝜃 Angular velocity of AC segment

𝜕𝑢 𝑑𝜃 𝜕𝑣
𝑢+ 𝑑𝑦 𝜔 C 𝜔 = =
𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑦 𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑦
𝑣+ 𝑑𝑦 𝜔
𝜕𝑦
B A Angular velocity of a fluid element is the
+Δ𝜃 average of the two angular velocity:
𝜕𝑣 𝑣d𝑡
𝑣 𝑣+ 𝑑𝑥
𝜕𝑥 𝜔 +𝜔 1 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢
A 𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜔= =𝜔= −
C 𝑢+ 𝑑𝑥 2 2 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝑥
ANGULAR VELOCITY AND VORTICITY
ANGULAR VELOCITY of the fluid element

Only this component in

the 2D flow case
ANGULAR VELOCITY AND VORTICITY
ANGULAR VELOCITY of the fluid element

Only this component in

the 2D flow case

If you multiply by 2 you get the VORTICITY of the fluid element

 ROTATIONAL/IRROTATIONAL
IRROTATIONAL FLOW
IRROTATIONAL
(Net rotation of the fluid element is zero)
(only translation)

2D CASE: IRROTATIONAL FLOW

𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢 (With deformation of
− = 0 ⇒ Δ𝜃 = Δ𝜃
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 the fluid element)

ROTATIONAL FLOW ROTATIONAL

(There is a net rotation of the fluid element) (translation+rotation)

ROTATIONAL FLOW
(With deformation of
the fluid element)
 ROTATIONAL/IRROTATIONAL
TYPICALLY
IRROTATIONAL HIGHLY
ROTATIONAL FLOW

 Across the boundary layer u is changing

rapidly with height, thus

𝜕𝑢
is large‼
𝜕𝑦
While is typically small, so the vorticity is
different from zero.
 STRAIN Positive sense of
How much the angle between two angles is clockwise
edges of the fluid element decreases

𝑢d𝑡
K is the angle between AB and AC, it is
B initially 90 degrees
𝜔
𝜕𝑢 -Δ𝜃 𝑆𝑇𝑅𝐴𝐼𝑁 = −Δ𝑘 = Δ𝜃 − Δ𝜃
𝑢+ 𝑑𝑦 𝒌 + 𝚫𝐤 C
𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑦
𝑣+ 𝑑𝑦 𝜔 Time rate of strain:
𝜕𝑦
B A
+Δ𝜃 𝑑𝑘 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢
𝜖 =− =𝜔 −𝜔 =𝜖 = +
𝒌 𝜕𝑣 𝑣d𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
𝑣 𝑣+ 𝑑𝑥
𝜕𝑥
A 𝑢 C
𝜕𝑢
𝑢+ 𝑑𝑥
𝜕𝑥
WE CAN HAVE ALL THE INFO IN 1 MATRIX
WE CAN HAVE ALL THE INFO IN 1 MATRIX
SUM OF DIAGONAL TERMS:
DIVERGENCE
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑤
∇ 𝑽= + + =
𝜕x 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
= 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒= DILATATION OF FLUID ELEMENT

OFF DIAGONAL TERMS:

CURL/STRAIN
𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢
∇×𝑽= − 𝒊+ − 𝒋+ − 𝒌=
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕x 𝜕𝑦
= 2 × 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 = ROTATION OF FLUID ELEMENT

𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢
𝜖 = + ,𝜖 = + ,𝜖 = + =
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕x 𝜕𝑦
= 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 = DEFROMATION OF FLUID ELEMENT
AND CIRCULATION?

CURRAO
 STOKES THEOREM (from previous slide)
Here there is a vorticose region, so
likely the curl of the velocity over
this 2D surface is ≠ 0
Called Circulation
(it is a scalar) if the Integral over the Integral over surface
vector is velocity as in curve enclosing the
this case surface
𝒕

∇×𝑽 𝒅𝑺 = 𝒏 𝑑𝑆
𝑽
𝒏
𝒅𝑠 = 𝒕 𝑑𝑠

𝑆 𝐶

CURRAO
 CIRCULATION PER UNIT AREA

−Γ = 𝑽 𝒅𝒔 = (∇ × 𝑽) 𝒅𝑺
⇓

dΓ = − ∇ × 𝑽 𝒅𝑺 =

On an infinitesimally small
surface dS, the vorticity is
uniform, so the integral can be
removed
dΓ
= =− ∇×𝑽 𝒏
dS
So, the projection of the vorticity along a direction
normal to dS is the negative of the circulation per unit
area. It will be a useful concept in the future…

CURRAO
STREAMFUNCTION AND VELOCITY
POTENTIAL

CURRAO
 STREAMFUNCTION
“STREAMLINE PARALLEL TO VELOCITY”

CURRAO
 STREAM FUNCTION 1/2
Along a streamline:

𝑑𝑦 𝑢
=
𝑑𝑥 𝑣

Or 𝑑𝑦 𝑢 − 𝑣 𝑑𝑥 = 0 = 𝑑𝜓 → 𝜓 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 = 𝑐

A constant value of 𝜓
correspond to a
streamline

CURRAO
 STREAM FUNCTION 2/2
Along a streamline:

𝑑𝑦 𝑢
=
𝑑𝑥 𝑣

Or 𝑑𝑦 𝑢 − 𝑣 𝑑𝑥 = 0 = 𝑑𝜓 → 𝜓 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
This expression is saying that “d𝜓 is an exact differential”. This is true if :

𝜕𝜓 𝜕𝜓 𝜕𝜓 𝜕𝜓
𝑑𝑦 + 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝜓 ⟹ 𝑢= ,𝑣 = −
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥

And by definition of exact differential, it has to be true that:

𝜕 𝜓 𝜕 𝜓
=
𝜕𝑥𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦𝜕𝑥

CURRAO
 ALTERNATIVE EXPRESSION:
STREAMFUNCTION
“NO FLOW THROUGH STREAMLINE”

CURRAO
 STREAM FUNCTION 1/
Flow through the streamlines is zero because V n = 0 (check again the definition
of “flow of something”). Since we are considering a steady flow:

𝜌𝑉Δ𝑛 = 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑚𝑡𝑢𝑏𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

CURRAO
 DEFINITION OF NORMAL VECTOR
𝐴 𝐵 −𝐴
𝑨= →𝐵⊥𝐴= =
𝐴 𝐵 𝐴

−Δ𝑦 Check yourself Δ𝑥

𝑦 = 𝑚 𝑥, 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑚 = −
𝛥𝑥 Δ𝑦
−𝛥𝑦 r= Δ𝑦
𝒏= 𝛥𝑦 -Δy 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥, 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑚 =
𝛥𝑥 Δx Δ𝑥

Δ𝑦 Δ𝑥
Δy
Δx
Δ𝑥 Slope of the normal to
−Δx 𝛥𝑦 a curve
−𝒏 =
−𝛥𝑥 𝑚 = −1/𝑚
+Δ𝑦

CURRAO
 STREAM FUNCTION
n is normal to V so:
Δ𝑦 𝚫𝒏 = 𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑡𝑤𝑜 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑚𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑠,
𝑛∥ Δ𝑦
−Δ𝑥 n 𝑖𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑜 𝑎 𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝚫𝒏 =
−Δ𝑥

So:
𝜌𝑽𝚫𝒏 = 𝟎
Along a streamline, since n is aligned with the vector
𝛥𝑥 𝚫𝒏, it’s true that :
𝑽= /Δ𝑡
𝛥𝑦
𝑣 Δ𝜓 = 𝜌𝑽𝚫𝒏 = Δ𝑦 𝜌𝑢 − 𝜌𝑣 Δ𝑥 = 0
→ 𝜓 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝑢 n
n is normal to V so:
−Δ𝑦
𝑛∥
Δ𝑥

CURRAO
 STREAM FUNCTION
𝑑𝜓 = 𝑑𝑦 𝜌𝑢 − 𝜌𝑣 𝑑𝑥 = 0 → 𝜓 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

“𝜓 is again an exact differential” so :

𝜕𝜓 𝜕𝜓 𝜕𝜓 𝜕𝜓
𝑑𝑦 + 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝜓 ⟹ 𝜌𝑢 = , 𝜌𝑣 = −
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥

Physical Polar
coordinates coordinates
𝑛

CURRAO
 TAKE AWAY
𝑛  EQUATION OF A STREAMLINE:

𝑑𝜓 = 𝑑𝑦 𝑢 − 𝑣 𝑑𝑥 = 0 → 𝜓 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑚𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒

𝜕𝜓 𝜕𝜓
𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝜓 = 𝑒𝑥𝑎𝑐𝑡 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 → 𝑢 = ,𝑣 = −
𝑛 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥

𝑑𝜓 = 𝑑𝜓 ∗ 𝜌
𝜕𝜓 𝜕𝜓
𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑑𝜓 = 𝑒𝑥𝑎𝑐𝑡 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 → 𝜌𝑢 = , 𝜌𝑣 = −
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥

 TANGENT TO A STREAMLINE:

𝜕𝜓 𝜕𝜓
𝑑𝑦 𝜕𝑥
= 𝜕𝜓 = 𝜕𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝜕𝜓
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦

 IF INCOMPRESSIBLE:
𝜓=𝜓∗𝜌

CURRAO
VELOCITY POTENTIAL

CURRAO
 A POTENTIAL FLOW IS IRROTATIONAL
A potential flow is a vector field that can be described entirely as a scalar field

VECTOR FIELD POTENTIAL VECTOR FIELD

If it is a potential field 𝑽 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 = ∇𝜙, 𝜙(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)
𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)
𝑽 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 = 𝑣(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)
𝑤(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) In every point we need to know
only 𝜙 i.e., a scalar! If V is velocity,
In every point we need to know then 𝜙 is the velocity potential
three information to express V.
THEOREM
IF A FLOW IS A IT IS ALSO
POTENTIAL FLOW ⇔ IRROTATIONAL
𝑉 = ∇𝜙 ∇ × ∇𝜙 = 0
Velocity can be expressed as the gradient of a scalar

CURRAO
 A POTENTIAL FLOW IS IRROTATIONAL
A potential flow is a vector field that can be described entirely as a scalar field

VECTOR FIELD
If it is a potential field
𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)
𝑽 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 = 𝑣(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)
𝑤(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)

In every point we need to know

three information to express V.
THEOREM
IF A FLOW IS A IT IS ALSO
POTENTIAL FLOW ⇔ IRROTATIONAL
𝑉 = ∇𝜙 ∇ × ∇𝜙 = 0
Velocity can be expressed as the gradient of a scalar

CURRAO
 EXAMPLE GRAVITATIONAL FIELD

It is a potential flow because

𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡
𝑭 = ∇𝜙, 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝜙=−
𝑟
For example:
𝜕𝜙 𝜕 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡 𝑥
𝐹 = = = −𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡
𝜕x 𝜕𝑥 𝑥 +𝑦 +𝑧 𝑟

And you can prove that

∇ × ∇𝜙 = 0
𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡 𝑥 𝑦 𝑧
𝑭 =− 𝒓 = −𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡
𝑟 𝑟 𝑟 𝑟
(it is a bit like a sink flow, the magnitude becomes
larger near the origin)

CURRAO
 EXAMPLE GRAVITATIONAL FIELD
𝜙
𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡
𝐹 =− 𝒓=
𝑟
𝑥 𝑦 𝑧
−𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡
𝑟 𝑟 𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡
𝜙=−
𝑟

As you can see it is easier to express a vector field in terms of a

single scalar

CURRAO
 EXAMPLE GRAVITATIONAL FIELD
𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡
𝐹 =− 𝒓= 𝜙 =−
𝑟 𝑟
𝑥 𝑦 𝑧
−𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡
𝑟 𝑟 𝑟
EQUIPOTENTIAL LINES:
𝜙
Along these lines the
potential is constant
𝜙

As you can see it is easier to express a vector field in terms of a

single scalar

CURRAO
 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN
STREAMFUNCTION AND VELOCITY POTENTIAL

CURRAO
STREAMLINE/EQUIPOTENTIAL LINE
ALONG A STREAMLINE ALONG AN EQUIPOTENTIAL LINE
𝜕𝜓 𝜕𝜓 𝜕𝜙 𝜕𝜙
𝑑𝜓 = 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑑𝑦 = 0 𝑑𝜙 = 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑑𝑦 = 0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦

𝜕𝜓 𝜕𝜓 𝜕𝜙
𝑣=− 𝑢= 𝑢= 𝜕𝜙
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝑣=
𝜕𝑦
TANGENT TO THE STREAMLINE TANGENT TO THE EQUIPOTENTIAL LINE
−𝑣𝑑𝑥 + 𝑢𝑑𝑦 = 0 𝑢𝑑𝑥 + 𝑣𝑑𝑦 = 0

𝑑𝑦 𝑣 𝑑𝑦 𝑢
⇒ = ⇒ =−
𝑑𝑥 𝑢 𝑑𝑥 𝑣

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
= −1/
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Equipotential lines and steamlines are
perpendicular to each other

CURRAO
 EXAMPLES
𝜙
𝜙

𝜓
𝜓
CURRAO
END CHAPTER 2

CURRAO