AERODYNAMICS 1

CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION

The main part of the material presented herein is taken from J., D., Anderson “Fundamental of Aerodynamics” CURRAO
WHEN DID WE START FLYING

CURRAO
 GREEK MITHOLOGY

Jacob Peter Gowy: The Flight of Icarus (1635–1637) Artus Quellinus the Elder: Mercury
Icarus flies too close to the sun, melting The god Mercury with the
the glue of his wings. flying shoes

CURRAO
 LEONARDO DA VINCI

Leonardo da Vinci (1452 – 1519)

His flying machine was inspired by bat  An artist, a scientist, an engineer, an.. observer
wings. Later ideas contemplated a flapping His inventions as well as art masterpieces were based on
machine. profound studies of nature.

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 OTTO LILIENTHAL

Longest glide flight covered 250 meters

Otto ‘Flying man’ von Lilienthal (1878 – 1896)

 Engineering approach
He accurately documented every flight. His gliders were
inspired by the bird wings.

He was the main inspiration for the Orville brothers. He

died flying after more than 2000 successful flights.

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 WRIGHT BROTHERS

Their Bicycle shop in Dayton (Ohio)

Orville (1871 – 1948) Wilbur (1867-1912)

 Enthusiast Engineers:
They were very interested in mechanisms and
engineering (Bicycles, Printing machines, Motors )

The first gliders

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THE FIRST SUSTAINED FLIGHT

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 WHAT MADE THEM SUCCESSFULL
 Historical time:
Post industrial revolution in U.S. (1820-1840)
First Car in 1886
First steamboat in 1802

 Experience:
Mainly from Otto, but also from the failures of
previous famous scientists

 Scientific Method:
Development of the first wind-tunnel

 Innovative control technique The tunnel developed by the Wright brothers

It was inspired by the flight of birds

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TESTED WING AEROFOILS
Wing Velocity V Wing

Airfoil section

Lift

Wind Velocity V

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TESTED PROPELLERS

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IMPROVED CONTROL SYSTEM

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 FUNDAMENTAL
AERODYNAMIC VARIABLES

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 FUNDAMENTAL VARIABLES
Thermodynamic variables Information about the kinetic energy
YOU NEED TO KNOW 2 OF THEM: of the fluid:
YOU NEED TO KNOW VELOCITY (𝑢)
Pressure (𝑝) Density (𝜌)
Temperature (𝑇) For example, in the form of:
Total pressure (𝑝 = 𝑝 + 𝜌𝑢 /2) or
You can get the third one using the Total temperature (𝑇 = 𝑇 +
state gas equation: 𝑢 /2𝐶𝑝) or Mass flow (𝑚̇ = 𝜌𝐴𝑢) …
Indicative of the
number of air 𝑝 = 𝜌𝑅𝑇 Indicative of the
molecules “pushing” a
number of particles in Indicative of the kinetic
surface. Thus, Indicative of the a finite volume energy of the flow
transmitting their chaotic motion of the
momentum to a body. particles or their
internal energy

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 THERMODYNAMICS PROPERTIES
Temperature [K] Infinitesimal force
increasing the kinetic exerted by the particle
energy of the single
particles, thus their chaotic 𝑑𝐹⃗
motion (speed is in every
direction) and also the 𝑛 unit normal
chance of collision vector to a
molecules-molecules and 𝑑𝐴 𝑑𝐴
Cold air Hot air surface
molecules body surface

Infinitesimal area
Density[kg/m3]
It is an indication of the Pressure [Pa] is then the force distribution.
amount of particles that is The sum of this infinitesimal forces gives
present in a volume. you the total force acting on the surface
Dense air Rarefied air
You can intuitively see that all of them are 𝑑𝐹⃗ = − 𝑝 𝑑𝐴 𝑛
related. Physically, this is expressed with
the gas state equation 𝑝 = 𝜌𝑅𝑇

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 VELOCITY AND SPEED
Velocity is a vector field
Definition of vector field: a vector field is 𝑉(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧).

i.e., in every point you have information about the

fluid element speed (or magnitude/length of the
vector) and direction.
𝑦
𝑉(𝑥, 𝑦)

Here at the location (x,y) 𝑥

You have two information

𝑉(𝑥, 𝑦) 𝑉
𝑉 𝑥, 𝑦 = 𝑉
𝑣 |𝑉| Speed V = 𝑉 = 𝑢 + 𝑣

𝑢 Velocity Direction unit vector always

tangent to the streamline
CURRAO
 BODY-FLUID INTERACTION 1/2 streamline
𝑉(𝑥, 𝑦)
Length of the A 𝑉 + 𝑑𝑉
profile 𝑦 streamline
segment 𝑠(𝑥)
𝑥 B 𝑉

Particle A is “dragging” forward, is thus

Pressure p(s). Remember that this is a
scalar not a vector. Pressure is a result
of both the thermodynamic properties
of the gas and the velocity of the air.
.. The Bernoulli equation will clarify this
relationship, let’s that in general high
velocity determines a lower pressure.
exerting a force in the direction of the
flow but proportional to 𝑑𝑉
Shear stress 𝝉(s). It is the result of the
“rubbing” or friction on the surface. It is
almost fully dependent on the flow velocity
𝜏𝑡⃗ and weakly on the temperature. Always
−𝑝𝑛 tangent to the surface
𝑠 𝑑𝑉
𝜏=𝜇
𝑑𝑦
Viscosity is a constant of proportionality.
It is a function of temperature
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BODY-FLUID INTERACTION 2/2

Freestream static pressure

Hydrostatic pressure

Flow at rest case Shear stress

Moving flow case

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AERODYNAMIC FORCES AND
MOMENTS

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 RESULTANT AERODYNAMIC FORCES 1/2
Because of the presence of a distribution of pressure and shear stress
on the profile p(s) and 𝜏(s), in the most general case you have
𝑅 or resulting force
Translation:
This is due to the presence of a resultant force, that is the sum
𝑉 of all the infinitesimally small forces acting on the profile
induced by pressure and shear stress.

In this case you can move R where you want, as long as

orientation and magnitude are the same

𝑀 or moment
Rotation around the center of gravity (which is the
𝑉 geometrical center if wing density is uniform)
Again, this is due to the presence of pressure and
shear stress acting on the wing profile resulting in a
moment.

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RESULTANT AERODYNAMIC FORCES 2/2
It is more practical to decide an application point for the force. So, in general
we have that with respect to that point we have a moment and a force

𝑅
𝑀 When we fix a reference point, R does not change. R is still
a sum of forces, but the moment can generally change
𝑉
because

𝑑(𝑀𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡) = 𝑑(𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒) × 𝑎𝑟𝑚

And the arm is the distance between dA and the reference

point.

We will see that there is a smart way to choose this point,

𝑉 For now, let’s say that in general you can reassume all the
aerodynamic forces and moments with respect to a point.

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ANGLE OF ATTACK AND PITCH
L.E. 𝑅
Leading edge

𝛼
T.E.
𝑉 Trailing edge

Angle of attack (AOA)

chord
Positive for increasing
+𝑀
pitch and thus lift
Positive sense is for
increasing pitch (i.e.,
increasing lift)

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 LIFT AND DRAG 1/2
𝑁: Normal Lift (𝐿)
𝑅
component Force in the
perpendicular to 𝑉 𝑅

𝛼 Drag (𝐷)
𝛼 Force in the direction
𝑉 of 𝑉
𝑉
𝑀
𝐴⃗: Axial 𝑀
component These components are what we are
interested in:
These components are simpler
and more logic in terms of  How much force is generated in the
calculations vertical direction? Lift
 How much is the resistance of the profile
to the freestream flow?

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 LIFT AND DRAG 2/2
𝑁 𝛼
𝑁
𝑅
𝑅 𝐿
𝐿

𝛼 𝐷
𝛼 𝐷
𝑉
𝑉 𝛼

𝑀
𝐴
𝐴
Note that the angle between N and L,
and D and A is the angle of attack
(AOA or 𝛼) so

𝐿 = 𝑁 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 − 𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼
𝐷 = 𝑁 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼 + 𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼

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 CALCULATION 1/5
Let’s assume that the hard job has already been done for you, i.e., you already know the
pressure p(s) and shear 𝜏(s) distribution on the airfoil or a section of the wing and you
want to calculate lift and drag: 𝜃(𝑠)
Convention: +𝜃 is
𝑦
clockwise
𝑝(𝑠)
+
𝑠
𝜃(𝑠)
𝑥
𝜏(𝑠)
T.E.
L.E.

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 CALCULATION 2/5
It is convenient however to separate the contribution from top (suction side)
and lower (pressure side)
𝜃(𝑠 )
+𝜽
𝑦
𝑝(𝑠 )
𝑠 Upper side
𝜃(𝑠 )
(suction side)
𝑥
𝑦 𝜏(𝑠 )

𝑥
𝑠 Lower side
𝜏(𝑠 ) 𝜃(𝑠 ) (pressure side)
𝑝(𝑠 )

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 CALCULATION 3/5
Now let’s consider the d(force) in the axial and normal direction applied to
an infinitesimal segment ds

𝜃
𝑑𝑁 = −𝑝 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 − 𝜏 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝑠
𝑦
𝑝
𝑝
𝑠 𝜃
𝜃
𝑥 𝑑𝐴 = −𝑝 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 + 𝜏 cos 𝜃 𝑑𝑠

𝜏 𝜏

𝑑𝑠

Tangent line to the

profile at s(x)

Upper side contribution Lower side contribution

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 CALCULATION 4/5
Now let’s calculate the moment induced by the force 𝑑𝑁 and 𝑑𝐴 acting on a
segment 𝑑𝑠 with respect to the leading edge L.E.

𝑑𝑁 = −𝑝 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 − 𝜏 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝑠 Moment sign

𝑑𝐴 = −𝑝 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 + 𝜏 cos 𝜃 𝑑𝑠 convention

𝑠
L.E. 𝑦
𝑥
Upper side contribution

Lower side contribution

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 CALCULATION 5/5

The dash sign indicates that these forces and

moments are calculated for a 2D wing, or a
profile with a depth = 1

More in general, 𝑑𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 𝑑𝑠 × 𝑙

For a 2D case (only profile) we get
these formulas →

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AERODYNAMIC COEFFICIENTS 1/2

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 DIMENSIONLESS QUANTITIES
Can we guess what L,D,N,A, and M if the shape of the profile is the same?
We first need to categorize similar profiles, so as to scale the aerodynamic forces and moments

Dynamic pressure 1
(It is fundamentally the kinetic 𝑞 = 𝜌𝑉
2
energy of the flow)

Reference Surface

SPHERE

WING

CURRAO
 DIMENSIONLESS QUANTITIES
Can we guess what L,D,N,A, and M if the shape of the profile is the same?
We first need to categorize similar profiles, so as to scale the aerodynamic forces and moments

 Dynamic pressure 1
(It is fundamentally the kinetic 𝑞 = 𝜌𝑉
2
energy of the flow)

 Reference Surface

SPHERE

WING

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CENTER OF PRESSURE

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 CENTER OF PRESSURE
 We calculate N
 We calculated A
 We calculated MLE as the resultant 𝑁
moment at the L.E. induced by N and A

Where to apply N and A? well in this case 𝑀

we have to apply them on the LE.

IF we move these forces, THEN the moment

𝑀 will change! 𝐴

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 CENTER OF PRESSURE
 We calculate N
 We calculated A
 We calculated MLE as the resultant 𝑁
moment at the L.E. induced by N and A

Where to apply N and A? well in this case

we have to apply it on the LE.

Or we can translate the system of forces at a

distance of 𝑥 such that the moment at the 𝐴
LE is still 𝑀 . This means
𝑥
𝑀 𝑥 = 0 = 𝑀 = −𝑁 × 𝑥

Consequently, around the center of

pressure the moment is zero

𝑀 𝑥 =𝑥 =0

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 CENTER OF PRESSURE
 We calculate N
 We calculated A
 We calculated MLE as the resultant 𝑁
moment at the L.E. induced by N and A

Where to apply N and A? well in this case

we have to apply it on the LE.

Or we can translate the system of forces at a

distance of 𝑥 such that the moment at the
LE is still 𝑀 . This means
𝑀 𝑥 = 0 = 𝑀 = −𝑁 × 𝑥
Consequently, around the center of
pressure the moment is zero
𝐴
𝑥
Thus the C.P. is the point where
the resultant of the distributed
loads is effectively acting!

𝑀 𝑥 =𝑥 =0

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 CENTER OF PRESSURE
 We calculate N
If 𝛼 is small, then 𝐿 ≈ 𝑁, and 𝑥 ≈ 𝑀 /𝐿
 We calculated A
 We calculated MLE as the resultant 𝑁
moment at the L.E. induced by N and A

Where to apply N and A? well in this case

we have to apply it on the LE.

Or we can translate the system of forces at a

distance of 𝑥 such that the moment at the 𝐴
LE is still 𝑀 . This means
𝑥
𝑀 𝑥 = 0 = 𝑀 = −𝑁 × 𝑥
Thus the C.P. is the point where
Consequently, around the center of the resultant of the distributed
pressure the moment is zero loads is effectively acting!

𝑀 𝑥 =𝑥 =0

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 CENTER OF PRESSURE
 We calculate N
 We calculated A
 We calculated MLE as the resultant 𝑁
moment at the L.E. induced by N and A

Where to apply N and A? well in this case

we have to apply it on the LE.

Or we can translate the system of forces at a

distance of 𝑥 such that the moment at the 𝐴
LE is still 𝑀 . This means
𝑥
𝑀 𝑥 = 0 = 𝑀 = −𝑁 × 𝑥

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 ON THE BOOK
N.B. M is induced by the resultant force!
This means that the presence of N and A
result in a moment at LE.
𝑀(𝑥 = 0) = 𝑀
At a distance from LE such that:

𝑀 = −𝑁𝑥

N.B.2 don’t get confused. In the picture all

moments and forces are drawn in their
positive sense. If N = 10 N, A = 5 N
MLE will be -10 N × 𝑥 thus negative. But
for generality, the moment is drawn in the
positive sense
Center of pressure
N.B.3 In this case the depicted MLE is simply the
effect of N. If you put the resultant in the center
of pressure don’t need to apply any moment at
the leading edge!

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IN GENERAL, THE QUARTER CHORD
LOCATION IS PREFERRED

This location seems very practical

This location is normally chosen but, for L very small, the center of
because it is near the “aerodynamic pressure can move downstream of
center”.. We will describe it later the wing!

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 EXAMPLE
𝑉
What are you expecting in the real world?
And if you consider the wing without mass, what will
happen an instant later?

 STEP 1: You measure the pressure distribution, what is the

instantaneous aerodynamic force acting on the wing?
𝐹 = 2 kPa × 0.2 m = 400 Pa
𝑝 = 1.5 kPa
𝑝 = 1 kPa

𝑝 = 0.5 kPa
 STEP 2: Where is the force effectively acting?
𝑝 = 1 kPa Let’s calculate the moment with respect to a reference
𝐿 = 1m point, for example the hinge

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 EXAMPLE
 STEP 3: Moment at the reference point

𝑝 = 2 kPa 𝑝𝐿
𝑀 = 𝑝 𝑠𝑑𝑠 = = 𝐹 × 𝐿/2 = 40 Nm
2

𝑠 𝑑𝑠
𝐿 = 0.2 m
𝐹 = 2 kPa × 0.2 m = 400 Pa
𝑝 = 1.5 kPa
𝑝 = 1 kPa

𝑝 = 0.5 kPa
 STEP 2: Where is the force effectively acting?
𝑝 = 1 kPa Let’s calculate the moment with respect to a reference
𝐿 = 1m point, for example the hinge

CURRAO
 EXAMPLE
𝑀 = 40 Nm
𝑀 = 40 Nm

𝐹 = 400 Pa

𝐿 = 0.2 m
𝐹 = 400 Pa

 STEP 4: Center of pressure 𝑥 = = 𝐿/2

𝑥 = 0.1 m

𝐹 = 400 Pa

N.B. In both the cases the moment around

𝐹 = 400 Pa the reference point is the same 40 Nm

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 SOME SHORTCUTS
𝑃
The center of pressure is in 𝐹= 𝑝 𝑑𝑠 = 𝑃𝐿
the middle also for symmetric 𝑃𝐿
𝐿 distribution. 𝑀 = 𝑝 𝑠𝑑𝑠 =
2
𝐹 = 𝑝𝐿
𝑀 𝐿
𝑥 = =
𝑥 = 𝐿/2 𝐹 2

𝑃 𝑃𝐿
𝐹= 𝑝𝑠 𝑑𝑠 =
In general, the center of pressure 2
is closer to the region with 𝑃𝐿
higher pressure levels 𝑀 = 𝑝𝑠 𝑠𝑑𝑠 =
𝐿 3
𝐹 = 𝑝𝐿/2 𝑀 L
𝑥 = =
𝐹 3
𝑥 = 2𝐿/3

CURRAO
 FROM THE WHITEBOARD
Trying to explain that no matter what is your reference point, the
moment distribution does not change. The center of pressure is just a
special reference point where the Moment is zero

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BUCKINGHAM PI THEOREM

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 AERODYNAMIC FORCES DEPENDENCES
Force Resultant on a body at a certain
angle of attack, depends on:
𝑅 = 𝑓(𝜌 , 𝑉 , 𝑐, 𝜇 , 𝑎 )
Speed of sound, i.e., how fast a disturbance
travels in the undisturbed medium that is
Density air.
(1st thermodynamic variable) This is just another way to say express the
temperature because 𝑎 = 𝛾𝑅𝑇
Flow velocity (2nd thermodynamic variable)
(it affects the static pressure, and it
results in skin shear stress)
Viscosity
Size of the body (necessary to calculate
(Note that the geometry the shear stress)
does not change)

CURRAO
 DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS
𝑅 = 𝑓(𝜌 , 𝑉 , 𝑐, 𝜇 , 𝑎 )

Physical variables = 5
If for example each physical variables varies between two values during the actual flight,
we would need at least 2 experiments or simulations to predict what happens during
the flight.

In few words you would need 32 wind tunnel tests where you fix one or more
parameters, and you change the others. You should do this for any new geometry. This
is impractical/impossible.

BUT

 Maybe we can reduce the number of test if we could reduce the number of
independent variables!
 Maybe we can find some non-dimensional parameters that are indicative for any
geometrically similar geometry

CURRAO
BUCKINGHAM PI-THEOREM

This is the original Aerodynamic force function made

implicit. Now we have a function g of
N = 6 physical variables

All the N physical variables can be expressed in

terms of K = 3 fundamental variables

CURRAO
BUCKINGHAM PI-THEOREM

N = 6 physical variables , K = 3 fundamental variables

N - K = 3 dimensionless variables

This means that instead of using 5 variables, you can describe

this problem using only 3 dimensionless variables!

So, if two problems have the same dimensionless variables it

means that the flow is similar

CURRAO
BUCKINGHAM PI-THEOREM

N = 6 physical variables , K = 3 fundamental variables

For example:
N - K = 3 dimensionless variables

Each dimensionless variable has to be the

product of K+1 = 4 physical variables

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 Let’s assume that the first dimensionless
coefficient can be written as:

 We use only K=3 exponents, so the

dimensionless condition will give us three  If we substitute c2 with a reference area:
equations in three unknowns:

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 DIMENSIONLESS PARAMETERS

Π =𝑀
Π =𝐶 Mach number
Force coefficient Is the ratio between body speed
This is indicative of the both and speed of sound.
size and magnitude of the Π = 𝑅𝑒
aerodynamic forces Reynolds number It gives information on the type of
This is a ratio of the inertial forces regime (subsonic, transonic,
over the viscous forces supersonic, hypersonic)

It gives information in terms of

streamlines behavior near the body Consequently:

The Force coefficient only depends on Reynolds and

Mach number!

CURRAO
 AERODYNAMIC FORCES COEFFICIENTS
 For the same reason, also the lift, drag and
moment coefficients depend on the only on
Reynolds number and Mach number.

 More in general, the coefficients will also

depend on the angle of attack. But they will be
the same for body with similar shapes.

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FLOW SIMILARITY

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 FLOW SIMILARITY
There is flow similarity when

SAME SIMILARITY SIMILAR GEOMETRY

PARAMETERS This means that the
In the previous case geometries are the same,
𝑅𝑒, 𝑀, and 𝛼 but they can be scaled up
or down

FLOW SIMILARITY SCALED DISTRIBUTION ARE THE SAME

This means that the streamlines i.e., ⁄ vs ⁄ , or vs ⁄ , …
patterns are geometrically
similar

AERODYNAMIC COEFICIENTS
ARE THE SAME

CURRAO
 EXAMPLE
ARE THE TWO FLOWS GEOMETRICALLY SIMILAR?

 They are geometrically similar

(i.e., the geometry is the same, but one cylinder is scaled up)

 They have the same Reynolds and Mach number

𝜌 𝑉𝑑 𝜌 2𝑉 4𝑑 𝜌 𝑉𝑑
𝑅𝑒 = = = = 𝑅𝑒
𝜇 4 2𝜇 𝜇

𝑉 2𝑉
𝑀 = = =𝑀
𝑎 2𝑎

⇒ Then streamline patterns are also similar (as visible)

N.B. and ⇒ Then in any point ⁄ ( , ) is the same for both the flows

⇒ Then 𝐶 is the same for both the cylinders

CURRAO
 WIND TUNNEL TESTING
We can predict what happens during the flight by performing experiments with the same Re and M. This is
in general challenging or costly. If we want to match both in-flight Re and M, what Pressure and velocity
should we have?
FLOW 1
𝑉 = 550 mi/h = 245.9 m/s N.B.1 The higher is the scaling, the more
ℎ = 38 000 ft complicated and expensive is to match the
(𝑝 = 20.7 kPa, 𝑇 = 177.8 K ) Reynolds number. Scaling factor

𝑐
LENGTH = 70.7 m = (𝟓𝟎)
𝑐

FLOW 2 N.B.2 The temperature ratio plays an important

Assume that the temperature role, the higher T1/T2 the higher the power
will not be lower than requirements. Here:
𝑇 = 238 K
𝑇 238
= = (𝟏. 𝟑𝟒)
(This is to avoid water vapour 𝑇 177.8
condensation)
LENGTH = 1.414 m
(50 TIMES SMALLER)
CURRAO
 MATCHING MACH AND REYNOLDS
 Mach number  Reynolds number

(50)

Because Mach is
the same

m/s 285 m/s

20.7 kPa (50) (1.34） 13.9 atm
Temperature Temperature
Scaling factor
ratio ratio
CURRAO
 NACA Variable Density Tunnel (VDT)
The total pressure could reach 20 atm, making it possible to match both Mach
number and Reynolds number simultaneously. 1 foot ~ 0.3 m

Today, in general, we do not attempt to simulate all the parameters simultaneously; rather, Mach number simulation is
achieved in one wind tunnel, and Reynolds number simulation in another tunnel. The results from both tunnels are then
analyzed and correlated to obtain reasonable values for CL and CD appropriate for free flight.

CURRAO
DESIGN BOX

CURRAO
 LEVEL STEADY FLIGHT
LEVEL = HORIZONTAL,
STEADY = NO ACCELERATION = EQUILIBRIUM = SUM OF FORCES IS ZERO

𝐿
THRUST PROVIDED
= DRAG
BY THE ENGINE
𝑉 𝑇 𝐷
WEIGHT OF THE
= LIFT
AIRPLANE

N.B. The engine produce the thrust, the flow

around the wing produce lift and drag, but:
𝑊
L/D > 15 - 20 !
N.B. In the following discussion we will consider the airplane
as a “point” from a force equilibrium perspective. (In
dynamics, this point is located on the center of gravity)

CURRAO
 ANGLE OF ATTACK INFLUENCE
AERODYNAMIC COEFFICIENTS = f(Re, Mach, AOA)
If we fix Re Mach and shape:

Lift Drag = f(AOA)

So, L and D are different from these two cases

𝐿 𝐿

𝑉 𝑇 𝐷 𝑇 𝐷
𝑉
𝛼

𝑊 𝑊

AOA = 0 AOA > 0

CURRAO
 CDMIN AND CLMAX
STALL POINT
Beyond a certain AOA the wing experiences a sudden drop in lift
(it is typically egarded as a very dangerous phenomenon)

If the profile is
symmetric this 𝐿
is zero CL slope is typically straight,
especially for thin profiles

𝑇 𝐷
𝑉
𝛼

𝑊
CD Increases for large values of the module of AOA. Intuitively,
this results in a higher frontal area. Thus to maintain the same AOA > 0
speed a larger thrust force is requires (∝ 𝑉 ).
CURRAO
 MINIMUM SPEED (STALL SPEED)

If shape, weight and freestream conditions are fixed. Then CL depends only on V2.

The speed corresponding to CL MAX is then the minimum or stall speed.

CURRAO
 MAXIMUM SPEED

If shape, weight and freestream conditions are fixed. Then CD depends only on the
power settings (i.e., thrust) and V2.

The speed corresponding to CD MIN and T MAX is then the maximum speed.

CURRAO
 LIFT COEFFICIENT
CLMAX For an airplane at level steady flight:
LIFT COEFFICIENT CL

 Increasing the speed, means reducing CL. However,

V cannot be larger than VMAX . This also
corresponds to CD min.

 Decreasing the speed means that a larger AOA will

be necessary to produce a Lift equal to the weight.
The maximum lift is for VSTALL.

SPEED V
VMIN = VSTALL VMAX

𝛼
AOA increases AOA for AOA for
CD MIN CL MAX

CURRAO
 LIFT-TO-DRAG RATIO
One of the main goals of the designer is to obtain the maximum lift
L/DMAX while decreasing drag as much as possible for the cruise condition.

A) The smaller the speed the higher is the AOA required

L/D = CL/CD

to produce lift because

𝐿 ∝ 𝑉 𝐶 (𝛼)
VMAX
A So, if 𝑉 = 𝑉 ⇒𝐶 𝛼 =𝐶 ⇒𝛼=𝛼

VDESIGN
VMIN

SPEED V

𝛼
AOA increases

CURRAO
 LIFT-TO-DRAG RATIO
One of the main goals of the designer is to obtain the maximum lift
L/DMAX while decreasing drag as much as possible for the cruise condition.

B) IF we increase the speed we need a small angle of

L/D = CL/CD

B attack to produce a lift = weight. But

𝐷 ∝ 𝑉 𝐶 (𝛼)
VMAX
A So the speed will also increase drag. Consequently is V is
too high D increases and the ratio L/D decreases
VDESIGN
VMIN

SPEED V

𝛼
AOA increases

CURRAO
 LIFT-TO-DRAG RATIO
C One of the main goals of the designer is to obtain the maximum lift
L/DMAX while decreasing drag as much as possible for the cruise condition.

C) Cruise condition. Here L/D is maximized. The angle is

L/D = CL/CD

B
sufficient to produce the required amount of lift without
graving on the thrust requirements (remember that it is
always L=W, T=D)
VMAX
A

VDESIGN
VMIN

SPEED V

𝛼
AOA increases

CURRAO
 LIFT-TO-DRAG RATIO
C One of the main goals of the designer is to obtain the maximum lift
L/DMAX while decreasing drag as much as possible for the cruise condition.

C) Cruise condition. Here L/D is maximized. The angle is

L/D = CL/CD

B
sufficient to produce the required amount of lift without
graving on the thrust requirements (remember that it is
always L=W, T=D)
𝛼 MAX
A

𝛼 DESIGN
𝛼 MIN

AOA V

CURRAO
HYDROSTATIC

CURRAO
 HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE
y  Equilibrium of forces:

𝑑𝑝
𝑝 𝑑𝑆 − 𝜌𝑔 𝑑𝑉𝑜𝑙 − 𝑝 + 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑆 = 0 =
𝑑𝑦

z  Integrating between two altitudes h1

𝑑𝑝
𝑝+ 𝑑𝑦 and h2:
𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑆 𝜌𝑔 𝑑𝑉𝑜𝑙
𝑝
𝑑𝑆 = 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑧
𝑑𝑉𝑜𝑙 = dx dy dz

CURRAO
 HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE
𝑝 𝑝
𝑝 = 𝑝 ,ℎ 𝑝 = 𝑝 + 𝜌𝑔(ℎ − ℎ)

WATER 𝑝, ℎ

𝑝 ,ℎ = 0
𝑝 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ

 The pressure at a specific height is constant (in the horizontal direction the pressure is constant)

 The pressure at a specific height = pressure at a higher height + weight of the column of water particles
𝑝(ℎ) 𝑝(ℎ + ∆ℎ) 𝜌𝑔∆ℎ

CURRAO
 U-TUBE MANOMETER
𝑝

𝑝 𝑝 𝑝

Open to atmosphere

Liquid. Mercury typically

because it is heavy. A water
tube would be too high.
known known Measured

CURRAO
 BUOYANCY FORCE
𝑝 𝑝 𝑑𝑆 𝑝

Empty box ∆ℎ

𝑝 = 𝑝 + 𝜌𝑔∆ℎ
WATER
𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝐹 = 𝑝 + 𝜌𝑔Δℎ 𝑑𝑆 − 𝑝 𝑑𝑆 = 𝜌𝑔 Δℎ𝑑𝑆 =
= 𝜌𝑔 𝑉𝑜𝑙 = 𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝐵𝑜𝑥
𝑝 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ
ARCHIMEDES PRINCIPLE

ARCHIMEDES (287-212 B.C)

CURRAO
 ZEPPELIN - AIRSHIP

Count Von Zeppelin

Hugo Eckener*

 Originally invented by Count Von Zeppelin

 Heavily used for bombardment during WWI
 Golden age of Zeppelin between the two wars under
 Almost completely abandoned after the disaster of the
LZ 129 Hindenburg ZR-3 USS Los Angeles Flying over Manhattan
*Eckener was an anti-Nazi and a dreamer CURRAO
 PRINCIPLE
Buoyancy Force:
Weight of the volume of
air displaced by the ship

Weight of the ship + the

weight of the gas trapped
inside
Hot Baloons:
 Today the light gas used are inert (Helium). Reducing the density of the air within
 Eckner, unfortunately had to use Hydrogen, which is the balloon so as to have a positive
extremely flammable. What would have happened to net lift.
his dream if he could have used Helium?

CURRAO
STANDARD ATMOSPHERE

CURRAO
 STANDARD ATMOSPHERE 1976

Standard because it is a realistic estimate for every

day during the year. Standard sea-level (S.L.)
conditions are T = 288.15, p = 101325 Pa (= 1 atm)
CURRAO
 SEA LEVEL (S.L.) CONDITIONS
P = 1 atm = 101325 Pa
TROPOSPHERE
T = 288.15 K Conditions at 11 km altitude?
𝜌 = 1.225 kg/m3

3. STATE GAS EQUATION: N.B. Gravity g varies with

 LAPSE RATE a = -6.5 deg/km
altitude but you can assume it
The temperature decreases almost
almost constant within the
linearly with altitude: 𝑝 = 𝜌𝑅𝑇
atmosphere, so:

1. LAPSE RATE (R = 287 J/kg/K) and the lapse rate:

𝑇
So 𝑝=𝑝
𝑇 ℎ = 𝑇 − 6500 × ℎ 𝑇
Or 𝑑𝑇 = 𝑎 𝑑ℎ
𝑑𝑝 𝑔 𝑑𝑇
=− Once you get p, you can
Pressure? 𝑝 𝑎𝑅 𝑇 calculate density.
2. HYDROSTATIC EQUATION
4. INTEGRATING
𝜌𝑔
𝑑𝑝 = −𝜌𝑔 𝑑ℎ = − 𝑑𝑇 𝑝 𝑔 𝑇
𝑎 ln =− ln
𝑝 𝑎𝑅 𝑇
But density depends on both pressure
and temperature!
CURRAO
TYPES OF FLOW

CURRAO
 CONTINUUM FLOW / FREE-MOLECULES FLOW
Density [kg/m3]
It is an indication of the
number of particles that is
present in a volume.
Dense air Rarefied air
 In the continuum, there is no
distinction in terms of particles.
Intuitively it can be said that the
number of collisions with the wall is so
large that it is much more convenient
to consider the flow as a dense matter
with no empty spaces and a specific
λ ↓↓↓∼ 0 density.
Free-mean path:
λ Average distance a particle
can travel without hitting
another particle
 In a rarefied flow, (such as in
space operations) It is necessary
to consider that each single
particle. Intuitively, it is possible
to discern each single particle
impacting the wall
λ>0
CURRAO
 INVISCID FLOW / VISCOUS FLOW
 INVISCID:
Part of the flow where transport phenomena
such as:

- Diffusion (Transport of mass)

- Friction/Viscosity (Transport of Momentum)
- Conduction (Transport of thermal energy)

are not so important

 VISCOUS FLOW:
Part of the flow where these phenomena
cannot be neglected.
In this layer called boundary layer the
velocity decrease quickly to zero close to
the wall, as a consequence of viscosity.

CURRAO
 INVISCID FLOW / VISCOUS FLOW
Even if only the boundary layer is significantly affected by
friction, its effect is very important because the drag is due
to friction.

Even more important for blunt object cases or airfoil at

large angle of attack. In these cases, we talk of viscous-
dominated problems:

In this layer called boundary layer the

velocity decrease quickly to zero close to
the wall, as a consequence of viscosity.

CURRAO
 INCOMPRESSIBLE FLOW/ COMPRESSIBLE FLOW
Low-speed flow u < 100 m/s (or M < 0.3):
(Pre-WWII and small aviation today)

The density of the gas can be considered

constant. You don’t need the real gas state
equation anymore! Pressure changes only
with speed

Typical airliner today flies at 1000 km/h at 35000 -

40000 ft (10 km – 14 km altitude). These speed
corresponds to Mach numbers smaller than 0.8 -
0.85 to avoid transonic effects

Fokker, deadliest
airplane from WWI
CURRAO
MACH NUMBER REGIMES

CURRAO
MAIN DIFFERENCES
SUBSONIC REGIME M<1
Disturbances such as pressure waves (what you
often call noise) go in every direction

Consequently, you hear the airplane when is

approaching

SUPERSONIC M>1
The disturbances travels behind the
airplane

You know if a supersonic airplane has

passed by if you hear noise after his
passage

CURRAO
SUBSONIC/SUPERSONIC

CURRAO
 SUBSONIC/SUPERSONIC

SHOCK
AIR
AIR PARTICLE
PARTICLE

The shock abruptly

Gently move around the changes the flow
“obstacle” . direction.

The “information” is No information travel

transmitted through the upstream to softly
waves and the particle is change the particle
deflected gently trajectory

CURRAO
 SUBSONICS - TRANSONICS
 SUBSONICS (M < 1 everywhere)  TRANSONICS (regions exist with M < 1 M>1)
𝑴 < 𝟎. 𝟖 𝟎. 𝟖 < 𝑴 < 𝟏. 𝟐

Typically for freestream Mach number < 0.8, the Mach

number around the body is always smaller than 1 (This Because of the profile curvature, some regions can
is especially true for blunt bodies). become supersonic. The problem is that the supersonic
region is delimited by a standing strong shock that
A large curvature results in a local acceleration of the promotes
flow, so M>0.8 might result in a transonic flow.
 Stall
N.B., what happens at the trailing edge of the wing  Vibrations
affects the flow upstream. Information travels in every  Instabilities
direction.

CURRAO
 SUPERSONICS - HYPERSONICS
 SUPERSONICS (M > 1 everywhere)  HYPERSONICS (M >> 1 everywhere)
𝑴 > 𝟏. 𝟐 𝑴 >𝟓

CURRAO
INTRODUCTION TO BOUNDARY LAYERS

CURRAO
 NO-SLIP CONDITION
Understanding before Prandtl:
The flow slips on the wall of the profile

Ludwieg Prandtl (1875 – 1953) SLIP CONDITION AT THE WALL

“Father of the aerodynamics”

Understanding after Prandtl: NO-SLIP CONDITION AT THE WALL

There are two flow regions, inviscid (away from the
wall) and one that is dominated by viscous effects (close
to the wall, and very small) called boundary layer.

One of the goal of this course is to prove that the

boundary layer represents the most important part of
the flow, and it is responsible for the lift production.
CURRAO

Before Prandtl the Lift prediction still
provided reliable results for small AOA
results, because the pressure through a
boundary layer is constant or
𝜕𝑝
=0
𝜕𝑦
BOUNDARY LAYER MOMENT DIFFUSION
The gradient is caused by the fact that
the wall is “dragging the flow” forward.
In the relative system, the wall is
“slowing down the flow”.
The moment diffusion (in the absolute
system is from the wall to the outer
flow)
Before Prandtl, Drag calculations were inaccurate because
the shear stress produced by the boundary layer contribute
significantly to the total drag. 𝜕𝑉
𝜏 =𝜇
𝜕𝑦
Parasite drag = Drag caused only by shear stress
Pressure/shape drag = Drag caused by the wake of the object
and boundary layer detachment (talk more later) ∼ 1.8 × 10
kg/m s (at S.L.)
Total drag = parasite drag + pressure drag
CURRAO
 THERMAL BOUNDARY LAYER

In general, Since the wall has a

different temperature with respect to
the flow, there is also:
THERMAL CONDUCTION

Especially at high speed, due to the relative friction between the

streamline, the peak temperature is recorded very close to the wall where
the change in velocity is large:
Heat flux
opposite and 𝜕𝑇
𝑞 = −𝑘 KINETIC ENERGY transformed through friction into THERMAL ENERGY.
proportional to 𝜕𝑦
the temperature
MOMENTUM AND THERMAL DIFFUSION ARE COUPLED
gradient at the
wall
∼ 2.5 × 10
J/m s K (at S.L.)
CURRAO
 BOUNDARY LAYER TRANSITION

We will show that shear stress and B.L. height are 𝑥

a function of the local Reynolds number:
𝑥

𝜌 𝑉 𝑥 𝐼𝑁𝐸𝑅𝑇𝐼𝐴𝐿 𝐹𝑂𝑅𝐶𝐸𝑆
𝑅𝑒 = =
𝜇 𝑉𝐼𝑆𝐶𝑂𝑈𝑆 𝐹𝑂𝑅𝐶𝐸𝑆

Eventually the flow will become turbulent

because the inertial force will become
dominant for large Rex, it is very important to Don’t smoke
know when this happens because:

CURRAO
 BOUNDARY LAYER TRANSITION

Transition region
We will show that shear stress and B.L. height are
a function of the local Reynolds number:

𝜌 𝑉 𝑥 𝐼𝑁𝐸𝑅𝑇𝐼𝐴𝐿 𝐹𝑂𝑅𝐶𝐸𝑆
𝑅𝑒 = =
𝜇 𝑉𝐼𝑆𝐶𝑂𝑈𝑆 𝐹𝑂𝑅𝐶𝐸𝑆
𝑑𝑉
Eventually the flow will become turbulent 𝑑𝑦
because the inertial force will become
dominant for large Rex, it is very important to
know when this happens because:
𝑑𝑉
↑↑
𝑑𝑦
CURRAO
 BOUNDARY LAYER TRANSITION
In the turbulent boundary layer, the momentum diffusion
is higher, and the velocity becomes more uniform, thus
near the wall the velocity is higher and :

Transition region
We will show that shear stress and B.L. height are
a function of the local Reynolds number:

𝜌 𝑉 𝑥 𝐼𝑁𝐸𝑅𝑇𝐼𝐴𝐿 𝐹𝑂𝑅𝐶𝐸𝑆 For the same reason, the thermal diffusion is higher, and
𝑅𝑒 = = the temperature distribution through the boundary layer
𝜇 𝑉𝐼𝑆𝐶𝑂𝑈𝑆 𝐹𝑂𝑅𝐶𝐸𝑆
becomes more uniform, thus near the wall the
temperature is higher and :
Eventually the flow will become turbulent
because the inertial force will become
dominant for large Rex, it is very important to
know when this happens because:
(𝑞 ) laminar < (𝑞 ) turbulent

CURRAO
AERODYNAMIC COEFFICIENTS 2/2

CURRAO
DRAG COEFFICIENT

CURRAO
 𝑅𝑒 ∼ 10 DRAG COEFFICIENT
AT LOW SPEED
The larger the wake the more the body is dominated by
pressure drag.
𝑅𝑒 ∼ 10
The boundary layer, in a real flow, cannot wrap around
the object completely. When this situation occurs the
boundary layers separates. Separation causes a wake
𝑅𝑒 ∼ 10 region with low pressure. In few words, the drag
increases, because the pressure in front of the object is
higher than the pressure behind the object.

𝑅𝑒 ∼ 10  Large CD > 0.6 is indicating that the relative size of the

wake with respect of to the body is large, thus
pressure drag is dominant.
𝑅𝑒 ∼ 10
 Small CD < 0.15 indicates that the body is streamlined,
the streamlines remain attached almost until the end
and the is parasite drag is mainly contributing to the
= SEPARATION POINT total drag
 DRAG AT LOW SPEED
𝑅𝑒 ∼ 10

At high Reynolds number, Drag will be generally larger

because:

𝑅𝑒 ∼ 10 𝐼𝑁𝐸𝑅𝑇𝐼𝐴𝐿 𝐹𝑂𝑅𝐶𝐸𝑆 ↑ 𝜌𝑉 ↑ 𝑑 ↑
𝑅𝑒 ↑ = =
𝑉𝐼𝑆𝐶𝑂𝑈𝑆 𝐹𝑂𝑅𝐶𝐸𝑆 𝜇

But drag is defined as:

𝑅𝑒 ∼ 10
1
𝐷 ↑ = 𝜌𝑉 ↑ 𝑆 ↑ 𝐶
2
𝑅𝑒 ∼ 10 But this is not always the case , remember that high
Reynolds can promote transition. A turbulent boundary
layer generally separates later with respect to a laminar
𝑅𝑒 ∼ 10 boundary layer.

So, a blunt body (i.e., dominated by pressure drag) will

have lower drag and CD in the presence of a turbulent
boundary layer
= SEPARATION POINT
 BLUNT/STREAMLINED
𝑇𝑂𝑇𝐴𝐿 𝐷𝑅𝐴𝐺 = 𝑃𝑅𝐸𝑆𝑆𝑈𝑅𝐸 𝐷𝑅𝐴𝐺 + 𝑃𝐴𝑅𝐴𝑆𝐼𝑇𝐸 𝐷𝑅𝐴𝐺

 BLUNT: A body dominated by pressure drag, the presence

of a turbulent boundary layer typically reduces the wake
thus reducing the CD.

𝑃𝑅𝐸𝑆𝑆𝑈𝑅𝐸 𝐷𝑅𝐴𝐺 ≫ 𝑃𝐴𝑅𝐴𝑆𝐼𝑇𝐸 𝐷𝑅𝐴𝐺

 STREAMLINED: A body dominated by skin-friction or

parasite drag. A turbulent boundary layer will increase the
total drag significantly because the shear stress is larger.

𝑃𝐴𝑅𝐴𝑆𝐼𝑇𝐸 𝐷𝑅𝐴𝐺 ≫ 𝑃𝑅𝐸𝑆𝑆𝑈𝑅𝐸 𝐷𝑅𝐴𝐺

CURRAO