Class Equation and it’s Consequences

Conjugate Elements :

Let G be a , b EG
a
group ,

b
then a is said to be Conjugate of if 7 < +G
such that a = < bal

Let G be a b EG Define relation G

* a
group a w on
·

REG Set <bl

as follows : a wb <=> - a

* M is an equivalence relation on .
G

arb is to b.
* we
say a
conjugate
S
·
~ is
Since an equivalence relation on G ,
it divides G into disjoint
equivalence classes

·
G = U (I (a)
a+
G

where
(Ica) =
Equivalence class of a in .
G

=
[xeG /xwah
=
[xeG(x =

yay , yeah
=
Sylay 1yeG}
in G
= Set of all Conjugates of a .

4
Result-1

-(a) =
2a] <>> a + -(G)

Proof : Suppose CL(a) =

Say
=> yay = a
+yeG
*
=> ay
=

ya yeG
=> a + 2(4)

conversely Let a t z(G)

Let Ec(a)
any element,
2 be
then 2 =

yay for some

y-G.
=> x = a
yly [As a- [(G)]
= x= A

=> CLca) =
Say
$
Result : 2

-is abelian > <(a) =

Say for all a +4 .

Proof : G is abelian <=> G = 2 (G)

<=> a + 2 CG) for all a +G ·

< CL(a) =
Say + a +G .

NORMALITER OR CENTRALIZER OF AN ELEMENT :

N(a) =
((a) =

[x >
-

4/xa ax] =

Nea) G <=> a - 2(4)

-
=

= CL(a) =
2a]
④
Proof : N(a) =
G < gEN(a) FgEG .

<)
ga ag
=
*
gEG
= a t 2(9)

Theorem :

finite group
- -

Let G be a ,
a + .
G Then

· (scal) =

al =

scans

proof : Since ((a) is

subgroup of 4
So
G Can be written as union
of disjoint right cosets

of <(a) in G
4
 t
Let
G =U CCAi [t<n =
0(4)]
,

=> 0(a) = t .
o((cal) - -
⑭

Let s =
Eac , stay, . . . . .

acctl
suppose si a si =
di a
ly for itj
-A -
=> allily =
Click a

-
I
Mich
=>
E <(a)

=> Cca) xi =
Cca)cej
which contradicts
Therefore All elements in S are district
4
=> o(s) = t

We show that
S = <L(a)

Let SES => S = eitali for some 16 < t

is
=> S
Conjugate of a
=> SE Cl(a)

Therefore SE Cl(a) -
(i)

Again Me (((a) => x =

g'ag ,
ge4 .

qtG = 9 : Clash for some 1 : It

=> g yui - (ca)

y
=
,

Thus x =

g
'a
g =
(yvi)"a yui =
yay ci

=
xiyya ki ( : y + ((a)]
-sit a vi
&
 xes
=>

: CL(a)ES - (ii)

from (i) and (ii) S = cL(a)

=> 0
/cal) =
0(s) = t

Hence from Q 0(4) = t . 0 (ccal)

=> E =

cal

=> o(crcas) =
a

can

↳
Observation
-

Since G
G((a)
=

=> 0(a) =
E 0 (CL(a))
at G

= 2 o(((ca) + E o(CL(a))
atI(G) a
+ 2(4)

=> o (4) = 0 (2 (4) + E (c) (a) · at 2(4)

a42(4) <> <(a) =

Say

0(2(9)) + E
aclass
=

a
+zca)
This equation is called clas equation of Go

4
ExamplesIf index of 2CG) in G is i then show that

any Conjugate class has at most n elements .

solution : We have n =

(a)
and o(Ica)
= ,s
=> 0
(G) = n .
0 (2 (G))

Also 2 (G) E <cab

0(2(4)) 10(c (a)

=>
=> occa) k 0 (2(4) = .

C
So
·
(ccal) = =

occal =
The maximum value of 0 (((a) is when K =

4
Results
-i of 0 (G) <
ph ,
where p is a
prime number ; Then

2 (4) + Set or 0 (ICC) > A

of brime order must have trivial Center

Equivalently group
non
a a
,

Proof : of G is
- -
The class equation

0 (4) = 0 (2 (a)) + E
acass -
①
at z(G)
: D(a) is
subgroup of 4
.

(((a)) 10 (G)
"
so
By Lagrange
Theorem O =
p for each a #ECG)

Consequently o(((a)) =
pK where OSKSM

=
k
· o =
pre

=> P divides
a call
whenever a 42(9).

↳
=> p divides 2 -
a<
2(3) 0 (( (a))

Also p
divides 0(4) =
pM -

from & and it follows that

p divides
[0(2) -

a
[
+2
cass]
=> p divide .

O (2(9)) (from -1)

o(2(4)
=> > q

↳
Result

If0(4) <
ph ,
p a prime number ,
then G has a normal
subgroup
order p
of
.

Proof : · 0(4) =
ph
=> o(z(a)) > 1

=> P 10(2(4))
so
by lanehy Theorem ECG) has a
subgroup say N of order P
.

=> ne I (4) FUEN

MEN
) qu ng -gEG
=
=> ,

=> grg = n -N
EgEG ,
nEN

=> N is normal
subgroup of G

&
Rest St 0(6) =
P2 ,
where p is prime number ,
then

is abelian
G
Proof : Since o (G) = P2
0(z(9)) =
=> >

By Lagranges Cheorem o (2(4) /0 (G) P2 =

· 0(z(G) =
P or 0 (7(4) =
P2
Case 1
- -
-

Sf 0 k2(9)) = p2
= o(z(4)) = 0 (G)

=> z(G) =
G
= G is abelian

↳
Case-2
- -
SF 0 LICG)) =
P

Since 0 (G) = P2>P and [CG) is proper subgroup of group 4

.
So 7 Some a EG such that a #ICG)

We know that <(a) =

[xEG / <a = any is a
subgroup of 4
: a
tc(a) and a
62(4)
=>> 2(9) < c (a)

=> o (((a)) > 0 (ICG) =

P
=> o
(cca)) > P

By lagrange theorem o (((a) /0 (G) P2 =

: o (Ccas) > P

2=
=> o (((a) =
p 0 (4)

=> Cca) =
G :
[ Cca) <
G]
&
 => af 2(4)
which contradicts
The Case is
Hence O(I(4)) P impossible
= .

0(214) p2
So we have
only
=

Case G is
in this abelian

↳
/ *
Example :
Find the ecember of Conjugate classes of a non

abelian
group of order p" , p being a
prime number
.

Proof : Let G be a non abelian

group of order
.
p3
We know that SF=R
-
Then 0(Ica) =
P .

let
M be the number of Conjugate classes of 4
let a f9 be
arbitrary
uxe know
G
0 (cical) =

O(((a))

If a + 2 (G) Then o(G) =

0 (ccal) , so 0 (c)(a)) = 1

SF a #(G) Then 7 (9) < C (a)

=> 0 (((a)) > 0 (z(G) =

P

&
 2
=> 0 (( ca) =
p or p3
3
Since 0 (c(a)) /0 ( 4) =
p

>
Sf0(c(a))
- =
p

o(((a)
then = 0 ( 4) <(a) =
4 E) a + 2 ( 4)

which contradicts a 42(a)

Therefore 0 (D(a)) = P2
so 0 (< Dca)) =

cla)
=

A2
=
P

since
m is the total no of Conjugate clas
.

80 P . 1 + (M P)
- ·

p = 0 (4)

- mp + P -
D2 = p3 = mp = p3 + P2 -
P =
) m = P+ P-1
&