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 Enhanced Eighteenth Edition

American Government
and Politics Today

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90352_fm_hr_i-xxxii.indd 2 11/16/18 7:53 AM
 Enhanced Eighteenth Edition

American Government
and Politics Today

Lynne E. Ford
College of Charleston

Barbara A. Bardes
University of Cincinnati

Steffen W. Schmidt
Iowa State University

Mack C. Shelley II
Iowa State University

Australia • Brazil • Mexico • Singapore • United Kingdom • United States

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 American Government and Politics © 2020, 2018, 2016 Cengage Learning, Inc.
Today, Enhanced Eighteenth Edition
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. No part of this work covered by the copyright herein may be
Lynne E. Ford, Barbara A. Bardes,
reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, except as permitted by U.S.
Steffen W. Schmidt, Mack C. Shelley II copyright law, without the prior written permission of the copyright owner.
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Printed in the United States of America

Print Number: 01 Print Year: 2018

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 Brief Contents
PART I The American System
Chapter 1: One Republic—Two Americas? 1
Chapter 2: The Constitution 35
Chapter 3: Federalism 70

PART II Civil Rights and Civil Liberties

Chapter 4: Civil Liberties 107
Chapter 5: Civil Rights 152

PART III People and Politics

Chapter 6: Public Opinion and Political Socialization 207
Chapter 7: Interest Groups 241
Chapter 8: Political Parties 272
Chapter 9: Campaigns, Voting, and Elections 311
Chapter 10: The Media and Politics 355

PART IV Political Institutions

Chapter 11: The Congress 385
Chapter 12: The President 422
Chapter 13: The Bureaucracy 457
Chapter 14: The Courts 490

PART V Public Policy

Chapter 15: Domestic Policy 523
Chapter 16: Economic Policy 556
Chapter 17: Foreign Policy and National Security 585

PART VI State and Local Politics

Chapter 18: State and Local Government 621

Appendix
Appendix A The Declaration of Independence 651
Appendix B The Constitution of the United States 653
Appendix C The Federalist Papers Nos. 10 and 51 669
Glossary 675
Index 686

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 Detailed Contents
PART I The American System
Chapter 1: One Republic—Two Americas? 1
Politics and Government 7
Why Is Government Necessary? 7
Fundamental Values 8
Liberty 10
Order and the Rule of Law 12
Individualism 12
Equality 12
Property 13
Why Choose Democracy? 14
Direct Democracy as a Model 16
The Limits of Direct Democracy 18
A Democratic Republic 18
Principles of Democratic Government 19
Who Really Rules in America? 20
Majoritarianism 20
Elitism 21
Pluralism 21
Political Ideologies 23
The Traditional Political Spectrum 24
In the Middle: Liberalism and Conservatism 24
The Difficulty of Defining Liberalism and
Conservatism 24
Liberalism 24
Conservatism 25
Libertarianism 25
The Challenge of Change 26
Demographic Change in a Democratic Republic 26
Ethnic Change 27
Globalization 29
The Technology Revolution 30
Environmental Change 32
Chapter 2: The Constitution 35
The Colonial Background 37
Separatists, the Mayflower, and the Compact 38
More Colonies, More Government 39
British Restrictions and Colonial Grievances 40
The Colonial Response 40
The First Continental Congress 40
The Second Continental Congress 41
Declaring Independence 41
The Resolution of Independence 41
July 4, 1776—The Declaration of Independence 42
Universal Truths 42
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Natural Rights and a Social Contract 42
The Rise of Republicanism 43
The Articles of Confederation: The First Form
of Government 43
Accomplishments under the Articles 44
Weaknesses of the Articles 45
Shays’ Rebellion and the Need for Revision of the
Articles 46
Drafting the Constitution 46
Who Were the Delegates? 47
The Working Environment 47
Factions among the Delegates 49
Politicking and Compromises 50
The Virginia Plan 50
The New Jersey Plan 50
The “Great Compromise” 51
The Three-Fifths Compromise 52
Other Issues 52
Working toward Final Agreement 52
The Madisonian Model—Separation of Powers 53
The Madisonian Model—Checks and Balances 53
The Executive 54
A Federal Republic 55
The Final Document 55
The Difficult Road to Ratification 55
The Federalists Push for Ratification 56
The Federalist Papers 56
The Anti-Federalist Response 57
The March to the Finish 57
Did the Majority of Americans Support the
Constitution? 57
State Ratifying Conventions 58
Support Was Probably Widespread 58
The Bill of Rights 60
A “Bill of Limits” 60
No Explicit Limits on State Government Powers 61
Altering the Constitution: The Formal Amendment
Process 61
Many Amendments Are Proposed; Few Are Accepted 62
Limits on Ratification 63
The National Convention Provision 64
Informal Methods of Constitutional Change 64
Congressional Legislation 65
Presidential Actions 66
Judicial Review 66
Not a Novel Concept 66
Allows the Court to Adapt the Constitution 67
Interpretation, Custom, and Usage 67
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 Chapter 3: Federalism 70
Three Systems of Government 73
A Unitary System 73
A Confederal System 73
A Federal System 73
Why Federalism? 74
A Practical Constitutional Solution 74
Benefits for the United States 75
Allowance for Many Political Subcultures 75
Arguments against Federalism 77
The Constitutional Basis for American Federalism 78
Powers of the National Government 78
The Necessary and Proper Clause 78
Inherent Powers 79
Powers of the State Governments 79
Concurrent Powers 82
Prohibited Powers 82
The Supremacy Clause 82
Vertical and Horizontal Checks and Balances 83
Interstate Relations 83
The Full Faith and Credit Clause 83
Privileges and Immunities 84
Interstate Extradition 84
Defining Constitutional Powers—The Early Years 86
McCulloch v. Maryland (1819) 86
The Constitutional Questions 86
Marshall’s Decision 87
Gibbons v. Ogden (1824) 87
The Background of the Case 88
Marshall’s Ruling 88
States’ Rights and the Resort to Civil War 88
The Shift Back to States’ Rights 89
War and the Growth of the National Government 89
The War Effort 89
The Civil War Amendments 90
The Continuing Dispute over the Division of Power 90
Dual Federalism and the Retreat of National Authority 90
A Return to Normal Conditions 91
The Role of the Supreme Court 91
The New Deal and Cooperative Federalism 91
The “New Deal” 92
The End of Dual Federalism 92
Cooperative Federalism 92
Methods of Implementing Cooperative Federalism 93
Categorical Grants 93
Feeling the Pressure—The Strings Attached to Federal
Grants 94
Block Grants 94
Federal Mandates 95
The Politics of Federalism 95
What Has National Authority Accomplished? 96
Civil Rights and the War on Poverty 96
Why Would the States Favor the Status Quo? 96
Federalism Becomes a Partisan Issue 97
The “New Federalism” 98
New Judicial Federalism 98
Federalism in the Twenty-First Century 99
Federalism and the Supreme Court Today 100
Reining in the Commerce Power 100
State Sovereignty and the Eleventh Amendment 101
Tenth Amendment Issues 102
Federalism and State Immigration Policy 102
Other Federalism Cases 103
PART II Civil Rights and Civil Liberties
Chapter 4: Civil Liberties 107
Civil Liberties and the Bill of Rights 109
Extending the Bill of Rights to State Governments 110
Incorporation of the Fourteenth Amendment 110
Freedom of Religion 111
The Separation of Church and State—The Establishment
Clause 111
Aid to Church-Related Schools 112
A Change in the Court’s Position 113
School Vouchers 113
The Issue of School Prayer—Engel v. Vitale 114
The Debate over School Prayer Continues 115
Prayer Outside the Classroom 115
The Ten Commandments 116
Forbidding the Teaching of Evolution 116
Religious Speech 116
Public Expression of Religion 117
Blasphemy and Free Speech Rights 117
The Free Exercise Clause 118
The Religious Freedom Restoration Act 118
Freedom of Expression 120
No Prior Restraint 120
WikiLeaks, Edward Snowden, and Classified Information
on the Internet 120
The Protection of Symbolic Speech 121
The Protection of Commercial Speech 122
Permitted Restrictions on Expression 123
Clear and Present Danger 123
Modifications to the Clear and Present Danger Rule 123
Unprotected Speech: Obscenity 126
Definitional Problems 126
Protecting Children 126
Pornography on the Internet 126
Should “Virtual” Pornography Be Deemed a Crime? 127
Unprotected Speech: Slander 127
Campus Speech 128
Student Activity Fees 128
Campus Speech and Behavior Codes 128
Hate Speech on the Internet 130

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 Freedom of the Press 130
Defamation in Writing 130
A Free Press versus a Fair Trial: Gag Orders 131
Films, Radio, and TV 132
The Right to Assemble and to Petition
the Government 133
Online Assembly 134
More Liberties under Scrutiny: Matters
of Privacy 134
Information Privacy 135
Privacy Rights and Abortion 137
Roe v. Wade 137
The Controversy Continues 137
Privacy Rights and the “Right to Die” 139
What If No Living Will Exists? 139
Physician-Assisted Suicide 139
Privacy Rights versus Security Issues 140
The USA PATRIOT Act 140
Civil Liberties Concerns 141
The Great Balancing Act: The Rights of the Accused
versus the Rights of Society 143
Extending the Rights of the Accused 144
Miranda v. Arizona 145
Exceptions to the Miranda Rule 145
Video Recording of Interrogations 146
The Exclusionary Rule 146
The Death Penalty 146
Cruel and Unusual Punishment? 147
The Death Penalty Today 147
Chapter 5: Civil Rights 152
African Americans and the Consequences
of Slavery in the United States 154
Ending Servitude 155
The Civil Rights Acts of 1865 to 1875 155
The Limitations of the Civil Rights Laws 156
The Civil Rights Cases 157
Plessy v. Ferguson: Separate but Equal 157
Voting Barriers 157
Extralegal Methods of Enforcing White
Supremacy 158
The End of the Separate-but-Equal Doctrine 159
Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka 159
“With All Deliberate Speed” 160
Reactions to School Integration 160
Integration Today 161
The Resurgence of Minority Schools 161
The Civil Rights Movement 162
King’s Philosophy of Nonviolence 163
Nonviolent Demonstrations 163
Marches and Demonstrations 163
Another Approach—Black Power 164
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The Escalation of the Civil Rights Movement 164
Modern Civil Rights Legislation 165
The Civil Rights Act of 1964 165
The Voting Rights Act of 1965 166
Urban Riots 166
The Civil Rights Act of 1968 and Other Housing-Reform
Legislation 166
Consequences of Civil Rights Legislation 167
Political Representation by African Americans 169
The U.S. Census and Civil Rights 170
Lingering Social and Economic Disparities 170
Race-Conscious or Post-Racial Society? 171
#BlackLivesMatter 172
Race and Confederate Symbols 173
Women’s Campaign for Equal Rights 174
Early Women’s Political Movements 174
Women’s Suffrage Associations 175
The Second Wave of the Women’s Movement 177
The Equal Rights Amendment 180
Three-State Strategy 180
Challenging Gender Discrimination in the Courts
and Legislatures 180
Women in Politics Today 182
Gender-Based Discrimination in the
Workplace 183
Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 183
Sexual Harassment 184
Wage Discrimination 184
The Equal Pay Act of 1963 184
Voting Rights and the Young 187
Immigration, Latinos, and Civil Rights 188
Mexican American Civil Rights 188
The Continued Influx of Immigrants 189
Illegal Immigration 190
Citizenship 191
Accommodating Diversity with Bilingual Education 191
Affirmative Action 192
The Bakke Case 192
Further Limits on Affirmative Action 194
State Ballot Initiatives 195
Making Amends for Past Discrimination through
Reparations 196
Special Protection for Older Americans 197
Securing Rights for Persons with Disabilities 198
The Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 198
Limiting the Scope and Applicability of the ADA 199
The Rights and Status of Gays and Lesbians 199
Progress in the Gay and Lesbian Rights Movement 200
State and Local Laws Targeting Gays and Lesbians 200
Gays and Lesbians in the Military 201
Same-Sex Marriage 201
Defense of Marriage Act 202
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 A Short History of State Recognition of Gay Marriages 203 Material Incentives 248
Shift in Public Opinion for Marriage Equality 203 Purposive Incentives 248
Types of Interest Groups 248
PART III People and Politics Economic Interest Groups 249
Business Interest Groups 249
Chapter 6: Public Opinion and Political Agricultural Interest Groups 250
Labor Interest Groups 250
Socialization 207
Public-Employee Unions 252
Defining Public Opinion 210 Interest Groups of Professionals 253
Public Opinion and Policymaking 210 The Unorganized Poor 253
How Public Opinion Is Formed: Political Environmental Groups 254
Socialization 212 Public-Interest Groups 255
Models of Political Socialization 212 Nader Organizations 255
The Family and the Social Environment 213 Other Public-Interest Groups 255
Education as a Source of Political Socialization 213 Other Interest Groups 257
Peers and Peer Group Influence 213 Foreign Governments 257
Opinion Leaders’ Influence 215 What Makes an Interest Group Powerful? 257
Political Change and Political Socialization 218 Size and Resources 258
The Impact of the Media 218 Leadership 259
The Influence of Political Events 220 Cohesiveness 261
Political Preferences and Voting Behavior 221 Interest Group Strategies 261
Demographic Influences 221 Direct Techniques 261
Education 222 Lobbying Techniques 261
The Influence of Economic Status 222 The Ratings Game 262
Religious Influence: Denomination 224 Building Alliances 263
Religious Influence: Religiosity and Evangelicals 224 Campaign Assistance 263
The Influence of Race and Ethnicity 224 Indirect Techniques 264
The Gender Gap 225 Generating Public Pressure 265
Reasons for the Gender Gap 226 Using Constituents as Lobbyists 265
Geographic Region 227 Unconventional Forms of Pressure 266
Measuring Public Opinion 228 Regulating Lobbyists 266
The History of Opinion Polls 228 The Results of the 1946 Act 267
Sampling Techniques 229 The Reforms of 1995 267
Representative Sampling 229 Lobbying Scandals 268
The Principle of Randomness 229 Interest Groups and Representative Democracy 268
Problems with Polls 231 Interest Group Influence 269
Sampling Errors 231
Poll Questions 232 Chapter 8: Political Parties 272
Push Polls 232
What Is a Political Party and What Do
Technology, Public Opinion, and the Political Parties Do? 275
Process 233 Getting Organized: The Three Components of a Party 276
Public Opinion and the Political Process 233 Party Organization 277
Political Culture and Public Opinion 234 The National Convention 277
Political Trust and Support for the Political System 234 The State Party Organization 278
Public Opinion about Government 236 Local Party Organizations 280
The Party-in-Government 280
Chapter 7: Interest Groups 241
Divided Government 280
Interest Groups: A Natural Phenomenon 243 The Limits of Party Unity 280
Interest Groups and Social Movements 244 Party Polarization 281
Why So Many? 246 A History of Political Parties in the United States 281
Why Do Americans Join Interest Groups? 246 The First-Party System: The Development of Parties,
Incentives 247 1789–1828 283
Solidary Incentives 247 The Era of Good Feelings 284
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 The Second-Party System: Democrats and Whigs, The Strategy of Winning 318
1828–1860 284 Candidate Visibility and Appeal 318
The Third-Party System: Republicans’ Rise to Power and the Taking the Public Pulse 319
Civil War, 1860–1896 284 The Media and Political Campaigns 319
“Rum, Romanism, and Rebellion” 285
The Triumph of the Republicans 285
Financing the Campaign 319
The Fourth-Party System: The Progressive Interlude Regulating Campaign Financing 322
and Republican Dominance, 1896–1932 285 The Federal Election Campaign Act 322
The Fifth-Party System: The New Deal and Democratic Further Reforms in 1974 322
Dominance, 1932–1968 286 Buckley v. Valeo 323
A Post-Party System Era, 1968–Present? 287 Interest Groups and Campaign Finance: Reaction
Red State, Blue State 288 to New Rules 323
Partisan Trends in the Elections of 2012 and 2016 288 PACs and Political Campaigns 324
The Two Major U.S. Parties Today 289 Campaign Financing beyond the Limits 324
Who Belongs to Each Political Party? 290 Contributions to Political Parties 324
Differences in Party Policy Priorities 292 Independent Expenditures 326
The 2012 Elections—Shaping the Parties for 2014 and 2016 292 Issue Advocacy 326
The 2016 Primaries and the Rise of “Outsiders” 294 The Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act of 2002 326
Why Has the Two-Party System Endured? 297 Key Elements of the New Law 327
The Historical Foundations of the Two-Party System 297 The Rise of the 527s 327
Political Socialization and Practical Considerations 297 Citizens United, Freedom Now, and the Future of Campaign
The Winner-Take-All Electoral System 298 Finance Regulation 329
Proportional Representation 298 Running for President: The Longest Campaign 330
State and Federal Laws Favoring the Two Parties 299 Reforming the Primaries 330
The Role of Minor Parties in U.S. Politics 300 Front-Loading the Primaries 331
Ideological Third Parties 301 The Rush to Be First 331
Splinter Parties 301 The 2016 Primary Season 331
The Impact of Minor Parties 302
On to the National Convention 332
Influencing the Major Parties 302
Seating the Delegates 332
Affecting the Outcome of an Election 302
Convention Activities 332
Mechanisms of Political Change 303 On to the General Election 333
Realignment 303
Voting in the United States 334
Realignment: The Myth of Dominance 303
Turning Out to Vote 334
Realignment: The Myth of Predictability 303
The Effect of Low Voter Turnout 336
Is Realignment Still Possible? 305
Is Voter Turnout Declining? 337
Dealignment 306
Factors Influencing Who Votes 337
Independent Voters 306
Why People Do Not Vote 339
Not-So-Independent Voters 306
Uninformative Media Coverage and Negative
Tipping 307
Campaigning 339
Tipping in Massachusetts 307
The Rational Ignorance Effect 340
Tipping in California 307
Plans for Improving Voter Turnout 340
Political Parties of the Future 308
Legal Restrictions on Voting 341
Chapter 9: Campaigns, Voting, Historical Restrictions 341
and Elections 311 Property Requirements 341
Who Wants to Be a Candidate? 313 Further Extensions of the Franchise 341
Why They Run 313 Is the Franchise Still Too Restrictive? 342
The Nomination Process 313 Current Eligibility and Registration Requirements 342
Who Is Eligible? 314 Extension of the Voting Rights Act 343
Who Runs? 314 Primary Elections, General Elections,
Women as Candidates 315 and More 344
The Twenty-First-Century Campaign 316 Primary Elections 344
The Changing Campaign 316 Closed Primary 345
The Professional Campaign Staff 317 Open Primary 345
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 Blanket Primary 345 Bias in the Media 379
Runoff Primary 345 Do the Media Have a Partisan Bias? 380
General and Other Elections 345 A Racial Bias? 380
How Are Elections Conducted? 346 A Gender Bias? 381
Office-Block and Party-Column Ballots 346
Vote Fraud 347
The Danger of Fraud 347 PART IV Political Institutions
Mistakes by Voting Officials 347
The Importance of the Voting Machine 348 Chapter 11: The Congress 385
The Electoral College 348 The Functions of Congress 387
The Choice of Electors 348 The Lawmaking Function 388
The Electors’ Commitment 349 The Representation Function 388
Criticisms of the Electoral College 349 The Trustee View of Representation 388
The Instructed-Delegate View of Representation 389
Chapter 10: The Media and Politics 355 Service to Constituents 389
A Brief History of the Media’s Role in United States The Oversight Function 390
Politics 357 The Public-Education Function 391
The Rise of the Popular Press 357 The Conflict-Resolution Function 391
Mass-Readership Newspapers 358 The Powers of Congress 391
News Delivered over the Airwaves 358 Enumerated Powers 391
The Revolution in Electronic Media 359 Powers of the Senate 392
The Special Relationship between the Media Constitutional Amendments 392
and the Executive 360 The Necessary and Proper Clause 392
The Internet and Social Media 363 Checks on Congress 393
The Role of the Media in Our Society 365 House–Senate Differences 393
The Media’s Political Functions 365 Size and Rules 394
Provide Information 366 Debate and Filibustering 394
Identify Problems and Set the Public Agenda 366 Prestige 395
Investigate and Report on Wrongdoing 367
Socialize New Generations 368
Congresspersons and the Citizenry: A Comparison 395
Providing a Political Forum for Dialogue Congressional Elections 396
and Debate 368 Candidates for Congressional Elections 396
The Media’s Impact: Political Campaigns 369 Congressional Campaigns and Elections 397
Presidential Effects 397
Advertising 369
The Power of Incumbency 398
Management of News Coverage 370
Campaign Debates 371 Congressional Apportionment 399
The Internet and Social Media 372 Gerrymandering 400
Redistricting after the 2010 Census 401
The Media’s Impact: Voters 373 Nonpartisan Redistricting 402
The Government’s Regulatory Relationship “Minority-Majority” Districts 403
with Media 374 Constitutional Challenges 403
Government Regulation of the Media 374 Changing Directions 404
Controlling Ownership of the Media 374 Perks and Privileges 404
Increased Media Concentration 375 Permanent Professional Staffs 404
Government Control of Content 376 Privileges and Immunities under the Law 405
Control of Broadcasting 376 Congressional Caucuses: Another Source of Support 405
Government Control of the Media during the Second Gulf The Committee Structure 406
War 377 The Power of Committees 406
The Government’s Attempt to Control the Media after Types of Congressional Committees 407
the September 11, 2001, Attacks 377 Standing Committees 407
Net Neutrality 377 Select Committees 408
The Public’s Right to Media Access 379 Joint Committees 408
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 Conference Committees 408
The House Rules Committee 408
The Selection of Committee Members 408
The Formal Leadership 409
Leadership in the House 409
The Speaker 409
The Majority Leader 410
The Minority Leader 410
Whips 410
Leadership in the Senate 412
How Members of Congress Decide 413
The Conservative Coalition 413
Polarization and Gridlock 413
“Crossing Over” 414
Logrolling, Earmarks, and “Pork” 414
How a Bill Becomes Law 414
How Much Will the Government Spend? 416
Preparing the Budget 416
Congress Faces the Budget 417
Budget Resolutions 418
Chapter 12: The President 422
Who Can Become President? 424
The Process of Becoming President 425
The Many Roles of the President 426
Head of State 426
Chief Executive 427
The Powers of Appointment and Removal 428
The Power to Grant Reprieves and Pardons 428
Commander in Chief 429
Wartime Powers 429
The War Powers Resolution 430
Chief Diplomat 430
Diplomatic Recognition 430
Proposal and Ratification of Treaties 431
Executive Agreements 432
Chief Legislator 433
Legislation Passed 435
Saying No to Legislation 435
The Line-Item Veto 438
Congress’s Power to Override Presidential
Vetoes 438
Other Presidential Powers 438
The President as Party Chief and Superpolitician 439
The President as Chief of Party 439
The President’s Power to Persuade 439
Constituencies and Public Approval 440
Presidential Constituencies 440
Public Approval 440
George W. Bush and the Public Opinion Polls 441
Obama and Trump: Public Approval 441
“Going Public” 442
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Special Uses of Presidential Power 442
Emergency Powers 442
Executive Orders 443
Executive Privilege 444
Limiting Executive Privilege 444
Clinton’s Attempted Use of Executive Privilege 444
Abuses of Executive Power and Impeachment 445
The Executive Organization 445
The Cabinet 446
Members of the Cabinet 446
Presidential Use of Cabinets 446
The Executive Office of the President 446
The White House Office 448
The Office of Management and Budget 449
The National Security Council 449
“Policy Czars” 449
The Vice Presidency 450
The Vice President’s Job 450
Strengthening the Ticket 450
Supporting the President 451
Presidential Succession 452
The Twenty-fifth Amendment 452
When the Vice Presidency Becomes Vacant 453
Chapter 13: The Bureaucracy 457
The Nature of Bureaucracy 459
Public and Private Bureaucracies 459
Models of Bureaucracy 460
Weberian Model 460
Acquisitive Model 460
Monopolistic Model 460
Bureaucracies Compared 461
The Size of the Bureaucracy 461
The Organization of the Federal Bureaucracy 462
Cabinet Departments 463
Independent Executive Agencies 465
Independent Regulatory Agencies 466
The Purpose and Nature of Regulatory Agencies 466
Agency Capture 467
Deregulation and Reregulation 467
Government Corporations 468
Challenges to the Bureaucracy 469
Reorganizing to Stop Terrorism 469
Dealing with Natural Disasters 470
Staffing the Bureaucracy 471
Political Appointees 471
The Aristocracy of the Federal Government 472
The Difficulty in Firing Civil Servants 472
History of the Federal Civil Service 472
To the Victor Belong the Spoils 473
The Civil Service Reform Act of 1883 473
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 The Civil Service Reform Act of 1978 474 Decisions and Opinions 505
Federal Employees and Political Campaigns 474 When There Are Eight Justices 506
Modern Attempts at Bureaucratic Reform 475 The Selection of Federal Judges 507
Sunshine Laws before and after September 11 475 Judicial Appointments 507
Information Disclosure 475 Federal District Court Judgeship Nominations 508
Curbs on Information Disclosure 475 Federal Courts of Appeals Appointments 509
Sunset Laws 475 Supreme Court Appointments 509
Privatization 476 The Special Role of the Chief Justice 509
Incentives for Efficiency and Productivity 476 Partisanship and Judicial Appointments 510
Government Performance and Results Act 478
The Senate’s Role 511
Bureaucracy Has Changed Little 478
Saving Costs through E-Government 479
Policymaking and the Courts 512
Helping Out the Whistleblowers 479 Judicial Review 512
Laws Protecting Whistleblowers 479 Judicial Activism and Judicial Restraint 512
The Problem Continues 479 Strict versus Broad Construction 513
Ideology and the Rehnquist Court 514
Bureaucrats as Politicians and Policymakers 480
The Roberts Court 515
The Rule-Making Environment 481
Waiting Periods and Court Challenges 481
What Checks Our Courts? 516
Controversies 481 Executive Checks 516
Negotiated Rule Making 482 Legislative Checks 517
Bureaucrats Are Policymakers 482 Constitutional Amendments 517
Iron Triangles 483 Rewriting Laws 518
Issue Networks 484 Public Opinion 518
Judicial Traditions and Doctrines 519
Congressional Control of the Bureaucracy 484
Hypothetical and Political Questions 519
Ways Congress Does Control the Bureaucracy 484
The Impact of the Lower Courts 519
Reasons Why Congress Cannot Easily Oversee
the Bureaucracy 486
PART V Public Policy
Chapter 14: The Courts 490
Sources of American Law 492 Chapter 15: Domestic Policy 523
Constitutions 494 The Policymaking Process 525
Statutes and Administrative Regulations 494 Agenda Building 525
Case Law 494 Policy Formulation 526
Judicial Review 494 Policy Adoption 526
The Federal Court System 496 Policy Implementation 526
Policy Evaluation 527
Basic Judicial Requirements 497
Jurisdiction 497 Health Care 527
Standing to Sue 497 The Rising Cost of Health Care 528
Types of Federal Courts 498 Advanced Technology 528
U.S. District Courts 498 The Government’s Role in Financing Health Care 528
U.S. Courts of Appeals 498 Medicare 529
The U.S. Supreme Court 500 Medicaid 530
Specialized Federal Courts and the War on Terrorism 500 Why Has Medicaid Spending Exploded? 530
The FISA Court 500 Medicaid and the States 530
Alien “Removal Courts” 501 The Uninsured 531
Parties to Lawsuits 502 The 2010 Health-Care Reform Legislation 532
Procedural Rules 503 Environmental Policy 532
The Supreme Court at Work 503 The Environmental Movement 533
Which Cases Reach the Supreme Court? 504 Cleaning Up the Air and Water 534
Factors That Bear on the Decision 504 The National Environmental Policy Act 534
Granting Petitions for Review 505 Curbing Air Pollution 534
Deciding Cases 505 Water Pollution 535

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 The Endangered Species Act 535
Sustainability 536
Global Climate Change 538
The Kyoto Protocol 538
COP21: The New Agreement 538
The Global Warming Debate 540
Energy Policy 540
Energy and the Environment 543
Nuclear Power—An Unpopular Solution 544
Alternative Approaches to the Energy Crisis 545
Poverty and Welfare 546
The Low-Income Population 546
The Antipoverty Budget 547
Basic Welfare 548
Welfare Controversies 548
Other Forms of Government Assistance 549
Homelessness—Still a Problem 549
Immigration 550
The Continued Influx of Immigrants 550
Minority Groups’ Importance on the Rise 550
The Advantages of High Rates of Immigration 550
Attempts at Immigration Reform 550
The Range of Federal Public Policies 552
Chapter 16: Economic Policy 556
Prosperity Is the Goal 559
Unemployment 560
Unemployment Becomes an Issue 560
Measuring Unemployment 561
Inflation 562
The Business Cycle 562
The Economic Toolkit 562
Economic Theory Guides Policy 563
Laissez-Faire Economics 563
Keynesian Economic Theory 564
Supply-Side Economics 564
Fiscal Policy 565
Discretionary Fiscal Policy 565
The Thorny Problem of Timing 566
Government Borrowing 566
The Public Debt in Perspective 567
The Politics of Taxes 569
Federal Income Tax Rates 569
Loopholes and Lowered Taxes 570
Progressive and Regressive Taxation 570
Who Pays? 571
Entitlements: The Big Budget Item 572
Social Security and Medicare 573
Social Security Is Not a Pension Fund 573
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90352_fm_hr_i-xxxii.indd 14
What Will It Take to Salvage Social Security? 573
Raise Taxes 573
Consider Other Options 575
Privatize Social Security 575
Monetary Policy 575
Organization of the Federal Reserve System 575
Loose and Tight Monetary Policies 576
Time Lags for Monetary Policy 576
Monetary versus Fiscal Policy 576
Globalization and World Trade 578
Imports and Exports 579
The Impact of Import Restrictions on Exports 579
Quotas and Tariffs 579
Free-Trade Areas and Common Markets 579
The World Trade Organization 580
What the WTO Does 580
Sending Work Overseas 581
Facing the Future 581
Chapter 17: Foreign Policy and National
Security 585
Facing the World: Foreign and Defense Policy 587
National Security Policy 588
Diplomacy 588
Who Makes Foreign Policy? 589
Constitutional Powers of the President 589
War Powers 590
Treaties and Executive Agreements 591
Other Constitutional Powers 592
Informal Techniques of Presidential Leadership 592
Other Sources of Foreign Policymaking 593
The Department of State 593
The National Security Council 594
The Intelligence Community 594
Covert Actions 594
Criticisms of the Intelligence Community 595
The Department of Defense (DOD) 595
Congress Balances the Presidency 596
Domestic Sources of Foreign Policy 597
Elite and Mass Opinion 597
Interest Group Politics in Global Affairs 597
The Major Themes of American Foreign Policy 598
The Formative Years: Avoiding Entanglements 598
The Monroe Doctrine 599
The Spanish–American War and World War I 599
The Era of Internationalism 599
The Cold War 600
Containment Policy 600
Superpower Relations 601
The Cuban Missile Crisis 602
A Period of Détente 602
11/16/18 7:53 AM
 The Reagan–Bush Years 602
The Dissolution of the Soviet Union 603
The War on Terror 603
The Iraq and Afghanistan Wars 604
The Persian Gulf—The First Gulf War 604
The Iraq War 605
Occupied Iraq 605
The Situation Worsens 605
The Bush Surge 605
The “Necessary” War 606
Global Policy Challenges 607
The Emerging World Order 608
The Threat of Terrorism 609
Terrorism and Regional Strife 609
Terrorist Attacks against Foreign Civilians 609
London Bombings 609
Nuclear Weapons 610
The United States and the Soviet Union 610
Nuclear Proliferation 611
The United States and Regional Conflicts 611
The Middle East 611
The Arab Spring 613
Iranian Ambitions 615
Central and South America 615
War and HIV/AIDS in Africa 616
PART VI State and Local Politics
Chapter 18: State and Local Government 621
The U.S. Constitution and the State Governments 623
Why Are State Constitutions So Long? 624
The Constitutional Convention and the Constitutional
Initiative 625
The State Executive Branch 625
A Weak Executive 625
Increasing the Governor’s Power 626
The Governor’s Veto Power 627
Appendix A: The Declaration of Independence 651
Appendix B: The Constitution of the United States 653
Appendix c: The Federalist Papers Nos. 10 and 51 669
Glossary 675
Index 686
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The State Legislature 627
Legislative Apportionment 629
Minority Representation 629
Political Gerrymandering 629
Term Limits for State Legislators 630
Ethics and Campaign Finance Reform in the States 631
Direct Democracy: The Initiative, Referendum, and
Recall 633
The Initiative 633
The Referendum 633
The Recall 633
The State Judiciary 634
Trial Courts 635
Appellate Courts 635
Judicial Elections and Appointments 635
How Local Government Operates 636
The Legal Existence of Local Government 636
Local Governmental Units 636
Municipalities 636
Counties 637
Towns and Townships 637
Special Districts and School Districts 639
Consolidation of Governments 639
How Municipalities Are Governed 640
The Commission Plan 640
The Council-Manager Plan 641
The Mayor-Administrator Plan 641
The Mayor-Council Plan 641
Machine versus Reform in City Politics 643
Paying for State and Local Government 644
State and Local Government Expenditures 644
State and Local Government Revenues 644
The Struggle to Balance State Budgets 646
Getting into Trouble: Borrowing Too Much 647
Getting into Trouble: Poor Productivity 647
Getting into Trouble: Health-Care Costs 647
States Recover from the Recession 648
States as Policy Pioneers 648
11/16/18 7:53 AM
 A Letter to Instructors
Dear American Politics Instructor:

Americans are often cynical about our national political system. College
students in particular are at a loss to know what to do about the polarized
politics and policy gridlock occurring within the modern political system,
making American Politics a tough course to teach. This edition of American
Government and Politics Today is designed to help you move your students
from the sidelines of politics to full engagement by equipping them with the
knowledge and analytical skills needed to shape political decisions at the local,
state, and national levels. Based on review feedback, we include a strong
emphasis on the power of modern social media and its ability to engage
citizens with one another, as well as to connect citizens with political issues
and ideas. The solid content on institutions and the processes of government
included in previous editions remains. Features such as “Politics in Practice”
and “What if…?” will help you bring politics to life in your classroom, while
demonstrating to students why politics matters and how it surrounds them
each day—at times without their even knowing it. Each chapter has the most
up-to-date data and information and includes coverage of current issues and
controversies that we believe will engage students and hold their interest.
We believe that part of America’s cynicism stems from the growing reality
of “two Americas”: one with opportunity afforded by privilege and wealth and
another whose opportunities, rights, and privileges seem stunted by a lack of
wealth. Does the promise of America exist for both groups or only one? How
was this theme reflected in the outcome of the 2016 presidential election and
in the decision of the Trump administration? How do those who feel they have
been left behind as others have prospered regain the promise of the American
Dream? What role can political engagement play in doing so? Knowledge is
power, and in this edition we try to strike a balance between the content and
the skill building necessary for course success, while also presenting students
with current controversies in politics and opportunities to engage with those
issues. The new “Politics in Practice” feature found in each chapter highlights
the ways people engage in politics to make changes. Each chapter begins with
the popular feature “What if…?”, which presents students with an opportunity
to think through a political scenario that for now is a hypothetical, but could
actually happen.
These active learning opportunities bring alive the issues that students are
confronted with on a daily basis and give students the opportunity to apply
their knowledge and skills.

New to This Edition

●● This edition has been substantially revised and updated to include the 2016
national elections and recent data, issues, and engaging examples of poli-
tics, politicians, and policies. Following the 2016 presidential election, the

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 text has been updated to include issues and examples from the new Trump
administration.
●● In response to our reviewers, we have substantially revised Chapter 10:
“The Media and Politics.” This chapter puts a strong emphasis on the
way social media connect us to one another and with ideas and political
leaders. President Trump’s use of Twitter to communicate directly with his
supporters and opponents is evaluated in this context.
●● Chapter 9 combines material on “Campaigns, Voting, and Elections” in
a format that will lead the student seamlessly through the electoral pro-
cess. The impact of the 2018 midterm elections on the composition of
Congress is included.
●● In response to reviewers, the features in this edition have been streamlined
and the number reduced to three. Each feature has been revised for this edi-
tion. “Politics in Practice” is new to this edition and focuses on making politics
and people taking political action visible to students by highlighting examples
from popular culture and current events. In Chapter 2, the feature highlights
the impact of the Broadway musical Hamilton, and in Chapter 5 it shows the
power of students to change the racial climate on their campus through pro-
test. The feature is designed to enhance student interest by identifying a per-
son or group of people who took on an issue and made a difference.
●● A new feature, “Election 2016,” has been added to every chapter in the text.
Within the context of each chapter’s focus, this feature guides students to
think about the ways an election can change American politics or reinforce
the status quo. Information from the new Trump administration has been
added where appropriate.
●● Greater attention has been paid to gender issues throughout the text as
suggested by reviewers. New material is included on the historic candidacy
of Hillary Rodham Clinton, the Equal Pay Act, and the Lilly Ledbetter Act, in
addition to updated coverage of women’s rights and gender equality, gender
and racial discrimination, and the pay gap. The unprecedented number of
women running in the 2018 midterm elections is included.
●● Care has been taken to reflect the growing political power of Latino/a voters
and increasingly diverse communities in the examples used throughout the
book.
●● Tables and figures have been updated, and the results of the 2016 election
are included.
●● Recent court decisions on marriage equality and immigration, as well as
foreign policy issues like the violence in Syria and the refugee crisis, are
integrated into the appropriate chapters in order to ensure that the book
addresses the most timely political events and topics.

MindTap
As an instructor, MindTap is here to simplify your workload, organize and
immediately grade your students’ assignments, and allow you to customize
your course as you see fit. Through deep-seated integration with your Learning

  xvii

90352_fm_hr_i-xxxii.indd 17 11/16/18 7:53 AM

 Management System, grades are easily exported and analytics are pulled with
just the click of a button. MindTap provides you with a platform to easily add in
current events videos and RSS feeds from national or local news sources.
Seeing students actively engage with the topics addressed in this book
and witnessing an eagerness to learn more about the issues currently facing
our nation are some of the most exciting experiences given to any faculty
member, particularly when many students will only take one undergraduate
course in political science. It is our hope that the revisions to this text will help
you reach many students and transform them into thoughtful and engaged
citizens for the rest of their lives.

Sincerely,
Lynne E. Ford (FordL@cofc.edu)
Barbara A. Bardes (BardesB@ucmail.uc.edu)
Steffen W. Schmidt
Mack C. Shelley, II

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Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
these bundles of muscles there are certain muscles in the body wall,
and it seems probable that by their contraction, when the adductors
are relaxed, the body may become somewhat thicker and the valves
of the shells will slightly open.

Fig. 316.—A semi-diagrammatic

figure of the muscular system of
Crania (after Blochmann): a,
anterior occlusor; b, posterior
occlusor; c, superior oblique; d,
inferior oblique; e, retractor of
the arms; f, elevator of the arms;
g, protractor of the arms; h,
unpaired median muscle. The
dorsal valve is uppermost.
In Lingula (Fig. 322) the muscular system is more complicated; in
addition to the anterior (= anterior laterals) and posterior (= centrals)
pairs of occlusors, there is a single divaricator (= umbonal), whose
contractions in conjunction with those of certain muscles in the body
wall press forward the fluid in the body cavity, and thus force the
valves of the shell apart; and there are three pairs of adjustor
muscles. These latter are called respectively the central (= middle
laterals), external (= external laterals), and posterior (=
transmedians) adjustors, whose action adjusts the shells when all
contract together, and brings about a certain sliding movement of the
shells on one another when they act independently of each other.
[423]

The Nervous System

The nervous system of Brachiopods is not very clearly
understood, and there are considerable discrepancies in the
accounts of the various investigators, even when they are dealing
with the same species. So much, however, seems certain, that there
is a nervous ring surrounding the oesophagus, that this ring is
enlarged dorsally, or, in other words, near the base of the lip, into a
small and inconspicuous dorsal ganglion, and again ventrally or just
behind the base of the tentacles into a ventral or sub-oesophageal
ganglion. The latter is, contrary to what is usual in Invertebrates, of
much larger size than the supra-oesophageal ganglion, but like the
last named, it has retained its primitive connexion with the ectoderm
or outermost layer of the skin. Both ganglia give off a nerve on each
side which runs to the arms and along the base of the tentacles and
lips. The sub-oesophageal ganglion also gives off nerves which
supply the dorsal and ventral folds of the mantle, the muscles, and
other parts.
The modified epithelium in connexion with the ganglia may
possibly have some olfactory or tactile function, but beyond this the
Brachiopoda would appear to be devoid of eyes, ears, or any other
kind of sense organs,—a condition of things doubtless correlated
with their sessile habits, and with the presence of a bivalved shell
which leaves no part of their body exposed.

The Reproductive System

The majority of Brachiopods are bisexual, and many authorities
regard the separation of sex as characteristic of the group; on the
other hand, Lingula pyramidata is stated to be hermaphrodite, and it
is not impossible that other species are in the same condition.
The generative organs are of the typical sort, that is, they are
formed from modified mesoblastic cells lining the body cavity. These
cells are heaped up, usually in four places, and form the four ovaries
or testes as the case may be (Fig. 314). The generative glands
usually lie partly in the general body cavity and partly in the dorsal
and ventral mantle folds, two on each side of the body. Along the
axis of the heaped-up cells runs a blood-vessel, which doubtless
serves to nourish the gland, the outer surface of which is bathed in
the perivisceral fluid. Every gradation can be found between the ripe
generative cell and the ordinary cell lining the body cavity. When the
ova and spermatozoa are ripe they fall off from the ovary and testis
respectively into the body cavity, thence they are conveyed to the
exterior through the nephridia. The ova in certain genera, such as
Argiope, Cistella, and Thecidium, develop in brood-pouches which
are either lateral or median involutions of the body wall in the
neighbourhood of the external opening of the nephridia; they are
probably fertilised there by spermatozoa carried from other
individuals in the stream of water which flows into the shell. In other
species the ova are thrown out into the open sea, and their chances
of meeting with a spermatozoon is much increased by the gregarious
habits of their sessile parents, for as a rule considerable numbers of
a given species are found in the same locality.

The Embryology
We owe what little we know of the Embryology of the group chiefly
to Kowalevsky,[424] Lacaze-Duthiers,[425] and Morse.[426] The
Russian naturalist worked on Cistella (Argiope) neapolitana, the
French on Thecidium, and the American chiefly on Terebratulina.
Although this is not known with any certainty, it seems probable
that the eggs of Brachiopods are fertilised after they have been laid,
and not whilst in the body of the mother. The spermatozoa are
doubtless cast out into the sea by the male, and carried to the
female by the currents set up by the cilia clothing the tentacles.
In Thecidium, Cistella, and Argiope the first stages of
development, up to the completion of the larva, take place in brood-
pouches; in Terebratulina the eggs pass out of the shell of the
mother and hang in spermaceti-white clusters from her setae and on
surrounding objects. In the course of a few hours they become
ciliated and swim about freely. The brood-pouch in Thecidium is
median, in the convex lower shell, in Cistella it is paired, and arises
by the pushing in of the lateral walls of the body in the region just
behind the horse-shoe-shaped tentacular arms; the renal ducts,
which also serve as oviducts, open into these lateral recesses.
In the female Thecidium (Fig. 317) the two median tentacles
which lie just behind the mouth are enlarged and their ends
somewhat swollen; they are bent back into the brood-pouch, and to
them the numerous larvae are attached by a short filament inserted
into the second of the four segments into which the larva is divided.
In Cistella a similar filament attaches the larvae to the walls of the
brood-sac; thus they are secured from being washed away by the
currents constantly flowing through the mantle cavity of the mother.
 Fig. 317.—Brood-pouch of Thecidium
mediterraneum. (After Lacaze-
Duthiers.) Part of the wall of the
pouch has been removed to show
the clusters of larvae.
1. Mouth, overhung by lip.
2. One of the two median tentacles
which are enlarged and modified
to bear the larvae.
3. Wall of brood-pouch into which
the median tentacles are folded.
4. Larva attached to the swollen
end of the tentacles.

In Cistella the larva consists at first of two segments, but the

anterior one divides into two, so that in the free swimming larva we
find three segments, the hindermost somewhat longer and narrower
than the others and destined to form the stalk. About the time of the
appearance of the second segment four red eye-spots arise in the
anterior segment, which tends to become constricted off from the
others, and may now be termed the head. It gradually becomes
somewhat umbrella-shaped, develops cilia all over its surface and a
special ring of large cilia round its edge.
 In the meantime the second or mantle segment has grown down
and enveloped the stalk, and four bundles of setae have arisen from
its edge. In this stage the larva leaves its mother’s shell and swims
out into the world of water to look for a suitable place on which to
settle down. This is the only stage in the life history of a Brachiopod
when the animal is locomotor, and can serve to spread its species.
The extreme minuteness of the larva and the short time it spends in
this motile condition probably accounts for the fact that Brachiopods
are extremely localised. Where they do occur they are found in great
numbers, rocks being often almost covered with them, but they are
not found over large areas. When viewed under a microscope the
larvae seem to be moving with surprising rapidity, but judging from
the analogy of other forms, it seems doubtful if they swim a yard in
an hour.

Fig. 318.—Young larva of

Cistella neapolitana,
showing three
segments, two eye-
spots, and two
bundles of setae.
(After Kowalevsky.)
 Fig. 319.—Full-grown larva
of Cistella neapolitana,
with umbrella-shaped
head, ciliated. (After
Kowalevsky.)
Frequently the larva stands on its head for some time, as if
investigating the nature of the rocks on which it may settle; it is
extremely contractile, turning its head from time to time, and seldom
retaining the same outline for any length of time; the setae are
protruded, and at times stick out in every direction; they are possibly
defensive in function. When fully stretched out the larva is about ⅓
mm. long, but it frequently shortens its body to two-thirds of this
length. The larvae are of a pinkish red colour, with eye-spots of ruby
red. Their colour renders them difficult to discern when they are
swimming over the red coralline rocks upon which they frequently
settle. After swimming about for a few hours the larva fixes itself
finally, apparently adhering by some secretion produced by the stalk
segment. The folds of the second or body segment then turn forward
over the head, and now form the ventral and dorsal mantle folds;
these at once begin to secrete the shell on their outer surfaces. The
head with its eye-spots must be to some extent absorbed, but what
goes on within the mantle is not accurately known. The setae drop
off and the tentacular arms begin to appear as a thickening on the
dorsal lobe of the mantle. They are at first circular in outline. The
various changes which the larva passes through are well illustrated
by Morse for Terebratulina, which spawns at Eastport, Me., from
April till August. The different stages are represented in outline in
Fig. 320, taken from his paper.

Fig. 320.—Stages in the development of the larva of Terebratulina

septentrionalis. (After Morse.) The youngest larva has two segments, a third
then appears, the larva then fixes itself, and the second segment folds over
the first and develops bristles round its edge.

Habits
There is little to be said about the habits and natural history of the
Brachiopoda. When once the larva has settled down, the animal
never moves from the spot selected; occasionally it may rotate
slightly from side to side on its stalk, and from time to time it opens
its shell. As so frequently is the case with sessile animals, the sense
organs are reduced to a minimum, the eyes of the larva disappear,
and the only communication which the animal has with the world
around it is by means of the currents set up by the cilia on the
tentacles.
In spite of the absence of any definite eyes, Thecidium, according
to Lacaze-Duthiers, is sensitive to light; he noticed for instance that,
when his shadow fell across a number of these animals he was
watching in a vessel, their shells, which had been previously gaping,
shut up at once.
In Cistella the tentacles can be protruded from the open shell, and
in Rhynchonella the spirally-coiled arms can be unrolled and
extruded from the shell, but this does not seem to have been
observed in other genera, with the possible exception of Lingula. The
food of these animals consists of minute fragments of animal and
vegetable matter, a very large proportion of it being diatoms and
other small algae.
Fig. 321.—Figures illustrating the
tubes in which Lingula
anatifera lives. The upper
figure is a view of the trilobed
opening of the tube. The
lower figure shows the tube
in the sand laid open and the
animal exposed. The dotted
 line indicates the position of
the body when retracted.
The darker portion is the
tube of sand agglutinated by
the secretion of the stalk.
(After François.)
Lingula differs markedly from the other members of the group,
inasmuch as it is not firmly fixed to a rock or some such body by a
stalk or by one of its valves, but lives in a tube in the sand. Some
recent observations of Mons. P. François[427] on living specimens of
Lingula anatifera which he found living in great numbers on the sea-
shore at Nouméa in New Caledonia may be mentioned. The
presence of the animal is shown by a number of elongated trilobed
orifices which lead into the tube in which the Lingula lives. The
animals, like most other Brachiopods, live well in captivity, and he
was able to watch their habits in the aquaria of his laboratory. The
Lingula place themselves vertically; the anterior end of the body just
reaches the level of the sand; the three lobes into which the orifice of
the tube is divided corresponding with the three brushes of setae
which project from the anterior rim of the mantles. These setae are
described by Morse as projecting in the form of three funnels;
currents of water are seen continually passing in at the side orifices
and out through the central. The tube consists of two portions: an
upper part, which is flattened to correspond with the flat shape of the
body, and a lower part, in which the stalk lies. The upper part is lined
with a layer of mucus, but the sand is not glued together to form a
definite tube. The lower part of the stalk, or the whole when the
animal is contracted, is lodged in a definite tube composed of grains
of sand agglutinated by mucus, probably secreted from the walls of
the stalk. At the least sign of danger the stalk is contracted violently,
and the body is withdrawn to the bottom of the upper portion of the
tube. The rapid retreat of the animal is followed by the collapse of
the sand at the mouth of the tube, and all trace of the presence of
the Lingula is lost.
The shells of this species are frequently rotated through a small
angle upon one another, a movement which is prevented in the
Testicardines by the hinge. In very young transparent specimens
François was able to observe the movements of the fluid in the
system of tubules which penetrate the mantle; these tubules are
figured by him, and Fig. 315 is taken from his illustration.
Davidson in his Monograph on the British Fossil Brachiopoda
states that the largest “recent Brachiopod which has come under my
notice is a specimen of Waldheimia venosa Solander, measuring 3
inches 2 lines in length, by 2 inches in breadth, and 1 inch 11 lines in
depth.” It was found in the outer harbour of Fort William, Falkland
Islands, in 1843. A specimen of Terebratula grandis from the Tertiary
deposits, however, exceeds this in all its dimensions. Its length was
4½ inches, its breadth 3 inches 2 lines, and its depth 2 inches 2
lines.

Distribution in Space

Brachiopods are very localised; they live in but few places, but
when they are found they usually occur in great numbers. During the
cruise of the Challenger, dredging was conducted at 361 stations; at
only 38 or 39 of these were Brachiopoda brought up. Mr. Cuming,
quoted by Davidson, records that after a great storm in the year
1836, he collected as many as 20 bushels of Lingula anatifera on the
sea-shore at Manilla, where, he relates, they are used as an article
of food. It has been suggested above that their abundance in certain
localities is due to their limited powers of locomotion, which are
effective but for a few hours, the larva being, moreover, so minute
that unless borne by a current it could not travel far from its parent.
When once settled down it has little to fear from the attacks of other
animals. The size of its shell relative to its body would deter most
animals from regarding it as a desirable article of food, and as far as
is known at present the Brachiopoda suffer but little from internal
parasites, the only case I know being a minute parasitic Copepod
belonging to a new and as yet unnamed genus which I found within
the mantle cavity of Cistella (Argiope) neapolitana in Naples. Their
slight value as an article of diet has doubtless helped to preserve
them through the long periods of geological time, through which they
have existed apparently unchanged.
 Two of the recent genera of the family Lingulidae, Lingula and
Glottidia, are usually found between tide-marks or in shallow water
not exceeding 17 fathoms. Discina is also found about the low-tide
level, but one species at any rate, Discinisca atlantica, has been
dredged, according to Davidson, “at depths ranging from 690 to
nearly 2425 fathoms.” Their larvae frequently settle on the shells of
their parents, and thus numbers of overlapping shells are found
clustered together. Crania is usually dredged from moderate depths
down to 808 fathoms, adhering to rocks, lumps of coral, stones, and
shells.
Of the Testicardines, Terebratula Wyvillei has probably been
found at the greatest depth, i.e. 2900 fathoms, in the North Pacific. It
is interesting to note that its shell is glassy and extremely thin. The
Brachiopoda are, however, as a rule, found in shallower water; they
abound up to a depth of 500 or 600 fathoms, after which they rapidly
diminish with increasing depth. About one-half the named species
occur at a depth of less than 100 fathoms.
The vertical range of depth of certain species is great; Terebratula
vitrea is recorded from 5 to 1456 fathoms, T. Wyvillei from 1035 to
2900 fathoms. This is to some extent explicable since, after a certain
depth has been reached, many of the external conditions, such as
absence of temperature and light, must remain constant even to the
greatest depths of the ocean.
The area of the ocean explored by dredging forms such an
infinitesimal fraction of the whole, that it seems superfluous to
consider the horizontal distribution of Brachiopods. A few facts may,
however, be mentioned. Certain species, as Terebratula vitrea, T.
caput serpentis, Waldheimia cranium, Megerlia truncata, and
Discinisca atlantica, have a very wide if not cosmopolitan
distribution. The second of the above named extends as far north as
Spitzbergen, and as far south as Kerguelen Island. Many species
are, on the other hand, very localised, and have hitherto only been
found in one place. A very considerable number of these have been
dredged off Japan and Korea, and this region may be to some extent
regarded as the headquarters of the group.
 The following species have been obtained within the limits of the
British Area, as defined by Canon Norman, who has been good
enough to revise the list, which is founded on that drawn up by
Davidson in his Challenger Report. Their range of bathymetric
distribution is given in the column on the left.
Depth in
Fathoms
0 to 1180. Terebratulina caput Oban, and off Cumbrae Islands, Loch
serpentis Lin. Torridon, Scotland, off Belfast
8 to 25. Terebratula Belfast Bay, E. and S. coast of Ireland,
(Gwynia) Plymouth, Weymouth, and Guernsey
capsula Jeff.
5 to 690. Waldheimia North British seas. Off Shetland
cranium Müller
75 to 725. Waldheimia North British seas. Off Shetland
septigera Lovén
20 to 600. Terebratella N.N.W. of Unst, Shetland
spitzbergenensis
Dav.
18 to 364. Argiope decollata Two miles east of Guernsey
Chemnitz
20 to 45. Cistella cistellula Shetland, near Weymouth, S. coast of
S. Wood England
650 to 1750. Atretia gnomon W. of Donegal Bay in 1443 faths.
Jeff. Between Ireland and Rockall, in 1350
faths.
10 to 690. Rhynchonella Shetland and near Dogger Bank.This
psittacea species is possibly fossil as well as
Gmelin. recent
3 to 808. Crania anomala Loch Fyne, North of Scotland
Müller
690 to 2425. Discinisca atlantica W. of Donegal Bay in 1366 faths., W. of
King Ireland in 1240 faths., off Dingwall Bay

Classification
The table of classification here appended is that suggested by Mr.
Davidson in his Monograph on the Recent Brachiopoda.
I. TESTICARDINES
Family
A. Terebratulidae. This includes the majority of genera and of species,
 the latter, without counting uncertain species,
amounting to sixty-eight. Examples: Terebratula,
Terebratella, Terebratulina, Waldheimia, Megerlia,
Argiope, Cistella.
B. Thecidiidae. This family contains one genus, Thecidium, with two
species.
C. Rhynchonellidae. This family is made up of eight species, six of which
belong to the genus Rhynchonella, and two to
Atretia.
II. ECARDINES
D. Craniidae. This family comprises the four species of Crania.
E. Discinidae. This family contains one species of Discina and six of
Discinisca.
F. Lingulidae. This family consists of eight species of Lingula and
three of Glottidia.
It is impossible to come to any satisfactory conclusion as to the
position of the group Brachiopoda with relation to the rest of the
animal kingdom. They have, in accordance with the views of various
investigators, been placed in close connexion with many of the large
groups into which the Invertebrates are split up. The Mollusca, the
Tunicata, the Polyzoa, the Chaetopoda, the Gephyrea, and of recent
times such isolated forms as Phoronis and Sagitta, have all in turn
had their claims advanced of relationship to this most ancient group.
As far as I am in a position to judge, their affinities seem to be
perhaps more closely with the Gephyrea and with Phoronis than with
any of the other claimants; but I think even these are too remote to
justify any system of classification which would bring them together
under a common name. Investigation into the details of the
embryology of the group, more especially into that of the Ecardines,
might throw some light on this subject, and it is much to be desired
that this should be undertaken without delay. That the group is a
most ancient one, extending from the oldest geological formations,
we know, that the existing members of it have changed but little
during the vast lapse of time since their earliest fossil ancestors
flourished, we believe; but we are in almost total ignorance of the
origin or affinities of the group, and we can hardly hope for any light
on the subject except through embryological research.
 BRACHIOPODA

PART II

PALAEONTOLOGY OF THE BRACHIOPODA

BY

F. R. COWPER REED, B.A., F.G.S.

Trinity College, Cambridge
 CHAPTER XVIII
PALAEONTOLOGY OF THE BRACHIOPODA

INTRODUCTION—DIVISION I. ECARDINES—EXTERNAL CHARACTERS—

INTERNAL CHARACTERS—DIVISION II. TESTICARDINES—EXTERNAL
CHARACTERS—INTERNAL CHARACTERS—SYNOPSIS OF FAMILIES
—STRATIGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION—PHYLOGENY AND ONTOGENY

Introduction
The wide distribution and vast abundance of the Brachiopoda throughout
the whole series of geological formations make this group of especial
importance to the student of the past history of the earth; and the zoologist
must always regard the fossil forms with peculiar interest, because they not
only largely outnumber the living representatives, but comprise numerous
extinct genera, and even families, exhibiting types of structure and characters
entirely absent in the modern members of the group. It is a most fortunate
circumstance that the excellent state of preservation in which we frequently
find them, and the immense amount of material at our disposal, enable us to
determine with accuracy and certainty the internal characters of the shells in
the great majority of cases. But it is only since the beginning of the present
century that our knowledge of the anatomy of the soft parts of the living animal
has rendered any tracing of homologies possible. In the case of features in
fossil extinct types the interpretation must be to some extent doubtful.
Barrande, Clarke, Davidson, Hall, King, Oehlert, Waagen, de Verneuil, and a
host of other workers have contributed to the information which we now
possess; and their works must be consulted for details of the subject.[428]
Since all Brachiopods are inhabitants of the sea, the geologist at once
recognises as a marine deposit any bed which contains their remains. Under
favourable conditions they swarmed in the seas of Palaeozoic and Mesozoic
times. Beds of limestone are frequently almost entirely composed of their
shells, as, for instance, some of the Devonian limestones of Bohemia. Often
they give the facies to the fauna and outnumber in species and individuals all
the other organisms of the period. The Ungulite Sandstone (Cambrian) of
Russia and the Productus Limestone of the Salt Range in India of
Carboniferous and Permian age are well-known examples.
Many species seem to have been gregarious in habit; thus Productus
giganteus of the Carboniferous Limestone may generally be found in crowded
masses, as in some localities in Yorkshire.
The fact that certain species of Brachiopods characterise definite
stratigraphical horizons or “zones” gives them occasionally an importance
equal to that of Graptolites; for instance, the Ecardinate species Trematis
corona marks a set of beds in the Ordovician, and the isolated
Stringocephalus Burtini is restricted to the upper part of the Middle Devonian,
giving to the limestone on that horizon its distinctive name. It is noteworthy
also how certain species affect a sandy and others a calcareous sea-bottom,
so that beds of the same age show differences in their Brachiopod fauna
owing to a dissimilar lithological composition.
While few of the recent Brachiopods reach a large size, some of the extinct
species measure several inches in breadth, but the great Productus giganteus
attained the width of even a foot.
The bright colours of the shells of the living animals are not generally
preserved amongst the fossil species from the older rocks; yet in a
Carboniferous Terebratula we can even now detect the purple bands in some
specimens, and a Cretaceous Rhynchonella similarly exhibits its original
colour.
The Brachiopoda are evidently a group in its decline, as the geological
record shows; but they date back from the earliest known fossiliferous rocks,
in which the Ecardinate division is alone represented. As we ascend through
the stratigraphical series the number and variety of genera and species
belonging to both divisions rapidly increase until in the united Ordovician and
Silurian there are nearly 2000 species and about 70 genera. From this point of
maximum development down to the present day there is a gradual decrease in
numbers.
According to Davidson, at least 17 Upper Tertiary species are still living on
our sea-bottoms; and many recent Mediterranean forms occur in the Pliocene
rocks of the islands and shores of that sea, and in the Crags of East Anglia.
A brief review of the chief characteristics of fossil Brachiopoda is given
below. Those genera which have the greatest zoological or geological
importance can alone be noticed owing to the exigencies of space.

I. ECARDINES

External Characters
A considerable diversity of external form is met with even in this division,
from the limpet-like Discina to the flattened tongue-shaped Lingula. The valves
have most commonly a smooth external surface with delicate growth-lines; but
sometimes pittings (Trematis) or radiating ribs (Crania) are present, and in a
few forms the shell is furnished with spines (Siphonotreta), which perhaps
serve to anchor it in the soft mud of the sea-bottom. The usual mode of fixation
was by means of the pedicle (= peduncle or stalk), which either (1) passed out
simply between the posterior gaping portion of the valves (Lingula), or (2) lay
in a slit in the ventral valve (Lingulella), or (3) pierced the substance of the
latter valve by a definite foramen (Discina). The first-mentioned condition of
the pedicle seems the most primitive. Rarely the pedicle was absent, and the
shell was attached by the whole surface of the ventral valve (Crania, p. 467).
The two valves in the fossil Ecardines were held together by muscular
action, though in some families (Trimerellidae) we see traces of articulating
processes. The “hinge line,” or line along which the valves worked as on a
hinge, is in most forms more or less curved. A “hinge area” (i.e. that portion of
the shell generally smoother than other parts of the valves, more or less
triangular in form, and lying between the beaks on one or both sides of the
hinge line), is usually absent in the Ecardines.

Fig. 322.—Muscle-scars of Lingula

anatina. Inner surface of A, Pedicle-
valve or ventral valve. B, Brachial or
dorsal valve; p.s, parietal scar; u,
umbonal muscle; t, transmedians; c,
centrals; a.m.e, laterals (a, anteriors;
m, middles; e, externals).
 Fig. 323.—Trimerella. (After Davidson and King.) A, Inner surface of pedicle-
valve or ventral valve: a, pseudo-deltidium; b, deltidial slope; c, deltidial
ridges; d, areal borders; e, cardinal callosities; f, cardinal facet; g,
lozenge; i, umbonal chambers separated by cardinal buttress; j,
platform; k, platform vaults; l, median plate; m, median scars; n, anterior
scars; o, lateral scars; p, post-median scars; q, crown crescent; r, side or
lateral crescent; s, end or terminal crescent; t, transverse scars; u,
archlet (vascular sinuses); w, sub-cardinal scars; x, umbo-lateral scars.
B, Brachial or dorsal valve: e, cardinal sockets; j, platform; k, platform
vaults; l, median plate; m, median scars; n, anterior scars; q, crown
crescent; r, side or lateral crescent; s, end or terminal crescent; t,
transverse scars; u, archlet (vascular sinuses); v, cardinal scars; w, sub-
cardinal scars.

Internal Characters
Owing to the rarity of well-preserved interiors of valves in this division, our
knowledge of their internal characters is still far from satisfactory. The
arrangement of the muscular impressions varies greatly amongst extinct
genera, but we are often able to interpret them with a considerable amount of
certainty by a study of the scars and the muscles of the well-known recent
Lingula (Fig. 322). The extreme specialisation of the muscles in many of the
earliest genera (e.g. Lingula) is remarkable, and points to a long but so far
undiscovered ancestry in pre-Cambrian times.[429] In fossil species of Crania
and Lingula the muscle-scars correspond closely with those in the living
representatives of these genera. In the most highly specialised family of the
Ecardines—the Trimerellidae—we meet with features of peculiar interest.[430]