Drama Activities

That Promote and Extend Your

Students’ Vocabulary Proficiency
S H E I L A R. A L B E R AND C A R O LY N R. F O I L

Students with limited vocabulary development tend to have difficulty

mastering important language arts skills such as reading comprehension
and written expression. Using drama activities to teach target vocabulary
words can be an effective and motivating instructional practice for all stu-
dents, especially those with learning problems. This article presents spe-
cific drama activities for teachers to implement when introducing new
vocabulary, conducting guided practice, facilitating cooperative learning
groups, and assigning independent practice. Additionally, we make rec-
ommendations for promoting generalization of new vocabulary.

earning to read is undoubtedly one of the most ideas (Lerner, 2001). Students with more advanced vo-

L important accomplishments that children will

ever achieve. In order to read proficiently, stu-
dents must acquire, maintain, synthesize, and
generalize a variety of important skills. One
skill that greatly enhances overall reading achievement is
a firm understanding of vocabulary words and how they
connect explicitly and implicitly to other concepts and
cabularies will be better readers (e.g., Goldsworthy, 1996;
McCormick, 1999; Xin, Glaser, & Rieth, 1996), and they
will also be more effective listeners, speakers, and writers.
One approach to enhancing vocabulary development
is the use of drama—having students actively practice
vocabulary definitions through physical movement. Edu-
cators have recommended supplementing vocabulary in-

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struction with drama activities (e.g., Cox, 1988; Moffett
& Wagner, 1976; Ross & Roe, 1977; Wood & Algozzine,
1994), and research has supported this approach (e.g.,
Casale & Manzo, 1982; Foil & Alber, 2002; Ranger, 1995).
This article presents specific drama activities for teachers
to implement when introducing new vocabulary, con-
ducting guided practice, facilitating cooperative learning
groups, and assigning independent practice. Additionally,
we make recommendations for promoting generalization
of new vocabulary.
Introducing New Vocabulary
When introducing new vocabulary, it is important to
make connections to students’ prior knowledge. The ex-
tent to which students are able to link new vocabulary
words to prior knowledge influences their levels of com-
prehension, so it is important to allow time for a discus-
sion that focuses on relating new words to students’
personal experiences. The following procedure is recom-
mended when introducing new vocabulary:
1. Show students the word, pronounce it, and have
students repeat it.
2. Explain the meaning of the word, and provide a
variety of examples of the word used in context.
3. Make connections to students’ prior knowledge by
eliciting student responses about their experiences
related to the word.
4. Give students the opportunity to use the word in
context, and provide specific feedback.
5. Demonstrate a physical action or dramatic move-
ment that represents the meaning of the word, and
have students imitate that action.
Students may also suggest a physical action to associate
with the word. The appendix illustrates a suggested pro-
cedure for introducing new vocabulary.
Teachers can enhance the introduction of new vocabu-
lary by creating a memorable event. Memorable events are
likely to improve the retention of concepts (Martin, 1993)
and can serve as fun and effective attention-getters when
opening a vocabulary lesson. For example, the teacher
may wear a brightly colored hat and a jacket with an un-
usual pattern that clashes with the rest of her or his
clothes. The students will, of course, notice immediately
(especially if the teacher doesn’t normally dress in that
manner). The students may ask questions like, “Why are
you wearing that outfit?” or “Why are you dressed that
way?” to which the teacher may respond, “I have decided
to wear gaudy clothes today. What do you think the word
gaudy means?” This memorable event can begin the pre-
sentation and discussion of the new vocabulary word
gaudy.
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The following is another example of creating a mem-
orable event. When the students enter the classroom, the
teacher might say something like, “Okay, it’s time to get
to work. I want you to take out your dog food and write
a rocket ship about the computer floating over that tree.”
She or he is likely to be met with a chorus of responses:
“What?” or “What are you talking about?” or “That
doesn’t make any sense.” The teacher might respond with
something like, “Aren’t you listening? I want you to go to
the ceiling and make up a can opener about a zebra.” The
students will probably laugh and ask again why the
teacher is not making sense. “Oh, I’m sorry. I was being
incoherent. What do you think incoherent means?”
With the help of an assistant or another teacher, the
following memorable event can be created:
MR. JONES: (comes to the door and announces in a
loud voice) Ms. Smith, I was sent here to
tell you that your students must take a
circuitous route. (He immediately begins
to walk in a large circle around the
classroom.)
MS. SMITH: (running after him to keep up, exclaims
in a loud voice) A what?
MR. JONES: A circuitous route.
MS. SMITH: What kind of route?
MR. JONES: Circuitous.
MS. SMITH: Spell that.
MR. JONES: C-I-R-C-U-I-T-O-U-S! Circuitous!
MS. SMITH: What does that mean?
MR. JONES: You know, a circular or winding course.
MS. SMITH: Okay! Students, stand up. Row 1, follow
Mr. Jones. Row 2, follow them, and so
forth. (Mr. Jones leads the students in
a large winding route around the
classroom.)
MS. SMITH: What kind of route are we taking,
students?
STUDENTS: Circuitous!
MS. SMITH: What are you doing?
STUDENTS: Walking in a circular or winding route.
MS. SMITH: Spell it.
STUDENTS
AND
TEACHERS: C-I-R-C-U-I-T-O-U-S! Circuitous!
After using a focusing activity, such as those just de-
scribed, follow through with the suggested steps of dis-
cussing the definition and linking it to previous learning.
Model how to make up sentences with the word, and
then have students generate their own sentences.
Once the new vocabulary word and definition have
been introduced, have the students stand next to their
desks and simultaneously imitate teacher-led dramatic
movements to associate with the definition of each word.
For example, during a science lesson, the teacher explains
VOL . 39, N O. 1, S EPTEMBER 2003 23

• frigid: crossing the arms over the chest and
pretending to shiver
• studious: pretending to read a book
• lugubrious: making a sad face, pretending to cry
• pixilated: staggering around, pretending to be drunk
• exalted: starting at the floor and lifting an imaginary
object high into the air
• pirouette: spinning around
Figure 1. Examples of vocabulary words and their
corresponding actions.
the concept that molecules expand when they are heated
and condense when they are cooled. When the teacher says
the word expand, the students are instructed to stand tall
and stretch out their arms and legs. When the teacher
says the word condense, the students should squat down on
the floor, tuck their heads down, and cover their heads
with their arms to make themselves as small as possible.
The teacher also has the option of asking students to sug-
gest a physical action for each new word for the rest of
the students to imitate. Teachers may want to spend a few
minutes each day reviewing previously learned vocabu-
lary words by prompting the students to state the defini-
tion of the word, use the word in a sentence, and perform
the physical action.
After a list of vocabulary words have been introduced
over the course of a few days, the students can be pro-
vided with additional practice through reciprocal class-
wide peer tutoring (e.g., Miller, Barbetta, & Heron, 1994).
Provide each student with a folder and an individualized
set of index cards listing the word on the front and a de-
finition and suggested action on the back. The students
work in dyads and take turns being the tutor and tutee.
The tutor will say the word, and the tutee will state the
definition and perform the physical action associated with
the word. After a designated time period (e.g., 5–10 min-
utes) the tutor and tutee switch roles. If a student is able
to provide the correct response in three consecutive tri-
als (or whatever criteria the teacher assigns), the word is
considered mastered and goes into a separate pocket in
the folder. Each folder can contain some sort of graphing
device so students can keep track of the number of words
they have mastered. Figure 1 shows examples of vocabu-
lary words and their corresponding dramatic movements.
Conducting Guided Practice
When students have acquired a basic understanding of
new vocabulary words, they will need additional practice
to reinforce and extend their comprehension. One way to
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provide guided practice may be for the teacher to read a
story that contains the new vocabulary words, and each
time students hear one of the vocabulary words, they si-
multaneously perform the corresponding action they
learned. The following drama games can also be a moti-
vating way for students to practice their newly learned
vocabulary words.
• Divide the class into at least two teams, and have a
member of each team draw a word card out of a box.
The word is printed on the front side of the card, and
the definition and suggested action depicting the
meaning is printed on the back. Students take turns
drawing a card and acting out the definition for the
rest of the students to guess. They may use the sug-
gested action printed on the back of the card or make
up their own action. The student who correctly iden-
tifies the word should state the definition and use the
word in a sentence to earn points for his or her team.
The element of competition is likely to be very moti-
vating to most students. However, if team competi-
tion is not consistent with the culture of the
classroom, teachers may elect to use a one-team for-
mat in which points are earned for the entire class in-
stead of for two opposing teams.
• A variation of this game can be used with character
trait vocabulary words. The students write a brief vi-
gnette of a character to represent the vocabulary
word printed on the card. For example, when pre-
sented with the word shrew a student writes, “She
pointed her finger at the boy and screamed, ‘Don’t
put your feet on the furniture! How many times do I
have to tell you!’ ” Place the cards in a box, and have
each student draw one card. The student must act
out the character described on the card while the rest
of the students attempt to name the character trait
word.
Facilitating Cooperative
Learning Activities
Teachers may incorporate higher level thinking skills
during guided practice by having cooperative learning
groups create their own skits illustrating the meaning of
each word. A synthesis of cooperative learning group re-
search reveals positive academic achievement across abil-
ity levels, content areas, and school settings (Slavin,
1991). The following cooperative learning activities pro-
vide students with opportunities to increase their vocab-
ulary comprehension and practice social interaction skills
as well.
• For social studies terms such as democracy, republic, or
dictatorship, each team may select or be assigned one
vocabulary word. The teams are then given time to
 create a skit depicting their words. For example, to il-
lustrate the term dictatorship, one student may boss
around other students on his or her team, who gra-
ciously comply. After the teams have performed their
skits, the teacher may lead a discussion of how the
team interpreted the vocabulary word. To add an
element of competition, students may vote on the
best skit, using criteria such as accuracy of definition
and originality.
• Provide each team of students with one abstract
noun, such as deception. Each team creates a skit using
that word. For example, one group illustrates decep-
tion by portraying a student lying to his teacher
about why he does not have his homework complete.
Another group may act out a student giving insincere
compliments to the other students. A third group
may present a skit in which a student guilty of a mis-
deed places the blame on an innocent student. After
the teams present their skits, the teacher can lead a
discussion of the many contexts in which the particu-
lar word was used. Teachers should emphasize that
the same word can be used in a variety of ways and
still be used correctly.
• Teachers may use the following group activity to help
students understand vocabulary in the context of a
piece of literature. Write the list of vocabulary words
connected with the selected literature the students
will be reading, directly teach the definition of each
word, and have the students read the story. Next, give
each group a portion of the story with instructions to
create a skit in which the selected vocabulary words
are used. Each team then acts out the created skit.
After each skit, the rest of the students discuss the se-
lected vocabulary and how those words were used in
the context of the literature.
• Written expression activities and drama may also be
incorporated into cooperative learning group activi-
ties. Each team collaboratively writes a short story
using a teacher-selected list of vocabulary words, and
teams take turns reading their stories to the class. As
the remaining teams listen to the story being read,
they are challenged to recognize each vocabulary
word and perform the correct corresponding action.
A separate team of “spotters” determines which team
performed the correct action first. The team with the
most points wins. A variation of this activity is asking
the students to hold up a card on which the correct
vocabulary word is printed each time they hear the
word. The use of response cards in active responding
activities has been demonstrated to be an effective
teaching tool (Heward, 1994).
Keeping guided practice activities varied and interest-
ing is likely to increase active involvement. When deciding
which activities to select for practicing new vocabulary,
teachers must match their students’ levels of functioning
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with the selected instructional objectives. Guided prac-
tice activities should then be followed by a variety of in-
dependent practice activities involving reading and
writing.
Assigning Independent Practice
Activities
Students need to develop independent strategies for learn-
ing new words, especially as students become older and
content area subjects requiring specialized vocabulary be-
come more challenging. Adding meaningful activities to
students’ study time will increase student learning (Clark
& Pavio, 1991). Teachers may encourage independent
learning with drama by assigning the following tasks:
• After introducing vocabulary words, assign students
the homework task of making up their own pan-
tomimes for each word. The following day, ask stu-
dents to share some of the pantomimes they created.
• Provide all students with a deck of index cards on
which their weekly vocabulary words are written.
Once a day, tell students to get out their vocabulary
cards and quietly pantomime words at their desks
for 5 minutes. At the end of the week, administer a
vocabulary test on the words they were practicing.
• Assign a reading passage for homework. Tell students
to write down all the words that are unfamiliar to
them as they read through the passage. Tell them to
first try to guess the meaning of the word based on
the context in which the word is printed, then look
up the word in the dictionary to see if the definition
matches their guess. Students may also ask others
(e.g., parents, other teachers) to clarify the definition
of the unfamiliar word. Once the student knows the
definition, he or she may create an action to associate
with the word and share it with the class during a
designated time. This procedure should be modeled
and practiced with the students prior to the home-
work assignment.
• Assign a list of unknown vocabulary words to each
student. Have them attempt to find the definitions on
their own, by using the dictionary, by asking others,
or by determining the word in context. Once they are
sure they have an accurate understanding of the
word, they must create an action that illustrates the
meaning of the word, then write a story using the
selected vocabulary words. Students may teach the
new vocabulary words to the rest of the class by read-
ing their stories and acting out the new vocabulary
words as they are read. The other students may then
attempt to guess the meaning of the target words
based on the context in which they were used and
the physical actions performed.
• Challenge students to select a new vocabulary word
to learn independently. The student may discover the
VOL . 39, N O. 1, S EPTEMBER 2003 25
 new word by hearing it used in school or by family
members, reading for pleasure, or hearing it on tele-
vision. The student should write down the unfamiliar
word he or she selected, write down the context in
which the word was used, and find the definition in
the dictionary. After creating a physical action to
represent the word, the student can present the new
word to the other students in class. Self-selected
words have the added benefit of personal relevance,
thereby increasing the probability of mastery and
retention.
Teaching for Generalization
For vocabulary instruction to be truly effective and func-
tional, students must be able to generalize newly learned
words to a variety of settings, situations, and contexts.
The following recommendations for generalization plan-
ning should be incorporated throughout vocabulary in-
struction.
Teach Enough Examples
Teaching a representative range of examples the student
is likely to encounter inside and outside of the classroom
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will help promote generalization (Horner, Eberhard, &
Sheehan, 1986). When introducing new vocabulary, the
teacher must provide examples from the full range of
contexts in which the word is used. The more varied the
examples, the more likely the student will comprehend
the word in an unfamiliar context. For example, the word
wretched means very unfortunate or unhappy. This state
may be caused by extreme sorrow (“Romeo’s wretched
state of mind resulted in his death”), by sickness (“The
wretched woman slumped in her chair in the doctor’s
office”), or by worry (“He was wretched when he failed
the exam again”). Wretched may also indicate something
that is unsatisfactory (“The refugees lived in a wretched
shack”). Finally, wretched can mean something or some-
one who is very bad (“My uncle is a wretched driver”).
Discuss with students the implications of each situation and
let them act out each scenario (e.g., How would Romeo
look when he was wretched? the lady in the doctor’s of-
fice? someone who just failed a test again? a wretched
shack? a wretched driver?).
Teach Minimum Difference Examples
Many words have similar meanings with only slight differ-
ences. Teaching students minimum difference examples
(Horner, Dunlap, & Koegel, 1988) will enable them to
make finer discriminations for words that are similar in
meaning. After students have demonstrated accuracy with
basic discriminations between words that are not similar,
such as amiable and irritable, they should be taught to make
sharper, more difficult discriminations between words
that have more subtle differences (e.g., amiable and com-
placent). Teachers can facilitate the use of minimum differ-
ence examples by creating synonym charts. The students
and teacher can generate a list of synonyms for a new vo-
cabulary word and discuss how each synonym may have a
slightly different meaning from the target word. For ex-
ample, the words separate and segregate are synonyms;
however, the word segregate carries with it the connota-
tion of racism and injustice because it is associated with
civil rights violations in our recent history. The word sep-
arate is a more neutral word that does not have much
emotional impact. Teaching the subtle differences in words
is likely to assist a student in understanding words in con-
text on a variety of levels and help the student select the
most accurate word for getting his or her point across
when speaking and writing.
Prompt Students to Use New Vocabulary
Many students will need to be prompted to use their
newly learned words in writing and speaking tasks. The
more frequently a student uses a vocabulary word in a va-
riety of contexts, the more likely the student will gener-
alize and maintain the concept. Teachers should verbally
prompt students to use new vocabulary in their speaking
and writing activities (e.g., “When you write in your
journals today, make sure you use the vocabulary words we
learned this week”). For some students, a verbal prompt
may be adequate for encouraging them to use their as-
signed vocabulary words. For many other students, espe-
cially those with learning challenges, a physical prompt
may be more effective. Teachers may provide students
with a laminated card that lists their new vocabulary
words, the definition of each word, and a sentence con-
taining each word. The card can be taped to the student’s
desk or notebook cover to serve as a prompt for using
the new vocabulary words in class assignments or discus-
sions.
Reinforce Students
When They Use New Vocabulary
Prompting students may not be effective unless the
teacher provides some form of reinforcement for using
the vocabulary words. Students should be rewarded when
they use vocabulary words correctly in verbal or written
expression or find vocabulary words in a self-selected
reading material. The teacher should remember to pro-
vide praise in order to increase the likelihood that the
student will continue to recognize and use new vocabu-
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lary. If verbal praise does not produce the desired results,
the teacher can implement a more intrusive reinforce-
ment procedure. For example, the teacher may award the
student a bonus point or token each time he or she uses
a newly learned vocabulary word. Points or tokens can
then be exchanged for inexpensive prizes at the end of
the week. Another option is giving the student a ticket
each time he or she uses a selected vocabulary word.
After receiving the ticket, the student writes his or her
name on it. Tickets are collected each day and placed in
a box. At the end of the week, the teacher draws several
tickets out of the box. The students whose tickets are se-
lected would then be allowed to choose a prize from the
box. Such unpredictable and delayed reinforcement has
been demonstrated to be an effective technique for pro-
moting generalization (e.g., Alberto & Troutman, 1999;
Baer, Williams, Osnes, & Stokes, 1984; Cooper, Heron,
& Heward, 1987).
Teach Students to Self-Record New Vocabulary
Not every attempt to use new vocabulary will be recog-
nized and reinforced by teachers, so it is important for stu-
dents to learn to recognize and record each time they use
a target vocabulary word. A considerable research base
supports the effectiveness of teaching self-monitoring skills
to students (e.g., Maag, Reid, & Di Gangi, 1993; Moore,
Cartledge, & Heckamen, 1995; Nelson, Smith, Young, &
Dodd, 1991; Pierce & Schreibman, 1994; Snyder &
Bambera, 1997). Provide students with a self-recording
form that lists each word and provides a space for students
to tally each time they use the word. Additional space can
be provided for students to write down when and how
they used the word. At the end of the week, students can
show their checklists to the teacher for feedback, praise,
and a reward. In addition to increasing students’ interac-
tion with target vocabulary, self-management strategies
enable students to take responsibility for their own learn-
ing, function more independently, and experience a feel-
ing of control and competence.
Conclusion
Proficiency in the comprehension and use of vocabulary
is important for attaining success in language arts and
academic content areas. Incorporating drama activities
into vocabulary instruction can be a motivating and ef-
fective way to provide students with frequent practice op-
portunities. Teachers can select from a variety of drama
activities to ensure appropriate practice for a wide range
of student ability levels. Any good instructional program
will also include teaching methods that incorporate
strategies for promoting generalized outcomes. Appro-
priate assessment in the acquisition, generalization, and
VOL . 39, N O. 1, S EPTEMBER 2003 27
maintenance stages of learning will help teachers ascer-
tain student mastery. The extent to which students gen-
eralize and maintain target vocabulary across settings and
situations and over time will ultimately determine the
success of vocabulary instruction.
ABOUT THE AUTHORS
Sheila R. Alber, PhD, is an associate professor at The Uni-
versity of Southern Mississippi. Her research interests include
teaching methods for students with learning disabilities and
programming for generalization and maintenance of academic
skills. Carolyn R. Foil, PhD, is a special education teacher at
Stone High School in Wiggins, Mississippi. Her research in-
terests include reading disabilities, assistive technology, and ad-
venture education. Address: Sheila R. Alber, Department of
Curriculum, Instruction and Special Education, The University
of Southern Mississippi, Box 5115, Hattiesburg, MS 39406;
e-mail: Sheila.Alber@usm.edu
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 Appendix:
A Procedure for Introducing New Vocabulary
1. Hold up a card with the vocabulary word printed in
large letters. Say the word, and ask the students
to chorally repeat the word.
TEACHER: Labyrinth. What word?
STUDENTS: Labyrinth.
2. Ask if students know the definition. Provide the
definition if students do not know it.
TEACHER: Does anyone know what labyrinth
means? (Take responses from stu-
dents; if no one knows, continue.) A
labyrinth is a maze. Can anyone tell me
what a maze is?
STUDENT: It’s a bunch of connecting passages
that make it hard to find your way from
one end to the other.
TEACHER: Right! So a labyrinth is any confusing
or complicated arrangement or a com-
plicated, confusing state of affairs.
3. Discuss the vocabulary word with the students,
encouraging them to link it with previous learning.
TEACHER: Does anyone know anything about
labyrinths or mazes?
STUDENT: I’ve played video games that were
mazes. And on Survivor one time, they
had to get through a maze before they
were caught.
TEACHER: That’s right. Another word for those
mazes is labyrinths. In Greek mythol-
ogy, the maze built to imprison the
Minotaur at Crete was named the
Labyrinth. The Minotaur was a monster
with a bull’s head and a man’s body.
Every year, according to legend, the
Cretans sacrificed seven young men
and seven maidens to the Minotaur in
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the Labyrinth. The Labyrinth was so
complicated that when the young men
and women were released in it, they
couldn’t find their way out, and the
Minotaur would find them and eat
them. Have any of you seen a video
game with the Minotaur in the
Labyrinth?
4. Encourage students to make up sentences using
the vocabulary word by giving examples.
TEACHER: Thinking of how confusing the
Labyrinth was to those young people
who were trying to get away, can you
think of a place or situation that might
be confusing? Do you remember how
hard it was to find your classroom
when you first came to this school?
One example might be, “The new stu-
dents stumbled through the labyrinth
of hallways until they found their
homeroom.” Can anyone make up an-
other sentence using the word
labyrinth?
STUDENT: In the movie The Shining, there was a
labyrinth of hedges.
5. Allow students to decide on an action to depict
the meaning of the word. If students cannot think
of one, suggest an appropriate action.
The word labyrinth may be acted out by pretend-
ing to wander around lost.
6. Review the newly introduced words by calling
them out, and have students respond by acting
out the meanings, stating the definitions, and
using the word in a sentence.
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