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Integration and Optimization of Unit Operations
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Integration and
Optimization of Unit
Operations
Review of Unit Operations from R&D
to Production: Impacts of Upstream and
Downstream Process Decisions

Edited by
Barry A. Perlmutter
President, Perlmutter & Idea Development LLC, Matthews, NC, United States
Elsevier
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Contents

Contributors xiii 2.8.2 Continuous sterilization 47

About the editor xv 2.8.3 Filter sterilization of liquids 53
Preface xvii 2.8.4 Filter sterilization of air 56
2.9 Heat generation 56
1. Crystallization 2.10 Scale-up 59
Nomenclature 64
Brooke Albin
References 65
1.1 Fundamentals and laboratory scale
process development 1
1.1.1 Crystallizer design basics 1 3. Fermentation and downstream
1.1.2 Crystallizer design tradeoffs 4 processing: Part 2
1.1.3 Upstream variables affecting
Alan Gabelman, Ph.D., P.E.
crystallization 6
1.1.4 Impact on downstream 3.1 Fermenter design 69
operations 7 3.1.1 Fermenters without mechanical
1.2 Pilot scale crystallization studies 8 mixers 73
1.2.1 Objectives for a pilot plant 8 3.2 Fermenter instrumentation, control and
1.2.2 Scale-up criteria 9 operation 75
1.3 Commercialization of crystallization 3.2.1 Temperature 77
processes 10 3.2.2 pH 78
References 11 3.2.3 Dissolved oxygen
concentration 79
2. Fermentation and downstream 3.2.4 Mixer speed 80
processing: Part 1 3.2.5 Pressure 80
3.2.6 Gas flow rate 81
Alan Gabelman, Ph.D., P.E.
3.2.7 Liquid flow rate 82
2.1 Introduction 13 3.2.8 Foam 83
2.2 Microbiology and biochemistry 3.2.9 Exit gas composition 85
basics 13 3.2.10 Level 86
2.3 Fermentation media and 3.2.11 Substrate concentration 87
environment 21 3.2.12 Power input 88
2.4 Growth kinetics and substrate 3.2.13 Redox potential 89
utilization 24 3.3 Continuous culture 89
2.5 From vial to production fermenter 27 3.4 Downstream processing 93
2.6 Oxygen transfer and utilization 29 3.4.1 Monosodium glutamate 94
2.7 Mixing in aerobic fermentation 3.4.2 Phenethyl alcohol 100
vessels 37 3.5 Concluding remarks 108
2.8 Sterilization 43 Nomenclature 108
2.8.1 Batch sterilization 46 References 109

v
vi Contents

4. Liquid filtration 6.4.2 General operation 141

6.4.3 Safety interlocks 142
Jose M. Sentmanat
6.4.4 Out of balance monitor 142
4.1 Do you need a filter? 113 6.4.5 Plough parked 142
4.2 Lab testing before you choose the 6.5 Final remarks 142
filter 113
4.3 Choosing the filter 116
4.3.1 Plate and frame filter press 116
7. Dryers
4.3.2 Filter presses 116 Hongben Zhou
4.3.3 Plate filters 117
7.1 Purpose of drying 145
4.3.4 Pressure leaf type filter 117
7.2 Dispersed solid-liquid system 145
4.3.5 Nutsche filter 118
7.3 Drying processes 147
4.3.6 Polishing filter 118
7.4 Convective drying with hot gas 147
4.4 The ABCs of liquid filtration 118
7.5 Conductive and radiative drying 150
4.5 The mechanics of liquid filtration 119
7.6 Evaporation of liquid from a solid
4.5.1 Precoat 119
packing 151
4.5.2 Filtration 120
7.7 Drying facilities 153
4.5.3 Cleaning 120
7.7.1 Grain-sunning ground 153
4.5.4 Standby 121
7.7.2 Tray dryer 154
4.6 Troubleshooting 121
7.7.3 Belt dryer 156
4.7 The filter cake 121
7.7.4 Rotary dryer (kiln) 156
4.8 Preventative maintenance program 122
7.7.5 Fixed bed dryer 159
Further reading 123
7.7.6 Fluidized bed dryer 161
7.7.7 Pneumatic conveyor as dryer 162
5. Cake-building filter technologies 7.7.8 Spray dryer 165
Jose M. Sentmanat and Barry A. Perlmutter 7.7.9 Impact mill as dryer 166
7.7.10 Rotating vessel dryer 168
5.1 Batch processing of filter cakes 125
7.7.11 Plate dryer 168
5.2 Contained filter presses for cake
7.7.12 Roller dryer 170
washing, dewatering, and drying 126
7.7.13 Screw conveyor as dryer 170
5.3 Nutsche filter and filter dryers 127
7.7.14 Agitated mixer as dryer 171
5.4 Continuous processing of filter cakes 128
7.8 Troubleshooting 174
5.4.1 Vacuum belt filters 128
7.8.1 Heat transfer 174
5.4.2 Horizontal vacuum belt filters 129
7.8.2 Level of vacuum 175
5.4.3 Rotary vacuum drum filters 131
7.8.3 Formation of agglomerates and
5.4.4 Rotary pressure filter 131
crust 175
5.4.5 Pressurized vacuum drum
References 176
filter 131

6. Centrifugation 8. Pressure filter dryer

Badrie Luckiram, BSc, MSc, CEng, MIChemE Badrie Luckiram, BSc, MSc, CEng, MIChemE
6.1 Centrifuge choice and analysis of 8.1 General considerations of using a
available equipment 133 pressure filter dryer 177
6.1.1 Horizontal basket centrifuges 135 8.1.1 Pharma-specific
6.1.2 Vertical basket centrifuges 135 considerations 178
6.2 Typical centrifuge operation 138 8.2 Principles of the pressure filter
6.3 Technical considerations of equipment dryer 179
selection 138 8.3 Filter choice and analysis of available
6.3.1 Design basis document 138 equipment 182
6.4 Other considerations of centrifuge 8.3.1 Selection of filter dryer type 182
operation 141 8.4 Technical considerations of equipment
6.4.1 Centrifuge inerting 141 selection 183
 Contents vii

8.5 General operation of a pressure filter 10.1.2 Identify key automation systems
dryer 183 and technology 219
8.5.1 GMP issues and cleaning 189 10.1.3 Identify advanced control
8.5.2 Filter safety interlocks 189 schemes 220
8.5.3 Operational issues 190 10.1.4 Estimate system size 221
8.6 Final remarks 190 10.1.5 Site planning overall
philosophy 221
9. Process automation systems 10.2 Front end engineering design 226
10.2.1 Basic automation
Nick Harbud
requirements 226
9.1 Process automation in production 10.2.2 Advanced process control 226
facilities 191 10.2.3 The MAC, and why you should
9.2 Process control system use one 226
(continuous process) 191 10.2.4 Other automation systems 227
9.2.1 Controlling the process 191 10.2.5 Functional safety 228
9.2.2 Operating the plant 193 10.2.6 Change management for
9.2.3 Integrating automation process automation 228
systems 194 10.3 Delivery phase, detailed engineering,
9.2.4 Enterprise interfaces 195 and procurement 229
9.2.5 Types of process control 10.3.1 Process automation design
system 195 documentation 229
9.3 Process control systems 10.3.2 Automation system design
(batch process) 197 and software configuration 230
9.4 Safety instrumented systems 201 10.3.3 Factory acceptance testing 230
9.4.1 Identifying the hazards 203 10.3.4 Shipment and site
9.4.2 Assessing the risks 203 preservation 231
9.4.3 High integrity pressure protection 10.4 Installation and commissioning 231
systems 205 10.4.1 Manpower plan 231
9.4.4 Cybersecurity risk assessment 206 10.4.2 Infrastructure and overheads
9.4.5 Validation and proving 206 plan 232
9.5 Alarm management systems 207 10.4.3 PAS media plan 233
9.6 Machinery protection 209 10.4.4 PAS change management
9.6.1 Vibration monitoring system 209 plan 233
9.6.2 Compressor and turbine control 10.4.5 PAS security plan 233
systems 209 10.4.6 PAS integration plan 233
9.7 Measurement, and other fun things to 10.4.7 PAS maintenance plan 234
do with instruments 212 10.4.8 PAS user administration
9.7.1 Diagnostics—Is it working? 213 plan 234
9.7.2 Control in the field 214 10.4.9 PAS turnover plan 235
9.7.3 The growth of digital 10.5 Automation system operation and
communications protocols 214 obsolescence 235
9.7.4 HART 214 10.5.1 Hardware maintenance
9.7.5 Fieldbus 215 and obsolescence 235
9.7.6 Ditching the wires 216 10.5.2 Software maintenance and
9.7.7 Instrument asset management change 235
systems (IAMS) 217 10.5.3 Disaster recovery 236
9.8 The effect of technology on process 10.6 Conclusion 237
automation 217

10. Process automation life cycles 11. Process automation platforms

Nick Harbud Mike Williams
10.1 Planning for process automation 219 11.1 Background 239
10.1.1 Operations and maintenance 11.2 Staffing of a manufacturing facility 239
philosophy 219 11.3 Finding the balance 240
viii Contents

11.4 The new paradigm of autonomous 12.10.2 The new way: Break the
operations 240 paradigm 269
11.5 Upgrading the level of automation 245 12.10.3 What was saved? 270
11.6 Where to start when considering 12.10.4 In conclusion: Every
investment in higher levels of perspective matters 271
autonomy 246 12.11 Final remarks 271
11.7 Conclusions 247 References 271
Further reading 271
12. Mixing and blending
13. Process development and
Stephanie Shira integration by mathematical
12.1 Introduction: Why mixing modeling and simulation tools
matters 249 Nima Yazdanpanah
12.2 Upstream considerations 249
12.2.1 Before the shafts 250 13.1 Fundamentals and workflow 273
12.2.2 The first shaft 250 13.2 The steps for building a mathematical
12.2.3 Distributive vs dispersive model 275
mixing 253 13.3 Steady-state and dynamic
12.3 The second shaft 254 simulations 277
12.3.1 High speed dispersion and low 13.4 Process simulation for
speed scraping: The traditional optimization 277
dual-shaft mixer 254 13.4.1 Construction of the optimization
12.3.2 More intense dispersion problem and its
(double the shafts, quadruple components 279
the blades of a traditional 13.5 Process development workflow for
disperser): The dual-shaft continuous manufacturing 280
disperser 255 13.5.1 Process integration and steady-
12.3.3 Dual-shaft disperser case study state simulation 281
and performance review 258 13.5.2 Dynamic process modeling
12.4 The third shaft 258 and control 283
12.5 Additional mixer design 13.6 Correlation between CQAs, CPPs,
considerations 258 CMAs 286
12.6 Rheology considerations 260 References 292
12.7 Overmixing is just as bad as
undermixing: Know the finishing 14. Process safety
point 261
Kaushik Basak
12.7.1 Kitchen connection 261
12.7.2 Case study: “Pancake lumps” 14.1 Lab-scale operations 293
on the production floor 261 14.1.1 Safety and hazards 293
12.7.3 Compensating behaviors result 14.1.2 Key issues for lab-scale
from inadequate products 262 operation 294
12.8 Reliable scale-up 262 14.2 Pilot plant operations 297
12.8.1 Hydraulic ram discharge 14.2.1 Safety and hazards 297
press 263 14.2.2 Key issues for pilot plant
12.9 Mechanical aspects and operations 299
troubleshooting 264 14.2.3 Pilot plant sizing, issues,
12.9.1 Blade health 264 decisions, and trade-offs 301
12.9.2 Understanding shear (rates and 14.3 Production scale operations 303
flow regimes) 265 14.3.1 Safety and hazards 303
12.10 Case study: Why push toward 14.3.2 Key issues for production scale
efficiency? 266 operation 304
12.10.1 The old way: Paradigm 266 References 305
 Contents ix

15. Process commissioning 16.6.5 Coupling environmental and

process chemistry 333
Badrie Luckiram, BSc, MSc, CEng, MIChemE
16.6.6 Environmental emissions
15.1 Commissioning 307 records and HAZOP studies 333
15.2 Competency 307 16.7 Systems integration of plant
15.3 Checks prior to the start of operations within eco-industrial
commissioning 308 parks 334
15.4 Commissioning protocols 308 16.8 Conclusions 337
15.5 Specific process engineering Acknowledgments 337
responsibilities 309 References 337
15.6 Handover of the plant to the user 309
15.7 Overall recommendations for process 17. From idea to 1 million ton year
engineers 310
commercial plant
Appendix: Example Commissioning
Protocol for a new Hydrochloric Acid Joep Font Freide
Tanker Offloading Pump 310
17.1 The framework 339
17.2 The execution 341
16. Holistic process integration and 17.2.1 Concept and laboratory
optimization: Large-scale hybrid stage 341
process applications 17.2.2 Micro reactor stage 341
17.2.3 Pilot plant stage 342
Ugur Tuzun 17.2.4 Demonstration plant stage 343
16.1 Introduction 317 17.3 At last: Safety first 344
16.2 Life cycles of generic activities for
large-scale bulk chemicals 18. Scale-up challenges: Examples
production 318 from refining and catalysis
16.3 Systems integration design for
specialty products manufacture and Kaushik Basak
sales 321 18.1 Challenges in refining scale-up 345
16.4 Gated process development with 18.2 Challenges in catalyst scale-up 348
digital interlinks 321 18.3 Decision gate for catalyst scale-up 349
16.5 Digital control life cycles of integrated References 350
large-scale production plants 327
16.5.1 Configuring
communications 327 19. Scale-up challenges: Wastewater
16.5.2 Multivariable devices Kaushik Basak
communication 328
16.5.3 Loop converters 328 19.1 Challenges in wastewater
16.5.4 Multiplexers 328 treatment 351
16.6 Environmental impact monitoring References 353
and control 329
16.6.1 Green process applications in 20. Hemp/biomass process steps
process industries 330
Jay Van der Vlugt
16.6.2 Industrial emissions control
strategies using digital 20.1 Hemp cultivation overview 355
platforms 330 20.2 Extraction 356
16.6.3 Digital environmental sensor 20.2.1 Ethanol 356
technologies 330 20.2.2 Gaseous hydrocarbon
16.6.4 Digital platform construction extraction 357
for multivariate process and 20.2.3 Liquid hydrocarbon
environmental datasets 331 extraction 358
x Contents

20.2.4 Subcritical and supercritical 21.3 Making cost-of-manufacturing

carbon dioxide 359 estimates during the early stages of a
20.2.5 Cosolvent injection 360 project 387
20.2.6 Solvent-less processes 360 21.3.1 Identifying variable and fixed
20.2.7 Dry sifting 360 costs 387
20.2.8 Cold water (kief) extraction 361 21.3.2 Variable costs 388
20.2.9 Distillation 362 21.3.3 Fixed costs 392
20.3 Innovations and other extraction 21.4 Putting the costs together: Example
technologies 364 problems 397
20.3.1 Ultrasonic processing 364 21.5 Handling uncertainties during early
20.3.2 Hybrid microwave 365 project stages 399
20.3.3 Targeted cannabinoid salt 21.6 Combining costs with revenues to
precipitation 365 compute economic indicators 405
20.3.4 Winterization-purification 367 21.6.1 Introduction to economic
20.3.5 Organic solvent indicators 405
nanofiltration 367 21.6.2 There are only two key
20.4 Cannabinoid isolation 368 questions 405
20.4.1 Decarboxylation 370 21.6.3 Risk and reward: Is there any
20.5 Conclusions 370 data? 405
20.5.1 Hazardous installation 21.6.4 Financial indicators:
requirements 370 Definitions 405
20.5.2 Contamination and other 21.6.5 Internal rate of return (IRR) or
process issues 371 discounted cash flow percent
References 372 (DCF%) 406
21.6.6 Final summary 409
21. Techno-economic analyses References 411

Ron Leng and John Anderson

22. Project management
21.1 Introduction 373
Venkata Ramanujam and Bob Barnes
21.1.1 Uses of a techno economic
assessment 373 22.1 Introduction 413
21.1.2 Decision making 374 22.2 The project engineering process 413
21.2 Technology assessment 376 22.2.1 Integrating course work in
21.2.1 Definition of new chemical process
technology 376 engineering 415
21.2.2 Feasibility: The first screen 377 22.3 Predictive tools 418
21.2.3 Technology scalability to 22.4 Industries served by process
full-scale manufacturing 377 engineers 419
21.2.4 Technical success 22.5 Process plant components 419
parameters 377 22.6 Process safety and process engineering
21.2.5 Types of technology risk 378 work flow 420
21.2.6 Risk management plan 379 22.7 Putting it all together with practical
21.2.7 Licensed technology 382 knowledge 421
21.2.8 Investment in a start-up 22.7.1 Selecting the site or living with
technology 383 the selection handed to you 421
21.2.9 Duplication of existing 22.7.2 Site issues 423
technology: A caution 383 22.7.3 Common concerns: Funding,
21.2.10 Types of projects 383 control of site 424
21.2.11 Types of process 22.7.4 Community issues: Tax
technology 384 incentives, sales tax, resources,
21.2.12 Batch vs. continuous and workforce supply 425
mode 385 22.8 Engineering: In-house resources and
21.2.13 Technology package 386 EPC firms 425
 Contents xi

22.8.1 Forming the team 425 22.9.5 Piping 429

22.8.2 Selecting the engineering, 22.9.6 Power distribution 429
procurement, and construction 22.9.7 Control networking and field
(EPC) firm 425 instruments 430
22.8.3 The all-important P&ID 22.9.8 Project controls: Schedule
development 426 and budget 430
22.8.4 Controls and control room 22.9.9 Operator training 430
concerns 426 22.9.10 Commissioning, qualification
22.8.5 QA/QC needs 426 batches and testing and
22.8.6 Facilities and equipment for start-up 431
operations and
maintenance 427
22.8.7 Hazard analysis: Is it required or 23. Decommissioning
just a good practice 427
Barry A. Perlmutter
22.8.8 Project management 427
22.8.9 Scheduling 427 23.1 Options for decommissioning 433
22.9 Project execution 428 23.2 How to begin decommissioning 433
22.9.1 Organization and 23.2.1 Decontamination 433
planning 428 23.2.2 Final steps of the
22.9.2 Sitework and utility supply 428 decommissioning project 436
22.9.3 Foundations and steel
erection 428
22.9.4 Setting equipment 429 Index 437
This page intentionally left blank
Contributors
Numbers in parentheses indicate the pages on which the authors’
contributions begin.
Brooke Albin (1), Research & Development, MATRIC
(Mid-Atlantic Technology, Research & Innovation
Center), South Charleston, WV, United States
John Anderson (373), Engineering & Process Sciences,
Dow Chemical, Midland, MI, United States
Bob Barnes (413), Project & Process Consultant, Prova-
tions LLC, Gregory, TX, United States
Kaushik Basak (293, 345, 351), Principal Engineer
(SMPO), Shell plc., Shell Technology Centre,
Bangalore, India
Joep Font Freide (339), FFTechnology, Guildford, United
Kingdom
Alan Gabelman, Ph.D., P.E. (13, 69), Gabelman Process
Solutions, LLC, West Chester, OH, United States
Nick Harbud (191, 219), C.Eng., F.I.Chem.E., Newbury,
United Kingdom
Ron Leng (373), Engineering & Process Science, Dow
Chemical, Midland, MI, United States
Badrie Luckiram, BSc, MSc, CEng, MIChemE (133,
177, 307), Pharmaceutical & Process Engineer, London,
United Kingdom
Barry A. Perlmutter (125, 433), Perlmutter & Idea Devel-
opment LLC, Matthews, NC, United States
Venkata Ramanujam (413), McDermott Inc., Houston,
TX, United States
Jose M. Sentmanat (113, 125), Liquid Filtration Specialist,
LLC, Conroe, TX, United States
Stephanie Shira (249), Myers Mixers, Cudahy, CA, United
States
Ugur Tuzun (317), Churchill College, University of
Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
Jay Van der Vlugt (355), Cannabinoid Sciences, Nectar
Health Sciences Inc., Victoria, BC, Canada
Mike Williams (239), Process Automation, ARC
Advisory, Dedham, MA, United States
Nima Yazdanpanah (273), Engineering and Development,
Procegence, Chevy Chase, MD, United States
Hongben Zhou (145), BHS-Sonthofen Process Tech-
nology GmbH & Co. KG, Herrsching, Germany
xiii
This page intentionally left blank
About the editor

Barry A. Perlmutter is President of Perlmutter & Idea Development LLC (P&ID). He has 40 years of technical engi-
neering and business marketing experience in solid-liquid separation, filtration, centrifugation, and process drying. His
skills focus on process solutions, innovation strategy, and business development and market expansion. Barry has published
and presented worldwide and is responsible for introducing many European technologies into the marketplace. He is an
author of Elsevier’s Solid-Liquid Filtration - Practical Guides in Chemical Engineering handbook and a new e-book
Framework for Selecting Automated Solid-Liquid Filtration Technologies for Clarification Applications.
Barry began his career with the US Environmental Protection Agency and then entered the world of solid-liquid sep-
aration at Pall Corporation. For 11 years, he continued at Rosenmund Inc. as VP of Engineering and Sales including Comber
and Guedu Dryers and Ferrum Centrifuges. From the process industries, Barry joined Process Efficiency Products, now part
of Amiad USA, as a Director of Marketing and Sales for the manufacturing of filtration, separation and adsorption
technologies for cooling tower and HVAC water, process fluids, and water and wastewater treatment. He then became
President & Managing Director of BHS-Filtration Inc. (BHS-Sonthofen Inc.) where he grew the filtration, drying, mixing,
and recycling business of BHS for more than 20 years including the integration of AVA GmbH dryers. His current
company, P&ID, allows Barry to provide consulting services for process and project development with operating
companies and business development, marketing, and sales strategies for process technology suppliers.
He received his BS degree in Chemistry from Albany State (NY) University, MS degree from the School of Engineering
at Washington University, St. Louis, and an MBA from the University of Illinois, Chicago.

xv
This page intentionally left blank
Preface

Over my career of 40 years in the process industry, writing has always been a passion for me. It represents an opportunity to
convey concepts, ideas, and technical information in a manner that makes sense to the audience. While I never had any
formalized journalism or writing training, this skill somehow developed on its own through my continuing learning,
reading, and speaking/presenting on the topics of solid-liquid separation, centrifugation, drying, and other process
equipment and technologies as well as business development and innovation. This work has spanned over 40 countries
on 6 continents.
I began writing when I was a young Environmental Scientist with the US Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA).
During those years, I issued Code of Federal Register rules and justifications, approved, of course, by the Branch Manager
and eventually the Regional Administrator. Several of my reports are still available should you be eager to read “EPA 905/
5-81-002: Economic Impact of Implementing VOC Group II Rules in Ohio” or “EPA 905/9-82-005: Air Quality Non-
Attainment Areas in Region 5.”
From the USEPA, I joined Pall Corporation and continued my writing in their marketing group where I issued my first
filtration paper in 1982, WER 5300—Principles of Filtration. This paper had to be approved by Dr. Pall before it was issued.
My writing continued, and one of my tag lines was “like the Sheriff in the Wild West, my role is to bring order from chaos in
the filtration industry.”
My technical and marketing application articles—more than 150 to date—culminated in 2015 with the publication of
my first book for Elsevier, the handbook of Solid-Liquid Filtration. Part of Elsevier’s Practical Guides in Chemical Engi-
neering, where each book provides a focused introductory view on a single subject, the Handbook required almost 1 year to
write. The fun and challenge of that task have further been rewarded with year-to-date sales of more than 900 copies.
Now here we are at the current book, Integration and Optimization of Unit Process Operations. On the strength of the
handbook’s market acceptance, Elsevier asked me to propose a second book. They suggested that based upon my
experience, I edit a book unique to the chemical process industry (CPI). I welcomed the opportunity.
The problem in the marketplace, as I see it, is the type of engineers trained. In the early 1970s, companies wanted staff
with an “I-shaped” skill level. Someone with “I-shaped” skills has a deep (vertical) expertise in one area and practically no
experience or knowledge in other areas. This person is typically known as a specialist. In the 1980s, the industry wanted
“T-shaped” professionals. The vertical bar on the T represents strong knowledge in a specific discipline. The horizontal bar
represents a wide (horizontal) yet shallow knowledge in other areas. This allows the person to be able to collaborate across
other disciplines and acquire new skills or knowledge. Now, however, with the rapid proliferation of technological
advances and the cross-disciplinary nature of work, we need “Key-shaped” engineers who have several areas of expertise
with varying degrees of depth. This book addresses this need.
First, what this book is not is another textbook for designing equipment and technology. There are many references,
university courses, etc., for this work and teaching the “nuts and bolts” of pumps, heat exchangers, distillation towers,
thermodynamics, etc.
This book takes a different approach to share up-to-date and practical information on chemical unit operations from the
R&D stage to scale-up and demonstration to commercialization and optimization. At each stage, the information presented
differs as the technology and issues faced at the lab scale change in commercialization and optimization. This book takes a
broader view and encourages a “Key-shaped” approach to chemical engineering.
As the chemical industry changes and becomes more integrated worldwide, information exchange is needed. This
exchange must include not only principles of operation, but also practical knowledge transfer. This book addresses
this need.
Engineers must be able to ask questions of I-shaped and T-shaped professionals to develop creative solutions. This book
addresses the needs of engineers who want to increase their skill levels in various disciplines so that they can develop,
commercialize, and optimize processes.

xvii
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they might fall on us in the bush, where the odds would have been
against us, and so destroy us altogether.
Then when they saw how we took the rumours, we heard they
changed their tactics, and tried to throw us off our guard again by
talking about making friends, signing treaties, and so on, meaning, if
they could secure our confidence, to fall suddenly upon us en
masse. The plan was ingenious certainly, but those who concocted it
had reckoned without allowing for Osman’s stupidity.
What became of the Toucouleur column after all? Not having
dared through fear of our guns to march against us, it had turned its
attention to Dentchendu, a big village on the left bank; but the chief
hesitated too long in this case also, giving time for the inhabitants to
receive warning, to put their village in a state of defence, and send
all the useless mouths away.
Again the Toucouleurs were too late, and besides, as Osman,
who still visited us in spite of all our rebuffs, told us, the poison of the
Dentchendu arrows is very dangerous.
All these warriors are fond of fighting and going on slave raids, for
the glory of the Prophet, but they take very good care of their own
skins. We wondered if the Toucouleurs who remained faithful to
Amadu would become cowards like his own people through contact
with them. Our experiences made us think that we were indeed far
from the heroic days, when the Senegalese Foutankés, in the battle
of Kale, charged a column on the march to rescue the wives of
Ahmadu who had been taken prisoners, stopping suddenly beneath
a hail of bullets from the French sharp-shooters to prostrate
themselves, and make a propitiatory salaam.
Having through fear abandoned the idea of attacking us at Fort
Archinard, the column wandered in the rain from village to village,
and was received everywhere with apparent friendship by the
terrified inhabitants, so that all the fire ended in smoke, though no
one seemed to know exactly why.
 LAUNCHING OF THE ‘AUBE’ AT SAY.

The check the Toucouleurs had received made it possible for

some of the chiefs to show us sympathy, whether feigned or real it
was impossible to tell. Amongst these was Hamma Tansa, chief of
the Sillabés, who was rather an original character for a native. He
was something of an epicure, what we should call a jolly good fellow,
but charitable to others. He kept open house, or rather hut, and
always had a lot of friends about him, whom he treated to everything.
When he was informed that the meal was served, he used to jump
up, flap his white bubu as he would wings, and shout, “Let’s fall to!”
He was literary too, and the missives he sent us, written on little
plaques of wood, were, in accordance with Arab usage, very polite,
and sometimes even in verse. He said he meant to pay us a visit,
was most anxious to do so in fact, but somehow he never fulfilled his
promise: either he had not time, or he was afraid of Amadu, or
something else.
 One fine day our old friend Hugo appeared again, sent to us by
the chief of the Kurteyes, and who, thanks to Taburet’s skill, had now
quite recovered from the affection of the eyes from which he had
been suffering. He sent us a message to the effect that, as long as
the river was low, he and his people were afraid of the Toucouleurs;
“but wait,” he added, “till it rises, for then the Kurteyes are the kings
of the Niger; no one can get at us, and we shall be able to shake
hands with you.”
The most devoted and zealous of all our friends, however, was
Galadio, and there was a perpetual going and coming between his
village and our camp. Marabouts, griots, traders, etc., were
constantly arriving, telling us, “I am from Galadio’s village,” and we
received them, from motives of policy, with open arms, buying from
them rather than from others, giving them presents, and plenty of
kind words. They all sang the praises of their master, and he really
did show himself to us in a very amiable light. He was perhaps if
anything rather too gushing.
At my request he sent us the female blacksmith of Bokar
Wandieïdiu, to whom I have already alluded, to help us to complete
our Tuareg vocabulary. She was accompanied by a marabout named
Tayoro, a Fulah from Wagnaka in Massina, a very distinguished and
refined-looking old man, with a white beard, who came from Konnari
in the same district, and whose name was Modibo Konna.
 TAYORO AND MODIBO KONNA.

He spoke bozo, or the dialect of the Niger fishermen near Mopti,

and this enabled Baudry to draw up an elementary vocabulary of that
language.
This lady blacksmith, with Tayoro and Modibo Konna, were our
guests for some days, and we were really quite fascinated by their
manners, and the way in which they behaved to us. We had certainly
not been accustomed to meet with tact such as theirs amongst the
natives, and they finally removed all my prejudices against their
master Galadio. So I sent to ask him whether, as he was too old to
visit me, I should go to see him, for were we not friends like two
fingers on one hand, or, to use the native simile, like two teeth of one
comb? If he would see me, when should I come?
It would only take me three days to go, I reflected, and it was of
importance for us to let the whole country see that Galadio was our
friend, and that when we broke up our camp we should leave behind
us an ally devoted to our interests, in fact so compromised that he
must remain true to us. It would be very important to us to have such
a helper when it came to the organization of the district, and he
might be made its ruler as a protected native chief.
My messengers returned a few days later, bringing horses with
them for me to make the journey, and assuring me that their master
would be delighted to receive me.
While waiting for the envoys to come back, we worked very hard
at our vocabularies. All went well with them, and we completed them
in a few days. Between whiles Tayoro turned our knowledge of his
dialect to account, by telling me the following charming story about
the time of the Fulah reformation in Sokoto.
When the great reformer, Othman Fodio, who, by the way, was a
noted robber and slave-hunter, preached the so-called reformation,
that is to say, the revolt against the chief of the Haussa Fulahs, he
was followed by a great many disciples, as of course all prophets
are.
One evening when Othman was preaching and expounding the
truth, his eyes suddenly fell upon a venerable-looking old man who
was sobbing.
“Look!” cried the reformer, “look at that old man weeping; follow
his example, for Allah has touched his heart.”
Then the poor old fellow, the tears still rolling down his cheeks,
said in a choked and broken voice, “No, Modibo, no, you have read
my heart wrongly; when I saw you holding forth so vehemently, and
shaking your grey beard, you reminded me of my old goat which I
left at home in my hut to follow you. That is what made me sob,” and
he went on weeping.
 A YOUNG GIRL AT FORT ARCHINARD.

This anecdote, which loses much of its piquancy in translation, is

very typical of the character of the nomad Fulahs, illustrating as it
does their combined fanaticism and self-interest.
As I have said, we were all quite won over by the behaviour of
Tayoro and Modibo Konna, when one fine evening, after the lesson
in Tuareg was over, Suleyman the interpreter came to seek me, and
said point-blank: “Commandant, all these people are only making
game of you. Tierno Abdulaye, the Arabic translator, who is a
mischievous fellow, saw that old Modibo Konna is an old gossip who
can’t keep a secret, and as he wanted to know all about Galadio and
the rest of them, he said to him, ‘What, will you Modibos, good
Mussulmans, true believers, take part against Amadu, against the
son of El Hadji Omar?—and your chief Galadio, is he likely to take
the side of the French? I, Tierno Abdulaye, am with them because I
can’t help myself, but my heart is with the Toucouleurs, my fellow-
countrymen. If it came to a fight, I should be the first to desert. True
Mussulmans could not really consort with Kaffirs!’
“‘All in good time!’ answered Modibo Konna. ‘At least I shall find
somebody to talk to, meanwhile. Do you really suppose that we were
ever, in good faith, the allies of the commandant? Why, Galadio is
Amadu’s best friend; he it was who helped him to reach the left bank.
Tayoro and I are only here as spies, to prevent the French from
doing harm, such as attacking Dunga or Say. As soon as you arrived
Ibrahim realized that it would be best to seem friendly with you. He
even reproached Amadu Saturu for refusing your hospitality,
because they would have been able to keep an eye on you better at
Say. By adopting this attitude towards you, we have got presents,
Kaffirs are always lawful prey, whilst the rest of the natives have got
nothing. As for me, Modibo Konna, I was recalled from Dunga,
where I was looking after Ibrahim’s affairs and sent here. When I go
back I shall return to Dunga to report all I have seen. Do you
suppose for one moment that a marabout such as Ibrahim would
ever be false to the true religion?’”
The whole secret of the plot against us was now revealed.
Galadio, distrusting the old gossip, had merely sent Tayoro, the
clever diplomatist, with him to see that he did not talk nonsense. For
four whole months they had all been fooling us, with very
considerable address, it must be admitted. However, the duplicity
with which we had been treated all this time had one good result—
we had had the pleasure of imagining that we had at least one good
friend in the country on whom we could rely, and this thought had
been good for the morale of our men, for it is not at all inspiriting to
feel completely isolated in a strange land. Even if it is all a delusion,
it is consoling to fancy oneself liked and respected.
The end of it all might however have been very different. Horses
had been sent for me to go to Galadio’s camp, and if I had started,
accompanied by Father Hacquart and a few men, we might have
been murdered by the way. Maybe Galadio would have been afraid
of immediate reprisals; maybe he would have hesitated to commit a
crime which would have compromised him for the future; or perhaps,
even he was, after all, too good a fellow to injure those who were
coming to him as guests.
This was the last scene of the comedy in which we took part at
Fort Archinard. We had now to begin to think seriously of starting
again, as we had already long before announced that we should go
on September 15. We had bought our stores of grain, and our
barges were once more in a state of repair. The information we had
received about the river was to the effect that it was now navigable
again. We were all busy repacking our stuffs and knick-knacks, and
were eager to be off.
Taburet was simply boiling over with impatience, and was already
inquiring what steamboat we could catch at Dahomey, and
wondering by what train he could go to Conquet. The rest of us,
though we did not say so much about it, were just as anxious for the
start, the more so that a kind of wave of fever was passing over our
island, attacking the negroes, who had not always taken the
preventive doses of quinine, more than us. Baudry, what with the
repair of the barges, the buying up stores in the market, and the
repacking, was quite worn out. It was really time we broke up our
camp.
On September 15 everything on board was once more ship-
shape. Digui had gone to reconnoitre our route the evening before,
and had come back very late, looking anxious. “It is very bad,” he
said, “but we shall get past somehow.” The coolies, weary as they all
were, could not contain their joy at the idea of leaving the Fort, and
poor old Suleyman Futanke, who was no doubt afraid of being given
back to Amadu, or left behind as useless, made desperate efforts to
learn to row. Happiest of all, perhaps, was Atchino, the man from
Dahomey, who had spent the whole day before packing tomatoes for
us to eat on the journey, and who was dreaming all the time of the
bananas of his home.
In the morning, Abdulaye cut a great piece of bark out of a fig
tree, and on the plain surface beneath, he engraved with a chisel the
letters M. H. D. N. 1896. He then nailed firmly on to the same tree a
plank, on which was written in large characters the name of Fort
Archinard, for the benefit of those who should come after us.
At the eastern corner of our tata, looking down-stream, we dug a
deep hole, in which we buried all our old iron, with the nails and
poles we no longer needed, and which would only have encumbered
us. They may perhaps be useful to others who may halt on our
island. We levelled the soil above them and so left them. We were
fortunate indeed that no other cemetery was needed at Fort
Archinard, and were most grateful for the mercy of Heaven, which
had preserved us all for so long.
We did not wish the natives who had treated us so badly to profit
at all by our leavings, so we made a big bonfire of our tables, chairs,
doors, etc., in fact of everything that would burn. The coolies and we
whites all worked with a will at making the pile, and we set light to
the whole at once—camp mattresses, abattis, etc. etc.—with torches
of straw, and a grand blaze they made; the crackling of the dry wood
and the occasional blowing up of the powder in the cartridges could
be heard a long way off.
The coolies meanwhile, like so many black devils, danced round
the fire beating their tam-tams, each performing the figures peculiar
to his tribe, whilst Suleyman alone looked thoughtfully on, and we
watched, not without a certain serrement de cœur, the burning of
what had been Fort Archinard, that remote islet in the land of the
negroes where for five long months we had lived, and hoped, now
buoyed up with illusive joy, now depressed with the knowledge of
how we had been deceived.
Somehow the heart gets attached to these lonely districts, where
such thrilling emotions have been lived through, where real
sufferings and privations have been endured. It is with them as with
women, we often love best those who have given us the most pain.
Fort Archinard burnt gloriously. When the smoke became too
dense and nearly choked us, we embarked on our barges, which
were already launched, and turned back just once more, like Lot’s
wife after leaving Sodom, to gaze at the conflagration.
 THE BURNING OF FORT ARCHINARD.

We were off again with light hearts full of hope, to face new
rapids!

A YOUNG KURTEYE.
NATIVES OF MALALI.
 CHAPTER IX

FROM SAY TO BUSSA

Below Fort Archinard the river divides into a number of arms; the
islands formed by them as well as the banks of the river were
deserted, but clothed with lofty trees, such as baobabs, palms, and
other tropical growths.
Although the water was now pretty well at its maximum height, a
good many scarcely-covered rocks impeded its bed, and rapids were
numerous. Of little danger to us, for we had seen worse, and safely
passed them, but bad enough to make navigation impossible to a
steamer.
On September 16, at about seven o’clock in the morning, we
passed a little encampment on the left bank, consisting of one hut,
and some millet granaries. I imagine this to have been the landing-
place for Kibtachi, for at half-past five in the afternoon we found we
had made some forty-four miles since we started, so we must have
passed the village without seeing it. I was sorry not to have been
able to visit the mines of bracelets and rings, probably of cornelian,
of which the natives had told me, but at the same time I did not
altogether regret having avoided coming into contact, just before
entering Dendi, with tribes then at war with its people.
The next day, the 17th, the river still wound in much the same way
as on the 16th; in fact, so serpentine was its course, that one of the
coolies cried out he did not believe we were on the Niger still, but
that we had lost our way. Numerous islands and dense vegetation,
with very picturesque views here and there, were the order of the
day. Great blocks of red sandstone rose in some places to a height
of from about thirty to more than three hundred feet, and at every
bend of the stream some new or strange view met our eyes.
 We longed to land and seek repose beneath the thick dome of
vegetation forming natural arbours, but there was one great
drawback about them, the immense number of insects eager to suck
our blood. At night the mosquitoes invaded us in vast hordes, and
our poor coolies used to roll themselves up in everything they could
lay hands on, at the risk of suffocation. As for us, we too suffered
terribly, for though when we were asleep our mosquito nets did to
some extent protect us, when we were on watch on deck we were
nearly bled to death. In the day these pests left us pretty well
unmolested, but their place was taken by other persecutors, rather
like gadflies, which were able to pierce through our white clothes
with a sting as sharp and nearly as long as a needle. I had suffered
terribly once before from these horrible diptera when I was on the
Tankisso; in fact they haunt the tropical vegetation of many an
African river.
Since we started we had been each day threatened with a
tornado, but the storm had not broken after all. On the 18th,
however, we came in for the tail of one of these meteorological
disturbances, and a pretty strong breeze lasted until eleven o’clock
so that we were not able to start before that time.
The appearance of the country now began to change. Yesterday I
had been reminded by the rocky islets and the wooded banks, of the
Niger near Bamako; to-day the stream flows sluggishly through a low
plain covered with woods such as those of Massina between Mopti
and Debo. A few rocks still occurred to keep up the character of the
scenery, so to speak, and about three o’clock in the afternoon we
were opposite the site of the village of Gumba, destroyed the year
before by the Toucouleurs. We saw a canoe in which were some
fishermen, so we hailed them and they approached us without fear.
They were inhabitants of Kompa, they said, come here to fish, and
were the first human beings we had seen since we left Say. We had
passed not only Kibtachi but Bikini without meeting any one. The
result of the constant terrorism caused by slave raids, is that all the
villagers remain quietly at home cultivating a few acres only, and
living in perpetual fear of being carried away from their huts. They
altogether neglect the natural riches of the soil formed by the
frequent inundations, which leave new layers of vegetable mould.
The baobabs and other wild trees alone profit by it, increasing and
multiplying continually.

ROCKY BANKS ABOVE KOMPA.

We soon became capital friends with the people of Kompa. They

had heard of our stay at Say, and had impatiently awaited our arrival.
Neither were they ignorant of the fact that we had driven the
Foutankés from the western Sudan, and they hoped we meant to do
the same in Dendi. “Look,” one of the fishermen said to me. “A year
ago the whole of this district was dotted with villages, now there is
not one left but Kompa, for the Foutanis have destroyed everything.”
The canoe now went to Kompa to announce our arrival, but one of
the rowers remained with us to act as our guide. He answered to the
name, a tragic one to us, of Labezenga. As we went along he gave
me some interesting details about the brother of Serki Kebbi, who
was now in Dendi, and had been at Kompa itself for the last few
days. He had had a quarrel with his brother, and came to take up his
abode on the banks of the Niger, but in spite of the strained relations
between them, the two were not exactly at war, and in case of an
emergency would act together against the common enemy.
At half-past five we came in sight of a few Fulah huts, which
belonged to the abandoned village of Bubodji. The inhabitants had
made common cause with Amadu and the people of Say, and gone
to join them. The wood of these huts would do nicely to cook our
dinner by, so I gave the order for mooring. We steered for the mouth
of a little creek, where we could easily land. All of a sudden,
however, there was a shout of “Digui! what is that?—we are among
the rocks!” In fact, all around us the water was ruffled with those
peculiar ripples which I used to call moustaches, and which we knew
all too well. A strong current was sweeping along, and we expected
every moment that our boats would strike and be staved in. How was
it that it did not happen? Digui’s features became of the ashy hue
peculiar to negroes when they lose their natural colour; he, too, was
evidently alarmed, but all of a sudden he burst out laughing. “Fish!
Commandant,” he cried, “fish! nothing but fish!” He was right, the
ripples were caused by big fishes, a kind of pike, native to the Niger,
swimming against the current after their prey. There were simply
hundreds of them.
 A FOREST ON THE BANKS OF THE NIGER.

We tried to avenge ourselves for our fright by doing a little fishing

with petards of gun-cotton, but it was no good, the water was too
deep, ninety or a hundred feet at least, and we had our trouble and
wasted our gun-cotton for nothing.
At ten o’clock on the 19th we went up a little arm of the river,
really merely an inundated channel, which brought us near the
village of Kompa, and at one o’clock we received a visit from some
envoys of the chief, who bid us welcome, and sent us three sheep.
These men had not the crafty and false expressions of the people of
Say, or of the Fulahs. They were fine-looking fellows, though rather
wild, wearing turbans adorned with numerous grisgris, or a kind of
cap, common on the Niger as far as Bussa, and rather like those
worn by the eunuchs in the Bourgeois Gentilhomme. I did not
conceal from them that we had been badly received at Say, and told
them that their enemies the Foutanis were also ours. That broke the
ice very satisfactorily, and I arranged to go and see the chief in the
afternoon.
 I went with Bluzet about four o’clock. We crossed an inundated
track, where we took a good many foot-baths in the bogs.
We found Kompa surrounded by a wall and a little moat, a kind of
defence we met with in all the villages of these parts, as far as
Burgu. Here, however, wall and moat alike were in a bad state of
preservation. Two trees served as drawbridge. Inside the enceinte
were numerous mud-huts with pointed thatched roofs, reminding us
of the homes of the Malinkes at Kita. The chief received us in a big
hut with three entrances forming the vestibule of his house.
He was a little old man, half-blind, but with an expression alike
benevolent and cunning. All the time he was talking to us he was
plaiting straw for mats, and so were the various notables surrounding
him. All the men of the country were constantly employed making
these mats, and even go on working at them as they walk along,
reminding us of the old women at home with their perpetual stocking-
knitting. I reminded the chief of the danger his village was in from the
Foutanis, and told him that Dendi, Kebbi, and Djerma ought to
combine against the invaders; in fact, even pass from the defensive
to the offensive. I also asked for guides to take me to the chief of
Dendi, to whom I wished to say the same things, and to talk to on
other matters, and I begged him to send us as many of his people as
he could to be present at our palaver. I also wanted to see the
brother of Serki Kebbi.
 THE BANKS OF THE NIGER NEAR KOMPA.

Everything I asked was promised at once, and we were just about

to return to the boats when we were overtaken by the rain. I had had
the presents for the chief and his people got ready beforehand, and
they were now brought to us. We were allowed to take refuge from
the storm in the chief’s private apartments, but they were very soon
invaded by a crowd, the people vieing with each other in trying to
find something to give us pleasure; one offering a chicken, another
some eggs, and so on, every one bringing out some little present,
evidently offered with the best intentions.
We, on our part, distributed our merchandise, from which,
however, the old chief deducted a tithe. It was a most amusing
scene, for he could hardly see in the semi-obscurity of the hut, and
so every one tried to slip off with his portion without paying toll, but
he took up his position at the door, and all who went out were
searched in the style of the Belgian custom-house officers. Then the
cunning old fellow, with many a grimace, persuaded the owners to
give up part of their riches with an apparently good grace.
Sometimes he gave back what he had taken, praising up the beauty
and the value of the beads or stuffs he did not fancy, but taking care
to hide behind him all he really wanted, nodding his head all the time
to emphasize his pretended admiration of the things he let those he
had despoiled retain.
We had on board with us a dog and a cat, which, after a long
series of hostilities, had ended by becoming the best friends in the
world. But when the cat had managed to run off with a bit of meat, it
was worth something to see the advances made to him by his friend
the dog, who was bent on taking it away. The cat would begin by
putting his paw on the meat, looking angry and showing his claws.
The dog would then assume a plaintive air, giving vent to low moans
of assumed distress, and advancing gradually upon the cat, who was
watching his every movement, would at last completely hypnotize
him. This done, he would pounce with a yelp upon the coveted
morsel and dash off with it. He was just like the chief of Kompa.
The rain over, we returned on board, followed by an immense
number of our new friends. The nephew of the chief of Tendu—who,
I was told, was really paramount throughout Dendi—accompanied
us, as well as the chief of the captives of the chief of Kompa. The
last-named carried a gun, the only one in the village, of which he
was very proud, but the hammer having long since been destroyed,
the charge had to be set fire to with a wick. The owner of this gun
pointed out the spot from which, aided by Ibrahim Galadio, the
Toucouleurs had attacked Kompa. He also showed me a big shield
of ox-hide, behind which the besieged had tried to take shelter, and
which was riddled by the Toucouleur bullets. In spite, however, of the
superiority of their weapons, the Foutanis had been driven back with
great slaughter, a fact very creditable to the courage of the people of
Dendi. It will, in my opinion, be with the aid of this race, little civilized,
it is true, but not yet infected with the intolerance and fanaticism of
the Mussulmans, that we shall be able to pacify the valley of the
Niger by driving away the Toucouleurs first, as with the help of the
Bambaras we have restored tranquillity in the French Sudan.
On the 20th we went on to Goruberi, where lives the brother of
Serki Kebbi. We cast anchor some little distance from the village, at
the entrance to a creek too narrow for our boats to go up, and the
chief came to visit us.
He was a tall, strong-looking young fellow, and would have been
handsome but for being disfigured, as is the horrible custom
amongst the Haussas of Kebbi, with deep scars from the temples to
the chin, long incisions having been made in his face with a sharp
knife when he was a child.
I at once began to talk about the intentions of his brother, and to
preach the crusade I never cease to urge against the Toucouleurs
and the people of Sokoto. The answer in this case pleased me
particularly. His brother, said the chief, was suspicious of him,
charging him with an ambition that he did not entertain. They had
been obliged to part, and he for his part had come to live at Gorubi.
They were not, however, enemies, and if Serki were to send for him
to-morrow, he should start at once to join him. He could promise me
that he would repeat all I said to his brother.
We then talked about the Monteil expedition, and dwelt on the
troubles its leader encountered at Argungu before he had succeeded
in making a treaty with Kebbi. He was very well remembered, and
Serki must have been the child whose terrible wound he had cured,
and whose death afterwards had been falsely reported to him.
Another untrue piece of news had been given to him at Burnu, for
Agungu had not been taken, but had repulsed his enemies with very
great loss to them. Namantugu Mame, the brother of Ibrahim,
alluded to by Monteil in his narrative, was, however, killed in the
fight. My visitor assured me once more that Kebbi considered
himself the ally of the French, and would be very happy to see the
fellow-countrymen of one who had left such pleasant memories
behind him.
I must pause a moment here to dwell on this important fact, which
justifies our resistance of English greed. No one could possibly deny
that the French were guilty of a great piece of stupidity when they
accepted the convention of 1890. Above their last factory on the
Lower Niger the English had no better-founded pretensions than we
to the protectorate of the natives peopling a problematical