Atlas of Structural Geological and

Geomorphological Interpretation of
Remote Sensing Images Achyuta Ayan
Misra
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Atlas of Structural Geological and Geomorphological Interpretation of Remote Sensing Images
Atlas of Structural Geological and Geomorphological
Interpretation of Remote Sensing Images

Edited by

Achyuta Ayan Misra

Reliance Industries Ltd.
Mumbai, Maharashtra, India

Soumyajit Mukherjee
Department of Earth Sciences
Indian Institute of Technology Bombay
Mumbai, Maharashtra, India
This edition first published 2023
© 2023 John Wiley & Sons Ltd

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Hardback: 9781119813354

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We dedicate this book to Prof. Ravi P Gupta and Late Prof. Barham Parkash. They taught us remote sensing
and geomorphology, respectively, in our Masters’ coursework of Applied Geology in IIT Roorkee (SM: 1999–2002;
AAM: 2003–2006). AAM did his Masters’ thesis under Prof. Gupta.
 vii

Contents

List of Contributors xiii

Preface xvii
Acknowledgements xix
About the Companion Website xxi

Section A Background 1

Introduction to “Atlas of Structural Geological and Geomorphological Interpretation

of Remote Sensing Images” 3
Achyuta Ayan Misra and Soumyajit Mukherjee

1 Remote Sensing Fundamentals 7

Achyuta Ayan Misra
1.1 What Is Remote Sensing? 7
1.2 Fundamental Processes of Remote Sensing 8
1.3 Advantages of Remote Sensing 10
1.4 Limitations of Remote Sensing 11
1.4.1 Reference Data (Ground Truth) 11
Acknowledgements 14
References 14
Websites 14

2 Classification of Remote Sensing Depending on Data Type, Source, Platform, and Imaging Media 15
Achyuta Ayan Misra
2.1 Introduction 15
2.2 Data Type 15
2.3 Platforms 15
2.4 Energy Source 17
2.5 Imaging Media 17
2.6 Significance in Geomorphology and Structural Geology 18
Acknowledgements 19
References 19
Websites 21

Section B Geomorphology 23

3 Geodynamic Quantification of Mid-Channel Bar Morphology: A Spatio-Temporal Study 25

Suraj Gupta and Mery Biswas
3.1 Introduction 25
3.1.1 Study Area 25
3.1.2 Methodology 27
viii Contents

3.2 Discussions 27
Acknowledgements 29
Appendix 29
References 29

4 Geomorphic Indicators of Glacier Retreat from Jorya Garang Glacier of Baspa Valley, Himachal Pradesh, India 31
Bhushan S. Deota, Yogi N. Trivedi, Ishmohan Bahuguna, Mudit D. Mankad, and Chinmay U. Dongare
4.1 Introduction 31
4.2 Geomorphic Characteristics of the Jorya Garang Glacier 31
Acknowledgements 37
References 37

5 Aerial Views of the 2018 Kilauea Eruption, Hawaii, U.S.A. 39

Benjamin R. Jordan
5.1 Introduction and Start of Eruption 39
5.2 Lava Behavior 39
5.3 Eruption End 39
Acknowledgements 45
References 45

6 Depositional Systems – An Overview Via Google Earth 47

Muhammad Awais
6.1 Introduction 47
6.2 Indus River (Pakistan) 47
6.3 Meandering River System (Alberta, Canada) 47
6.4 Horton River System and Horton Delta (Canada) 48
6.5 Nile River and Nile Delta (Egypt) 48
6.6 Lake Ayakum, Tibet (China) 48
6.7 Satpara Lake and Alluvial Fans in Skardu (Pakistan) 48
6.8 Alluvial Fans in China 48
6.9 Dunes in Rub al-Khali (Southern Arabian Peninsula) 48
6.10 Star Dunes in Algeria 48
6.11 Musa Bay (Estuary) in Iran 49
Acknowledgements 61
References 61

7 The Lateritic Badlands of Garbeta (West Bengal, India) 63

Priyank Pravin Patel, Sayoni Mondal, and Rajarshi Dasgupta
7.1 Introduction 63
7.2 Regional Setting of the Gangani Tract 63
7.3 Badland Formation within Laterites at Gangani 65
Acknowledgements 73
Funding 73
References 73
Appendix A 75
Appendix B 75

8 Geomorphology along the West Coast of India, Through Remote Sensing 77

Chinmay U. Dongare, Bhushan S. Deota, Aditya U. Joshi, and Manoj A. Limaye
8.1 Introduction 77
8.2 Geomorphic Characteristics of the Goa Coast 77
Acknowledgements 90
References 90
 Contents ix

9 Fluvial Geomorphology in a Part of the Spiti River Basin, Himachal Pradesh, India 93
Achyuta Ayan Misra
9.1 General Geology 93
9.2 Image Interpretation 93
Acknowledgements 109
References 109

Section C Structural Geology 111

10 Deformation Bands Mapped in the Miocene Sandstone-Dominated Outcrops, Sengkurong,

Brunei Darussalam, SE Asia 113
Syaakiirroh Sahari, DK Aaisyah, Amirul Shahbuddin, and Afroz A. Shah
10.1 Mapping of Deformation Bands 113
Acknowledgements 117
References 117

11 Disaggregation Deformation Bands Dominate the Trapping and Sealing Process at the Lion King Fault Zone,
Brunei, SE Asia 119
Dk Aaisyah, Syaakiirroh Sahari, Afroz A. Shah, Ain Said, Ezra Jayasuriya, and Prassana
11.1 Deformation Bands 119
Acknowledgement 124
References 124

12 Surface Deformation Along Katrol Hill Fault, Kachchh, Evidenced by Satellite and DEM Data 125
Atul K. Patidar, Mohamedharoon Shaikh, Prabhuti Tiwari, Deepak M. Maurya, and Laxman S. Chamyal
12.1 Tectonic Geomorphology of KHF 125
Acknowledgements 132
References 132

13 Tectonics, Fault Zones, and Topography in the Alaska–Canada Cordillera with a Focus on the Alaska Range
and Denali Fault Zone 135
Jonathan Saul Caine and Jeff A. Benowitz
13.1 Introduction 135
13.2 Regional Tectonics of the Northern Cordillera 135
13.3 The Denali Fault and the Alaska Range: Topography, Geophysics, and Crustal Processes 139
13.4 Exceptional Bedrock Exposures Reveal Strain Localization Along the Denali Fault 141
Acknowledgements 143
References 143

14 Use of Remote Sensing in Lineament Analysis: Exploring its Potentials in a Humid Subtropical and Semi-Arid
Environment 147
Swakangkha Ghosh, Thota Sivasankar, and Gokul Anand
14.1 A Case Study from Humid Subtropical Region 147
14.2 A Study from an Arid Region 151
Acknowledgements 155
References 156

15 Tectonic Structures Interpretation Using Airborne-Based LiDAR DEM on the Examples from the Polish Outer
Carpathians 157
Maciej Kania and Mateusz Szczęch
15.1 Introduction 157
15.2 Faults and Joints 157
x Contents

15.3 Overthrusts 158

15.4 Bedding 158
15.5 Folds 158
15.6 The Lubogoszcz Mountain (Figure 15.3) 158
15.7 Ustrzyki Górne Area (Figure 15.4) 159
15.8 Mszana Tectonic Window Area (Figure 15.5) 159
15.9 Dzwonkówka (Beskid Sądecki) (Figure 15.6) 159
15.10 The Barnasiówka Ridge (Figure 15.7) 164
Acknowledgements 165
References 165

16 Spatial Variability of Tectonic Influences on Drainage Networks: Examples from the Narmada-Tapi Interfluve
in Gujarat State, Western India 167
Swarali Vasaikar, Deepak M. Maurya, Prabhuti Tiwari, and Laxman S. Chamyal
16.1 Introduction 167
16.2 Narmada–Tapi Interfluve 167
Acknowledgements 175
References 175

17 Archival Airborne Visible/Infrared Imaging Spectrometer (AVIRIS) Image of Faults in a Mixed Carbonate-Clastic
Succession, Northwestern Spring Mountains, Nevada, USA 177
Mark Abolins
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Geologic Setting of the Northwestern Spring Mountains, Nevada 177
17.3 Using Remote Sensing to Subdivide the Johnnie Formation 179
17.4 Imaging Faults Within the Johnnie Formation 181
Acknowledgements 183
References 183

18 Coseismic Surface Rupture and Related Disaster During the 2018 Mw 7.5 Palu Earthquake, Sulawesi Island,
Indonesia 185
Jinrui Liu, Dengyun Wu, Zhikun Ren, Jie Chen, Peng Guo, Gongming Yin, Hongliu Ran, Chuanyou Li, and Gang Su
18.1 The 2018 Mw 7.5 Palu Earthquake 185
18.2 Coseismic Surface Rupture and Related Disaster Produced by the 2018 Palu Earthquake 185
Acknowledgements 194
References 194

19 Structural and Alteration Mapping Using ASTER Imagery and DEM for Gold Mineralization in the Gadag Schist
Belt of Karnataka, India 197
Nisha Rani, Venkata R. Mandla, and Tejpal Singh
19.1 Introduction 197
Acknowledgements 203
References 203

20 Identifying Subtle Deformation Structures from Satellite Images in Parts of the Mesozoic Kachchh (Kutch) Basin,
Kachchh District, Gujarat, India 205
Achyuta Ayan Misra, Arijit Ghosh, and Atul Kumar Patidar
20.1 Introduction 205
20.2 Regional Geology 205
Acknowledgements 216
References 216
 Contents xi

21 Lineament Analysis in a Part of the Son River Valley, Madhya Pradesh, India 217
Achyuta Ayan Misra
21.1 Regional Geology 217
21.2 Lineament Analysis 217
Acknowledgements 228
References 228

22 Meso Scale Sinistral Shear, Eastern Dharwar Craton, Telangana, India 229
Ankita Biswas
22.1 Overview 229
22.2 Description 229
Acknowledgements 229
References 232

23 Regional Polyclinal Fold with Faulted Limbs, Rajasthan, India 233

Ankita Biswas and Priyom Roy
23.1 Overview 233
23.2 Description 233
Acknowledgements 235
References 235

24 Drainage Architecture and Bar Formation of the Rangit Tributaries, Darjeeling-Sikkim Himalaya, India 237
Tanwita Deb
24.1 Introduction 237
24.2 Image Analysis 237
Acknowledgements 242
References 242

Index 245
 xiii

List of Contributors

DK Aaisyah Laxman S. Chamyal

Department Geosciences Department of Geology
Universiti Brunei Darussalam The M.S. University of Baroda
Bandar Seri Begawan, Brunei Vadodara, Gujarat, India

Mark Abolins Jie Chen

Department of Geosciences State Key Laboratory of Earthquake Dynamics
Middle Tennessee State University Institute of Geology, China Earthquake Administration
Murfreesboro, TN, USA Beijing, China

Gokul Anand Rajarshi Dasgupta

North Eastern Space Applications Centre Department of Geography
Shillong, Meghalaya, India East Calcutta Girls’ College
Kolkata, West Bengal, India
Muhammad Awais
Department of Geology Tanwita Deb
University of Swabi Indian Institute of Science Education and Research
Swabi, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan Bhopal, Bhauri, India (former)
and
Department of Earth, Environmental & Resources Sciences Bhushan S. Deota
University of Naples Federico II Department of Geology
Naples, Italy The M.S. University of Baroda
Vadodara, Gujarat, India
Ishmohan Bahuguna
Space Application Centre Chinmay U. Dongare
Ahmedabad, Gujarat, India Department of Geology
The M.S. University of Baroda
Jeff A. Benowitz Vadodara, Gujarat, India
Fairbanks, AK, USA
Arijit Ghosh
Ankita Biswas Reliance Industries Ltd.
Geological Survey of India Reliance Corporate Park
Hyderabad, Telangana, India Mumbai, Maharashtra, India

Mery Biswas Swakangkha Ghosh

Department of Geography Cactus Communications Pvt. Ltd.
Presidency University Mumbai, Maharashtra, India
Kolkata, West Bengal, India
Peng Guo
Jonathan Saul Caine Key Laboratory of Seismic and Volcanic Hazards
U.S. Geological Survey China Earthquake Administration
Denver, CO, USA Beijing, China
xiv List of Contributors

Suraj Gupta Deepak M. Maurya

Department of Geography Department of Geology
Presidency University The M.S. University of Baroda
Kolkata, West Bengal, India Vadodara, Gujarat, India

Ezra Jayasuriya Achyuta Ayan Misra

Department of Geology Reliance Industries Ltd.
Curtin University Reliance Corporate Park
Miri, Sarawak, Malaysia Mumbai, Maharashtra, India

Benjamin R. Jordan Sayoni Mondal

Faculty of Sciences Department of Geography
Brigham Young University – Hawaii Presidency University
Laie, HI, USA Kolkata, West Bengal, India

Aditya U. Joshi Soumyajit Mukherjee

Department of Civil Engineering Department of Earth Sciences
Manipal Institute of Technology Indian Institute of Technology Bombay
Manipal Academy of Higher Education Mumbai, Maharashtra, India
Manipal, Karnataka, India
Priyank Pravin Patel
Maciej Kania
Department of Geography
Faculty of Geography and Geology Presidency University
Insitute of Geological Sciences Kolkata, West Bengal, India
Jagiellonian University
Kraków, Poland
Atul K. Patidar
Chuanyou Li Department of Petroleum Engineering and Earth
State Key Laboratory of Earthquake Dynamics Sciences
Institute of Geology University of Petroleum and Energy Studies
China Earthquake Administration Dehradun, Uttarakhand, India
Beijing, China
Prassana
Manoj A. Limaye Department of Geology
Department of Geology Curtin University
The M.S. University of Baroda Miri, Sarawak, Malaysia
Vadodara, Gujarat, India
Hongliu Ran
Jinrui Liu Key Laboratory of Seismic and Volcanic Hazards
Key Laboratory of Seismic and Volcanic Hazards China Earthquake Administration
China Earthquake Administration Beijing, China
Beijing, China
Nisha Rani
Venkata R. Mandla
Geological Survey of India
CGARD
Hyderabad, Telangana, India
National Institute of Rural Development and
Panchayati Raj
Ministry of Rural Development Zhikun Ren
Government of India Key Laboratory of Seismic and Volcanic Hazards
Hyderabad, Telangana, India China Earthquake Administration
Beijing, China
Mudit D. Mankad
Department of Geography Priyom Roy
The M.S. University of Baroda National Remote Sensing Centre, ISRO
Vadodara, Gujarat, India Hyderabad, Telangana, India
 List of Contributors xv

Syaakiirroh Sahari Gang Su

Department Geosciences China Earthquake Disaster Prevention Center
Universiti Brunei Darussalam China Earthquake Administration
Bandar Seri Begawan, Brunei Beijing, China

Ain Said Mateusz Szczęch

Department of Geology Faculty of Geography and Geology
Curtin University Institute of Geological Sciences
Miri, Sarawak, Malaysia Jagiellonian University
Kraków, Poland
Afroz A. Shah
Department Geosciences Prabhuti Tiwari
Universiti Brunei Darussalam Department of Geology
Bandar Seri Begawan, Brunei The M.S. University of Baroda
Vadodara, Gujarat, India

Amirul Shahbuddin Yogi N. Trivedi

Department of Petroleum Engineering Amnex Infotechnologies
Politeknik Brunei Ahmedabad, Gujarat, India
Bandar Seri Begawan, Brunei
Swarali Vasaikar
Department of Geology
Mohamedharoon Shaikh The M.S. University of Baroda
Department of Geology Vadodara, Gujarat, India
The M.S. University of Baroda
Vadodara, Gujarat, India Dengyun Wu
Key Laboratory of Seismic and Volcanic Hazards
Tejpal Singh China Earthquake Administration
CSIR – Central Scientific Instruments Organisation Beijing, China
Chandigarh, India
Gongming Yin
State Key Laboratory of Earthquake Dynamics
Thota Sivasankar Institute of Geology
NIIT University China Earthquake Administration
Neemrana, Rajasthan, India Beijing, China

Preface
Analyses of geological structure and geomorphology
from remote sensing images have been important
disciplines in (applied) Earth Sciences. Students have
excellent (recent) textbooks on remote sensing, struc-
tural geology and geomorphology. However, they lack
numerous quality examples to learn how to interpret the
images in real-world examples. This atlas fills that gap
and benefits both instructors and students. Such a book
would be most useful during the tight semester schedule.
The book comes out as part of our ongoing efforts to pro-
duce atlas and other teaching/lab contents in structural
geology and related disciplines (e.g. Mukherjee 2013,
2014, 2015, 2020, 2021; Bose and Mukherjee 2017; Misra
and Mukherjee 2018; Mukherjee et al. 2020).
After qualifying their degrees, students will mostly
work in industry as geologists and not necessarily as
“structural geologists.” They would require diverse struc-
tural skills, such as image interpretation, which are pres-
ently not taught in structural geology courses in most
universities. Some amount of remote sensing image
interpretation has now become an absolute need in
regional structural geological articles that may focus on
other issues (e.g. Vanik et al. 2018; Dasgupta and
Mukherjee 2017, 2019; Dasgupta et al. 2022; Biswas
et al., in press). Instead of using topo-sheets, geologists
are now plotting lithocontacts on Google Earth images.
Along with the plotted structures obtained from the
terrain, interpretation of images for tectonic geomor-
phology has become essential to strengthen the field
findings. International journals are interested in han-
dling articles that approach problems from a multidisci-
plinary perspective. Having some knowledge in image
interpretation therefore has become a “necessary skill.”
This edited book provides examples of the process
of interpreting remotely sensed images in terms
xvii
of structural geology and geomorphology. It covers
(i) interpretations on remotely sensed images from varied
resolutions; (ii) different bands/spectra and their combina-
tions into False Color Composites (FCCs); (iii) diverse
criteria used to identify and interpret structural geologic
and geomorphologic features; and (iv) providing one unin-
terpreted and another interpreted image for all examples.
The book provides a common platform to look for global
examples for anyone interested in remotely sensed images.
In a few years from now and even during the present
COVID pandemic, most geologists will be/have been
developing virtual field trips. We hope that this book will
be useful in that context. We look forward to receiving
comments from the readers!
Refer to this book as:
Misra, A.A. and Mukherjee. S. 2022. Atlas of Structural
Geological and Geomorphological Interpretation
of Remote Sensing Images. Wiley. ISBN: 9781119813354.
Refer to individual chapters as:
Misra, A.A. and Mukherjee, S. (2022). Introduction
to Atlas of Structural Geological and Geomorphological
Interpretation of Remote Sensing Images.
In: Atlas of Structural Geological and Geomorphological
Interpretation of Remote Sensing Images
A.A. Misra and S. Mukherjee (Eds.) Wiley.
ISBN: 9781119813354.
Achyuta Ayan Misra
Soumyajit Mukherjee
xviii Preface
References
Biswas, M., Puniya, M.K., Gogoi, M.P. et al. (2022).
Morphotectonic analysis of petroliferous Barmer rift basin
(Rajasthan, India). Journal of Earth System Science 131, 140.
Biswas, M., Gogoi, M.P., Mondal, B. et al. (in press, 2022)
Geomorphic assessment of active tectonics in Jaisalmer
basin (western Rajasthan, India). Geocarto International.
DOI: 10.1080/10106049.2022.2066726.
Bose, N. and Mukherjee, S. (2017). Map interpretation for
structural geologists. In: Developments in Structural
Geology and Tectonics. Series Editor: Mukherjee, S.
Amsterdam: Elsevier. ISBN: 978-0-12-809681-9 ISSN:
2542-9000.
Dasgupta, S. and Mukherjee, S. (2017). Brittle shear
tectonics in a narrow continental rift: asymmetric
non-volcanic Barmer basin (Rajasthan, India). The
Journal of Geology 125: 561–591.
Dasgupta, S. and Mukherjee, S. (2019). Remote sensing
in lineament identification: examples from western
India. In: Problems and Solutions in Structural
Geology and Tectonics, Developments in Structural
Geology and Tectonics Book Series, vol. 5.
Series Editor: Mukherjee, S (ed. A. Billi and
A. Fagereng), 205–221. Elsevier. ISSN: 2542-9000.
ISBN: 9780128140482.
Dasgupta, S., Biswas, M., Mukherjee, S., and Chatterjee, R.
(2022). Depositional system, morphological signatures,
tectonics and sedimentation pattern along the transform
margin- Palar-Pennar basin, Indian east coast. Journal of
Petroleum Science & Engineering 211: 110155.
Misra, A.A. and Mukherjee, S. (2018). Atlas of Structural
Geological Interpretation from Seismic Images. Wiley
Blackwell. ISBN: 978-1-119-15832-5.
Mukherjee, S. (2013). Deformation Microstructures in
Rocks, 1–111. Berlin: Springer Geochemistry/
Mineralogy. ISBN: 978-3-642-25608-0.
Mukherjee, S. (2014). Atlas of Shear Zone Structures in
Meso-Scale, 1–124. Cham: Springer Geology. ISBN:
978-3-319-0088-6.
Mukherjee, S. (2015). Atlas of Structural Geology.
Amsterdam: Elsevier. ISBN: 978-0-12-420152-1.
Mukherjee, S. (2020). Teaching Methodologies in
Structural Geology and Tectonics, 1–251. Springer.
ISBN: 978-981-13-2781-0.
Mukherjee, S. (2021). Atlas of Structural Geology, 2e,
1–260. Amsterdam: Elsevier. ISBN: 978012816802.
Mukherjee, S., Bose, N., Ghosh, R. et al. (2020).
Structural Geological Atlas. Springer. ISBN:
978-981-13-9825-4.
Vanik, N., Shaikh, H., Mukherjee, S. et al. (2018). Post-
Deccan trap stress reorientation under transpression:
evidence from fault slip analyses from SW Saurashtra,
western India. Journal of Geodynamics 121: 9–19.

Acknowledgements
This book comes under the commissioning editorial of
Frank Weinreich and Andrew Harrison (Wiley
Blackwell) and under the handling editorial of Stacey
Woods. We thank Wiley for undertaking intense proof-
reading. CPDA grant (IIT Bombay) supported Soumyajit
Mukherjee. Mohit Kumar Puniya (Survey of India,
Dehradun) and Teaching Assistant Bikramaditya
Mondal (IIT Bombay) assisted us. We thank the
contributing authors and reviewers for participation.
xix
We acknowledge the anonymous external reviewers
who provided several comments on this book proposal.
Soumyajit is thankful to his colleague Prof. Prabhakar
Naraga who shared the teaching load for the spring
semester in 2022. Soumyajit thanks his wife Payel
Mukherjee for picking up all the household work during
the Covid pandemic (2020–ongoing), and allowing
uninterrupted free time to finish this book.
Achyuta Ayan Misra and Soumyajit Mukherjee
 xxi

About the Companion Website

This book is accompanied by a companion website.

www.wiley.com/go/misra/RemoteSensingImages

This website includes:

● Raw (uninterpreted) remote sensing images and instructions for accessing 3D models.
 1

Section A
Background

Introduction to “Atlas of Structural Geological and Geomorphological
Interpretation of Remote Sensing Images”
Achyuta Ayan Misra* ,1 and Soumyajit Mukherjee2
1
Reliance Industries Ltd., Reliance Corporate Park, Mumbai, Maharashtra, India
2
Department of Earth Sciences, Indian Institute of Technology Bombay, Mumbai, Maharashtra, India
Remote sensing has been immensely useful in tectonics,
structural geology, and geomorphic studies (e.g. Misra
et al. 2014; Dasgupta and Mukherjee 2017, 2019; Shaikh
et al. 2020; Dasgupta et al. 2022). This edited book
consists of 24 chapters authored and co-authored by
53 persons from 21 academic organizations and
industries from 7 countries.
Misra (2022a; Chapter 1) presents the definition, funda-
mental processes, and scopes of remote sensing in struc-
tural geologic and geomorphologic studies. Misra (2022b;
Chapter 2) pens the next introductory chapter, which clas-
sifies remote sensing based on data type, source, platform,
and imaging media. Gupta and Biswas (2022, Chapter 3)
present a morpho-tectonic analysis of a mid-channel bar
using remote sensing images from the Jaldhaka river
(India). Deota et al. (2022, Chapter 4) present geomorphic
indicators of glacier retreat from Jorya-Garang glacier,
Baspa Valley (India). They identify different stages of
moraines. Jordan (2022, Chapter 5) presents several inter-
esting aerial views of the 2018 Kilauea eruption (U.S.A).
Geomorphic features such as lava fissures are documented
from images. Awais (2022, Chapter 6) documents differ-
ent kinds of depositional systems observable in images in
Google Earth, viz. different rivers, deltas, lakes, alluvial
fans, dunes, and estuaries. Patel et al. (2022, Chapter 7)
discuss in detail badland geomorphology from images and
several field photos. Their study area was Garbeta (India).
Dongare et al. (2022, Chapter 8) discuss the geomorphol-
ogy of the Indian west coast. The area is important from
the perspective of hydrocarbon exploration (Mukherjee
et al. 2020) and few recent field data have been available
(e.g. Misra and Mukherjee 2017). The present authors
focus on the erosional and depositional landforms of Goa
*Corresponding Author: achyutaayan@gmail.com
Atlas of Structural Geological and Geomorphological Interpretation of Remote Sensing Images, First Edition.
Edited by Achyuta Ayan Misra and Soumyajit Mukherjee.
© 2023 John Wiley & Sons Ltd. Published 2023 by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.
Companion website: www.wiley.com/go/misra/RemoteSensingImages
3
beach. Misra (2022c, Chapter 9) works on satellite images
and field snaps of the Spiti valley and discusses different
fluvial geomorphic features. Sahari et al. (2022, Chapter 10)
reports on deformation bands from drone images mainly
located in the sandstone outcrops. Field geologists from
any part of the globe will find these images interesting and
applicable to their terrains. In another contribution,
Aaisyah et al. (2022, Chapter 11) present deformation
bands, predominantly through meso-scale photographs,
from the Lion King Fault Zone (Brunei) that can have far-
reaching implications for the petroleum geoscience of the
terrain. Patidar et al. (2022, Chapter 12) use DEM and sat-
ellite data and document deformation and tectonic geo-
morphology from a portion of the Kutch basin, particularly
the reorganization of the drainage network. Caine and
Benowitz (2022, Chapter 13) work on a part of the Alaska-
Canada Cordillera for geomorphologic aspects. They also
present a historical development of the subject for the ter-
rain, so that the present contribution is well understood as
to where it stands. Ghosh et al. (2022, Chapter 14) discuss
how image analyses can reveal lineaments from the Indo-
Burma Range, which is a humid tropical region. The sub-
ject of lineament delineation in mega-scale is of common
interest to tectonicians worldwide. Kania and Szczęch
(2022, Chapter 15) provide a tectonic interpretation for a
part of the Polish Outer Carpathians using airborne-based
LiDAR DEM. They identify and interpret faults, joints,
overthrusts, bedding planes, and folds. Vasaikar et al.
(2022, Chapter 16) work on the Narmada-Tapi interfluve
in Gujarat (India) and demonstrate how tectonics, folding,
and faulting can alter drainage patterns. Abolins (2022,
Chapter 17) utilizes Airborne Visible/Infrared Imaging
Spectrometer (AVIRIS) images to study faults in the
4 Introduction to “Atlas of Structural Geological and Geomorphological Interpretation of Remote Sensing Images”
Spring Mountains (U.S.A.). Liu et al. (2022, Chapter 18)
study images of coseismic ruptures from Sulawesi Island
(Indonesia) after a 2018 earthquake. Several field snaps
present the severity of the seismic shock. Rani et al. (2022,
Chapter 19) elaborate how ASTER imagery and DEM can
be useful in structural and alteration mapping from the
Gadak Schist Belt (India). They also present drainage pat-
terns and lineaments from image analyses. Misra et al.
(2022d, Chapter 20) present images from the Kutch basin
(India), otherwise a favorite spot for paleontologists and
sedimentologists, and manifestation of regional faults,
scarps, and domes from remote sensing images. Misra
Acknowledgements
Wiley Blackwell Acquisition Editors (present: Frank
Weinreich, past: Andrew Harrison), Stacey Woods
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Another random document with
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 behind the vent; adipose fin none; anal fin moderately long; caudal
subtruncated. Pseudobranchiæ none.
This singular genus, one of the “Challenger” discoveries, is
known from four examples, obtained at depths varying between
1600 and 2150 fathoms, off the coast of Brazil, near Tristan
d’Acunha and north of Celebes. All belong to one species, I. murrayi.
The eye seems to have lost its function of vision and assumed that
of producing light. The specimens are from 4 to 5½ inches long.
Paralepis.—Head and body elongate, compressed, covered with
deciduous scales. Cleft of the mouth very wide; maxillary developed,
closely adherent to the intermaxillary. Teeth in a single series, unequal
in size. Eye large. Ventrals small, inserted opposite or nearly opposite
the dorsal. Dorsal fin short, on the hinder part of the body; adipose fin
small; anal elongate, occupying the end of the tail; caudal emarginate.
Three species; small pelagic fishes from the Mediterranean and
Atlantic.—Sudis, from the Mediterranean, has a dentition slightly
different from that of Paralepis.
Plagyodus.—Body elongate, compressed, scaleless; snout much
produced, with very wide cleft of the mouth. Intermaxillary very long
and slender; maxillary thin, immovable. Teeth in the jaws and of the
palate very unequal in size, the majority pointed and sharp, some very
large and lanceolate. Eye large. Pectoral and ventral fins well
developed; the rayed dorsal fin occupies the whole length of the back
from the occiput to opposite the anal fin; adipose and anal fins of
moderate size. Caudal forked. Branchiostegals six or seven.
 Fig. 270.—Plagyodus ferox.
This is one of the largest and most formidable deep-sea fishes.
One species only is well known, P. ferox, from Madeira and the sea
off Tasmania; other species have been noticed from Cuba and the
North Pacific, but it is not evident in what respects they differ
specifically from P. ferox. This fish grows to a length of six feet, and
from the stomach of one example have been taken several
Octopods, Crustaceans, Ascidians, a young Brama, twelve young
Boar-fishes, a Horse-mackerel, and one young of its own species.
The stomach is coecal; the commencement of the intestine has
extremely thick walls, its inner surface being cellular, like the lung of
a reptile; a pyloric appendage is absent. All the bones are extremely
thin, light, and flexible, containing very little earthy matter; singular is
the development of a system of abdominal ribs, symmetrically
arranged on both sides, and extending the whole length of the
abdomen. Perfect specimens are rarely obtained on account of the
want of coherence of the muscular and osseous parts, caused by the
diminution of pressure when the fish reaches the surface of the
water. The exact depth at which Plagyodus lives is not known;
probably it never rises above a depth of 300 fathoms.
 The other less important genera belonging to this family are
Aulopus, Chlorophthalmus, Scopelosaurus, Odontostomus, and
Nannobrachium.

Fig. 271.—Pharyngeal bones and teeth of the

Bream, Abramis brama.

Third Family—Cyprinidæ.
Body generally covered with scales; head naked. Margin of the
upper jaw formed by the intermaxillaries. Belly rounded, or, if
trenchant, without ossifications. No adipose fin. Stomach without
blind sac. Pyloric appendages none. Mouth toothless; lower
pharyngeal bones well developed, falciform, sub-parallel to the
branchial arches, provided with teeth, which are arranged in one,
two, or three series. Air-bladder large, divided into an anterior and
posterior portion by a constriction, or into a right or left portion,
enclosed in an osseous capsule. Ovarian sacs closed.
The family of “Carps” is the one most numerously represented in
the fresh waters of the Old World and of North America. Also
numerous fossil remains are found in tertiary freshwater-formations,
as in the limestones of Oeningen and Steinheim, in the lignites of
Bonn, Stöchen, Bilin, and Ménat, in the marl slates and
carbonaceous shales of Licata in Sicily, and of Padang in Sumatra,
in corresponding deposits of Idaho in North America. The majority
can be referred to existing genera: Barbus, Thynnichthys, Gobio,
Leuciscus, Tinca, Amblypharyngodon, Rhodeus, Cobitis,
Acanthopsis, only a few showing characters different from those of
living genera: Cyclurus, Hexapsephus, Mylocyprinus (tertiary of
North America).
Most Carps feed on vegetable and animal substances; a few only
are exclusive vegetable feeders. There is much less diversity of form
and habits in this family than in the Siluroids; however, the genera
are sufficiently numerous to demand a further subdivision of the
family into groups.
I. Catostomina.—Pharyngeal teeth in a single series,
exceedingly numerous and closely set. Dorsal fin elongate, opposite
to the ventrals; anal short, or of moderate length. Barbels none.
These fishes are abundant in the lakes and rivers of North
America, more than thirty species having been described, and many
more named, by American ichthyologists. Two species are known
from North-Eastern Asia. They are generally called “Suckers,” but
their vernacular nomenclature is very arbitrary and confused. Some
of the species which inhabit the large rivers and lakes grow to a
length of three feet and a weight of fifteen pounds. The following
genera may be distinguished:—Catostomus, “Suckers,” “Red-
horses,” “Stone-rollers,” “White Mullets;” Moxostoma; Sclerognathus,
“Buffaloes,” “Black Horses;” and Carpiodes, “Spear-fish,” “Sail-fish.”
II. Cyprinina.—Anal fin very short, with not more than five or six,
exceptionally seven, branched rays. Dorsal fin opposite ventrals.
Abdomen not compressed. Lateral line running along the median line
of the tail. Mouth frequently with barbels, never more than four in
number. Pharyngeal teeth generally in a triple series in the Old World
genera; in a double or single series in the North American forms,
which are small and feebly developed. Air-bladder present, without
osseous covering.
Cyprinus.—Scales large. Dorsal fin long, with a more or less
strong serrated osseous ray; anal short. Snout rounded, obtuse,
mouth anterior, rather narrow. Pharyngeal teeth, 3. 1. 1.-1. 1. 3, molar-
like. Barbels four.
 Fig. 272.—The Carp, Cyprinus carpio.
The “Carp” (C. carpio, “Karpfen,” “La carpe,”) is originally a native
of the East, and abounds in a wild state in China, where it has been
domesticated for many centuries; thence it was transported to
Germany and Sweden, and the year 1614 is assigned as the date of
its first introduction into England. It delights in tranquil waters,
preferring such as have a muddy bottom, and the surface partially
shaded with plants. Its food consists of the larvæ of aquatic insects,
minute testacea, worms, and the tender blades and shoots of plants.
The leaves of lettuce, and other succulent plants of a similar kind,
are said to be particularly agreeable to them, and to fatten them
sooner than any other food. Although the Carp eats with great
voracity when its supply of aliment is abundant, it can subsist for an
astonishing length of time without nourishment. In the winter, when
the Carps assemble in great numbers, and bury themselves among
the mud and the roots of plants, they often remain for many months
without eating. They can also be preserved alive for a considerable
length of time out of the water, especially if care be taken to moisten
them occasionally as they become dry. Advantage is often taken of
this circumstance to transport them alive, by packing them among
damp herbage or damp linen; and the operation is said to be
unattended with any risk to the animal, especially if the precaution be
taken to put a piece of bread in its mouth steeped in brandy!
The fecundity of these fishes is very great, and their numbers
consequently would soon become excessive but for the many
enemies by which their spawn is destroyed. No fewer than 700,000
eggs have been found in the ovaries of a single Carp, and that, too,
by no means an individual of the largest size. Their growth is very
rapid, more so perhaps than that of any other Freshwater fish, and
the size which they sometimes attain is very considerable. In certain
lakes in Germany individuals are occasionally taken weighing thirty
or forty pounds; and Pallas relates that they occur in the Volga five
feet in length, and even of greater weight than the examples just
alluded to. The largest of which we have any account is that
mentioned by Bloch, taken near Frankfort-on-the-Oder, which
weighed seventy pounds, and measured nearly nine feet in length,—
a statement the accuracy of which is very much open to doubt.
Like other domesticated animals the Carp is subject to variation;
some individuals, especially when they have been bred under
unfavourable circumstances, have a lean and low body; others are
shorter and higher. Some have lost every trace of scales, and are
called “Leather-carps;” others retain them along the lateral line and
on the back only (“Spiegelkarpfen” of the Germans). Finally, in some
are the fins much prolonged, as in certain varieties of the Gold-fish.
Cross-breeds between the Carp and the Crucian Carp are of
common occurrence. The Carp is much more esteemed as food in
inland countries than in countries where the more delicate kinds of
sea fishes can be obtained.
Carassius differs from Cyprinus in lacking barbels; its pharyngeal
teeth are compressed, in a single series, 4–4.
Two well-known species belong to this genus. The “Crucian
Carp” (C. carassius, “Karausche”) is generally distributed over
Central and Northern Europe, and extends into Italy and Siberia. It
inhabits stagnant waters only, and is so tenacious of life that it will
survive a lengthened sojourn in the smallest pools, where, however,
it remains stunted; whilst in favourable localities it attains to a length
of twelve inches. It is much subject to variation of form; very lean
examples are commonly called “Prussian Carps.” Its usefulness
consists in keeping ponds clean from a super-abundance of
vegetable growth, and in serving as food for other more esteemed
fishes. The second species is the “Gold-fish,” Carassius auratus. It is
of very common occurrence in a wild state in China and the warmer
parts of Japan, being entirely similar in colour to the Crucian Carp. In
a domesticated state it loses the black or brown chromatophors, and
becomes of a golden-yellow colour; perfect Albinos are
comparatively scarcer. Many varieties and monstrosities have been
produced during the long period of its domestication; the variety
most highly priced at present being the so-called “Telescope-fish,” of
which a figure is annexed. The Gold-fish is said to have been first
brought to England in the year 1691, and is now distributed over
nearly all the civilised parts of the world.

Fig. 273.—Cyprinus auratus, var.

Catla.—Scales of moderate size. Dorsal fin without osseous ray,
with more than nine branched rays, commencing nearly opposite to
the ventrals. Snout broad, with the integuments very thin; there is no
upper lip, the lower with a free continuous posterior margin.
Symphysis of the mandibulary bones loose, with prominent tubercles.
 Mouth anterior. Barbels none. Gill-rakers very long, fine, and closely
set. Pharyngeal teeth, 5. 3. 2.-2. 3. 5.
The “Catla” (C. buchanani), one of the largest Carps of the
Ganges, growing to a length of more than three feet, and esteemed
as food.
Labeo.—Scales of moderate or small size. Dorsal fin without
osseous ray, with more than nine branched rays, commencing
somewhat in advance of the ventrals. Snout obtusely rounded, the
skin of the maxillary region being more or less thickened, forming a
projection beyond the mouth. Mouth transverse, inferior, with the lips
thickened, each or one of them being provided with an inner
transverse fold, which is covered with a deciduous horny substance
forming a sharp edge, which, however, does not rest upon the bone
as base, but is soft and movable. Barbels very small, two or four; the
maxillary barbels more or less hidden in a groove behind the angle of
the mouth. Anal scales not enlarged. Pharyngeal teeth uncinate, 5. 4.
2.-2. 4. 5. Snout generally more or less covered with hollow tubercles.

About thirteen species are known from rivers of tropical Africa

and the East Indies.
Discognathus.—Scales of moderate size. Dorsal fin without
osseous ray, with not more than nine branched rays, commencing
somewhat in advance of the ventrals. Snout obtusely rounded, more
or less depressed, projecting beyond the mouth, more or less
tubercular. Mouth inferior, transverse, crescent-shaped; lips broad,
continuous, with an inner sharp edge of the jaws, covered with horny
substance on the lower jaw; upper lip more or less distinctly fringed;
lower lip modified into a suctorial disk, with free anterior and posterior
margins. Barbels two or four; if two, the upper are absent. Anal scales
not enlarged. Pectoral fins horizontal. Pharyngeal teeth, 5. 4. 2.-2. 4.
5.

A small fish (D. lamta), extremely abundant in almost all the

mountain streams from Abyssinia and Syria to Assam.
Capoëta.—Scales small, of moderate or large size. Dorsal fin with
or without a strong osseous ray, with not more than nine branched
rays. Snout rounded, with the mouth transverse and at its lower side;
each mandible angularly bent inwards in front, the anterior mandibular
edge being nearly straight, sharpish, and covered with a horny brown
layer. No lower labial fold. Barbels two (rarely four), or entirely absent.
 Anal scales not conspicuously enlarged. Pharyngeal teeth
compressed, truncated, 5 or 4. 3. 2–2. 3. 4 or 5.
Characteristic of the fauna of Western Asia; one species from
Abyssinia. Of the fifteen species known C. damascina deserves to
be specially mentioned, being abundant in the Jordan and other
rivers of Syria and Asia Minor.
Barbus.—Scales of small, moderate, or large size. Dorsal fin
generally with the (third) longest simple ray ossified, enlarged, and
frequently serrated; never, or only exceptionally, with more than nine
branched rays, commencing opposite or nearly opposite to the root of
the ventral fin. Eyes without adipose eyelid. Anal fin frequently very
high. Mouth arched, without inner folds, inferior or anterior; lips without
horny covering. Barbels short, four, two, or none. Anal scales not
enlarged. Pharyngeal teeth 5. 4 or 3. 3 or 2.-2 or 3. 3 or 4. 5. Snout
but rarely with tubercles or pore-like grooves.
No other genus of Cyprinoids is composed of so many species as
the genus of “Barbels,” about 200 being known from the tropical and
temperate parts of the Old World; it is not represented in the New
World. Although the species differ much from each other in the form
of the body, number of barbels, size of the scales, strength of the
first dorsal ray or spine, etc., the transition between the extreme
forms is so perfect that no further generic subdivision should be
attempted. Some attain a length of six feet, whilst others never
exceed a length of two inches. The most noteworthy are the large
Barbels of the Tigris (B. subquincunciatus, B. esocinus, B. scheich,
B. sharpeyi); the common Barbel of Central Europe and Great Britain
(B. vulgaris); the “Bynni” of the Nile (B. bynni); B. canis from the
Jordan; the “Mahaseer” of the mountain streams of India (B. mosal),
probably the largest of all species, the scales of which are
sometimes as large as the palm of a hand. The small, large-scaled
species are especially numerous in the East Indies and the fresh
waters of Tropical Africa.
Thynnichthys.—Scales small. Dorsal fin without an osseous ray,
with not more than nine branched rays, commencing nearly opposite
the ventrals. Head large, strongly compressed; eye without well-
developed adipose membrane, in the middle of the depth of the head.
Snout with the integuments very thin; there is no upper lip, and the
lower jaw has a thin labial fold on the sides only. Mouth anterior and
lateral; barbels none. Gill-rakers none; laminæ branchiales long, half
as long as the post-orbital portion of the head; pseudobranchiæ none.
Pharyngeal teeth lamelliform, with flat oblong crown, 5. 3 or 4. 2–2. 4
or 3. 5, the teeth of the three series being wedged into one another.
Three species from the East Indies.
Oreinus.—Scales very small. Dorsal fin with a strong osseous
serrated ray, opposite to the ventrals. Snout rounded, with the mouth
transverse, and at its lower side; mandibles broad, short, and flat,
loosely joined together; margin of the jaw covered with a thick horny
layer; a broad fringe-like lower lip, with free posterior margin. Barbels
four. Vent and anal fin in a sheath, covered with enlarged tiled scales.
Pharyngeal teeth pointed, more or less hooked, 5. 3. 2–2. 3. 5.
Three species from mountain streams of the Himalayas.
 Schizothorax.—Hill-barbels, with the same singular sheath on
each side of the vent, as in the preceding genus; but they differ in
having the mouth normally formed, with mandibles of the usual length
and width.

Seventeen species are known from fresh waters of the

Himalayas, and north of them. Other genera from the same region,
and with the anal sheath, are Ptychobarbus, Gymnocypris,
Schizopygopsis, and Diptychus.
Gobio.—Scales of moderate size; lateral line present. Dorsal fin
short, without spine. Mouth inferior; mandible not projecting beyond
the upper jaw when the mouth is open; both jaws with simple lips; a
small but very distinct barbel at the angle of the mouth, quite at the
extremity of the maxillary. Gill-rakers very short; pseudobranchiæ.
Pharyngeal teeth, 5. 3 or 2.—2 or 3. 5, hooked at the end.

The “Gudgeons” are small fishes of clear fresh waters of Europe;

they are, like the barbels, animal feeders. In Eastern Asia they are
represented by two closely allied genera, Ladislavia and
Pseudogobio.
Ceratichthys.—Scales of moderate or small size; lateral line
present. Dorsal fin short, without spine, not or but slightly in advance
of the ventrals. Mouth subinferior; the lower jaw does not project
beyond the upper when the mouth is open; intermaxillaries protractile
from below the maxillaries; both jaws with thickish lips; a small barbel
at the angle of the mouth, quite at the extremity of the maxillary. Gill-
rakers very short and few in number: pseudobranchiæ. Pharyngeal
teeth 4–4. hooked at the end (sometimes 4, 1—1. 4).

About ten species are known from North America; they are small,
and called “Chub” in the United States. C. biguttatus is, perhaps, the
most widely-diffused Freshwater-fish in the United States, and
common everywhere. Breeding males have generally a red spot on
each side of the head.
Other similar genera from the fresh waters of North America, and
generally called “Minnows,” are Pimephales (the “Black Head”),
Hyborhynchus, Hybognathus, Campostoma (the “Stone-lugger”),
Ericymba, Cochlognathus, Exoglossum (the “Stone Toter” or “Cut-
lips”), and Rhinichthys (the “Long-nosed Dace”).
 The remaining Old World genera belonging to the group
Cyprinina are Cirrhina, Dangila, Osteochilus, Barynotus,
Tylognathus, Abrostomus, Crossochilus, Epalzeorhynchus,
Barbichthys, Amblyrhynchichthys, Albulichthys, Aulopyge, Bungia,
and Pseudorasbora.
III. Rohteichthyina.—Anal fin very short, with not more than six
branched rays. Dorsal fin behind ventrals. Abdomen compressed.
Lateral line running along the median line of the tail. Mouth without
barbels. Pharyngeal teeth in a triple series.
One genus and species only, Rohteichthys microlepis, from
Borneo and Sumatra.
IV. Leptobarbina.—Anal fin very short, with not more than six
branched rays. Dorsal fin opposite to ventrals. Abdomen not
compressed. Lateral line running in the lower half of the tail. Barbels
present, not more than four in number. Pharyngeal teeth in a triple
series.
One genus and species only, Leptobarbus hoevenii, from Borneo
and Sumatra.
V. Rasborina.—Anal fin very short, with not more than six
branched rays. Dorsal fin inserted behind the origin of the ventrals.
Abdomen not compressed. Lateral line running along the lower half
of the tail, if complete. Mouth sometimes with barbels, which are
nevermore than four in number. Pharyngeal teeth in a triple, or single
series. Air-bladder present, without osseous covering.
Rasbora.—Scales large, or of moderate size, there being
generally four and a half longitudinal series of scales between the
origin of the dorsal fin and the lateral line, and one between the lateral
line and the ventral. Lateral line curved downwards. Dorsal fin with
seven or eight branched rays, not extending to above the anal, which
is seven-rayed. Mouth of moderate width, extending to the front
margin of the orbit, with the lower jaw slightly prominent, and provided
with three prominences in front, fitting into grooves of the upper jaw;
barbels none, in one species two. Gill-rakers short, lanceolate.
Pseudobranchiæ. Pharyngeal teeth in three series, uncinate.
 Thirteen species of small size from the East Indian Continent and
Archipelago, and from rivers on the east coast of Africa.
Amblypharyngodon.—Scales small; lateral line incomplete.
Dorsal fin without an osseous ray, with not more than nine branched
rays, commencing a little behind the origin of the ventrals. Head of
moderate size, strongly compressed; eye without adipose membrane;
snout with the integuments very thin; there is no upper lip, and the
lower jaw has a short labial fold on the sides only. Mouth anterior,
somewhat directed upwards, with the lower jaw prominent. Barbels
none. Gill-rakers extremely short; pseudobranchiæ. Pharyngeal teeth
molar-like, with their crowns concave, 3. 2. 1.—1. 2. 3. Intestinal tract
narrow, with numerous convolutions.
Three species of small size from the Continent of India.
To the same group belong Luciosoma, Nuria, and Aphyocypris,
from the same geographical region.
VI. Semiplotina.—Anal fin short, with seven branched rays, not
extending forwards to below the dorsal. Dorsal fin elongate, with an
osseous ray. Lateral line running along the middle of the tail. Mouth
sometimes with barbels.
Two genera: Cyprinion, from Syria and Persia, and Semiplotus
from Assam.
VII. Xenocypridina.—Anal fin rather short, with seven or more
branched rays, not extending forwards to below the dorsal fin. Dorsal
short, with an osseous ray. Lateral line running along the middle of
the tail. Mouth sometimes with barbels. Pharyngeal teeth in a triple
or double series.
Three genera: Xenocypris and Paracanthobrama from China;
and Mystacoleucus from Sumatra.
VIII. Leuciscina.—Anal fin short or of moderate length, with from
eight to eleven branched rays, not extending forwards to below the
dorsal. Dorsal fin short, without osseous ray. Lateral line, if complete,
running along, or nearly in, the middle of the tail. Mouth generally
without barbels. Pharyngeal teeth in a single or double series.
Leuciscus.—Body covered with imbricate scales. Dorsal fin
commencing opposite, rarely behind, the ventrals. Anal fin generally
 with from nine to eleven, rarely with eight (in small species only), and
still more rarely with fourteen rays. Mouth without structural
peculiarities; lower jaw not trenchant; barbels none. Pseudobranchiæ.
Pharyngeal teeth conical or compressed, in a single or double series.
Intestinal tract short, with only a few convolutions.
The numerous species of this genus are comprised under the
name of “White-fish;” they are equally abundant in the northern
temperate zone of both hemispheres, about forty species being
known from the Old World, and about fifty from the New. The most
noteworthy species of the former Fauna are the “Roach” (L. rutilus,
see Fig. 21, p. 50), common all over Europe north of the Alps; the
“Chub” (L. cephalus), extending into Northern Italy and Asia Minor;
the “Dace” (L. leuciscus), a companion of the Roach; the “Id” or
“Nerfling” (L. idus), from the central and northern parts of Continental
Europe, domesticated in some localities of Germany, in this condition
assuming the golden hue of semi-albinism, like a Gold-fish, and then
called the “Orfe;” the “Rudd,” or “Red-eye” (L. erythrophthalmus),
distributed all over Europe and Asia Minor, and distinguished by its
scarlet lower fins; the “Minnow” (L. phoxinus), abundant everywhere
in Europe, and growing to a length of seven inches in favourable
localities. The North American species are much less perfectly
known; the smaller ones are termed “Minnows,” the larger “Shiner”
or “Dace.” The most common are L. cornutus (Red-fin, Red Dace); L.
neogæus, a minnow resembling the European species, but with
incomplete lateral line; L. hudsonius, the “Spawn-eater” or “Smelt.”
Tinca.—Scales small, deeply embedded in the thick skin; lateral
line complete. Dorsal fin short, its origin being opposite the ventral fin;
anal short; caudal subtruncated. Mouth anterior; jaws with the lips
moderately developed; a barbel at the angle of the mouth. Gill-rakers
short, lanceolate; pseudobranchiæ rudimentary. Pharyngeal teeth 4 or
5.-5, cuneiform, slightly hooked at the end.
 Fig. 274.—The Tench (Tinca tinca).
Only one species of “Tench” is known (T. tinca), found all over
Europe in stagnant waters with soft bottom. The “Golden Tench” is
only a variety of colour, an incipient albinism like the Gold-fish and
Id. Like most other Carps of this group it passes the winter in a state
of torpidity, during which it ceases to feed. It is extremely prolific,
297,000 ova having been counted in one female; its spawn is of a
greenish colour.
Leucosomus.—Scales of moderate or small size; lateral line
present. Dorsal fin commencing opposite, or nearly opposite, to the
ventral. Anal fin short. Mouth anterior or sub-anterior; intermaxillaries
protractile. A very small barbel at the extremity of the maxillary. Lower
jaw with rounded margin, and with the labial folds well developed
laterally. Gill-rakers short; pseudobranchiæ. Pharyngeal teeth in a
double series.
A North American genus, to which belong some of the most
common species of the United States. L. pulchellus (the “Fall-fish,”
“Dace,” or “Roach”), one of the largest White-fishes of the Eastern
States, attaining to a length of 18 inches, and abundant in the rapids
of the larger rivers. L. corporalis (the “Chub”), common everywhere
from New England to the Missouri region.
Chondrostoma.—Scales of moderate size or small. Lateral line
terminating in the median line of the depth of the tail. Dorsal fin with
 not more than nine branched rays, inserted above the root of the
ventrals. Anal fin rather elongate, with ten or more rays. Mouth
inferior, transverse, lower jaw with a cutting edge, covered with a
brown horny layer. Barbels none. Gill-rakers short, fine;
pseudobranchiæ. Pharyngeal teeth 5 or 6 or 7.-7 or 6 or 5, knife-
shaped, not denticulated. Peritoneum black.
Seven species from the Continent of Europe and Western Asia.
Other Old World genera belonging to the Leuciscina are
Myloleucus, Ctenopharyngodon, and Paraphoxinus; from North
America: Mylopharodon, Meda, Orthodon, and Acrochilus.
IX. Rhodeina.—Anal fin of moderate length, with from nine to
twelve branched rays, extending forwards to below the dorsal.
Dorsal fin short, or of moderate length. Lateral line, if complete,
running along or nearly in the middle of the tail. Mouth with very
small, or without any barbels. Pharyngeal teeth in a single series.
Very small roach-like fishes inhabiting chiefly Eastern Asia and
Japan, one species (Rh. amarus) advancing into Central Europe.
The thirteen species known have been distributed among four
genera, Achilognathus, Acanthorhodeus, Rhodeus, and
Pseudoperilampus. In the females a long external urogenital tube is
developed annually during the spawning season. The European
species is known in Germany by the name of “Bitterling.”
X. Danionina.—Anal fin of moderate length or elongate, with not
less, and generally more, than eight branched rays. Lateral line
running along the lower half of the tail. Mouth with small, or without
any, barbels. Abdomen not trenchant. Pharyngeal teeth in a triple or
double series.
Small fishes from the East Indian Continent, Ceylon, the East
Asiatic Islands, and a few from East African Rivers, The genera
belonging to this group are Danio, Pteropsarion, Aspidoparia,
Barilius, Bola, Scharca, Opsariichthys, Squaliobarbus, and
Ochetobus: altogether about forty species.
XI. Hypophthalmichthyina.—Anal fin elongate. Lateral line
running nearly along the median line of the tail. Mouth without
barbels. Abdomen not trenchant. No dorsal spine. Pharyngeal teeth
in a single series.
One genus (Hypophthalmichthys) with two species from China.
XII. Abramidina.—Anal fin elongate. Abdomen, or part of the
abdomen, compressed.

Fig. 275.—The Bream ( Abramis brama).

Abramis.—Body much compressed, elevated, or oblong. Scales of
moderate size. Lateral line present, running in the lower half of the tail.
Dorsal fin short, with spine, opposite to the space between ventrals
and anals. Lower jaw generally shorter, and rarely longer than the
upper. Both jaws with simple lips, the lower labial fold being
interrupted at the symphysis of the mandible. Upper jaw protractile.
Gill-rakers rather short; pseudobranchiæ. The attachment of the
branchial membrane to the isthmus takes place at some distance
behind the vertical from the orbit. Pharyngeal teeth in one or two
series, with a notch near the extremity. Belly behind the ventrals
compressed into an edge, the scales not extending across it.
The “Breams” are represented in the temperate parts of both
northern hemispheres; in Europe there occur the “Common Bream,”
A. brama; the “Zope,” A. ballerus; A. sapa; the “Zärthe,” A. vimba; A.
elongatus; the “White Bream,” A. blicca; A. bipunctatus. Of these A.
brama and A. blicca are British; the former being one of the most
common fishes, and sometimes attaining to a length of two feet.
Crosses between these two species, and even with other Cyprinoids,
are not rare. Of the American species A. americanus (“Shiner,”
“Bream”) is common and widely distributed; like the European Bream
it lives chiefly in stagnant waters or streams with a slow current.
Aspius.—Body oblong; scales of moderate size; lateral line
complete, terminating nearly in the middle of the depth of the tail.
Dorsal fin short, without spine, opposite to the space between the
ventrals and anal; anal fin elongate, with thirteen or more rays. Lower
jaw more or less conspicuously projecting beyond the upper. Lips thin,
simple, the lower labial fold being at the symphysis; upper jaw but little
protractile. Gill-rakers short and widely set; pseudobranchiæ. The
attachment of the branchial membrane to the isthmus takes place
below the hind margin of the orbit. Pharyngeal teeth hooked, 5. 3.-3 or
2. 5 or 4. Belly behind the ventrals compressed, the scales covering
the edge.
Four species from Eastern Europe to China.
Alburnus.—Body more or less elongate; scales of moderate size;
lateral line present, running below the median line of the tail. Dorsal fin
short, without spine, opposite to the space between ventrals and anal;
anal fin elongate, with more than thirteen rays. Lower jaw more or less
conspicuously projecting beyond the upper. Lips thin, simple, the
lower labial fold being interrupted at the symphysis of the mandible.
Upper jaw protractile. Gill-rakers slender, lanceolate, closely set;
pseudobranchiæ. The attachment of the branchial membrane to the
isthmus takes place below the hind margin of the orbit. Pharyngeal
teeth in two series, hooked. Belly behind the ventrals compressed into
an edge, the scales not extending across it.
“Bleak” are numerous in Europe and Western Asia, fifteen
species being known. The common Bleak (A. alburnus) is found
north of the Alps only, and represented by another species (A.
alburnellus, “Alborella,” or “Avola”) in Italy.
Of the other genera referred to this group, Leucaspius and
Pelecus belong to the European Fauna; Pelotrophus is East African;
all the others occur in the East Indies or the temperate parts of Asia,
viz. Rasborichthys, Elopichthys, Acanthobrama (Western Asia),
Osteobrama, Chanodichthys, Hemiculter, Smiliogaster, Toxabramis,
Culter, Eustira, Chela, Pseudolabuca, and Cachius.
 XIII. Homalopterina.—Dorsal and anal fins short, the former
opposite to ventrals. Pectoral and ventral fins horizontal, the former
with the outer rays simple. Barbels six or none. Air-bladder absent.
Pharyngeal teeth in a single series, from ten to sixteen in number.
Inhabitants of hill-streams in the East Indies; they are of small
size and abundant where they occur. Thirteen species are known
belonging to the genera Homaloptera, Gastromyzon, Crossostoma,
and Psilorhynchus.
XIV. Cobitidina.—Mouth surrounded by six or more barbels.
Dorsal fin short or of moderate length; anal fin short. Scales small,
rudimentary, or entirely absent. Pharyngeal teeth in a single series,
in moderate number. Air-bladder partly or entirely enclosed in a bony
capsule. Pseudobranchiæ none: Loaches.
Misgurnus.—Body elongate, compressed. No sub-orbital spine.
Ten or twelve barbels, four belonging to the mandible. Dorsal fin
opposite to the ventrals; caudal rounded.
Four species from Europe and Asia. M. fossilis is the largest of
European Loaches, growing to a length of ten inches; it occurs in
stagnant waters of eastern and southern Germany and northern
Asia. In China and Japan it is replaced by an equally large species,
M. anguillicaudatus.
Nemachilus.—No erectile sub-orbital spine. Six barbels, none at
the mandible. Dorsal fin opposite to the ventrals.
The greater number of Loaches belong to this genus; about fifty
species are known from Europe and temperate Asia; such species
as extend into tropical parts inhabit streams of high altitudes.
Loaches are partial to fast-running streams with stony bottom, and
exclusively animal feeders. In spite of their small size they are
esteemed as food where they occur in sufficient abundance. The
British species, N. barbatulus, is found all over Europe except
Denmark and Scandinavia.
Cobitis.—Body more or less compressed, elongate; back not
arched. A small, erectile, bifid sub-orbital spine below the eye. Six
barbels only on the upper jaw. Dorsal fin inserted opposite to ventrals.
Caudal rounded or truncate.
 Only three species are known, of which C. tænia occurs in
Europe. It is scarce and very local in Great Britain.
Botia.—Body compressed, oblong; back more or less arched.
Eyes with a free circular eyelid; an erectile bifid sub-orbital spine. Six
barbels on the upper jaw, sometimes two others at the mandibulary
symphysis. Dorsal fin commencing in advance of the root of the
ventrals; caudal fin forked. Air-bladder consisting of two divisions: the
anterior enclosed in a partly osseous capsule, the posterior free,
floating in the abdominal cavity.

Fig. 276.—Botia rostrata. From

Bengal.
This genus is more tropical than any of the preceding, and the
majority of the species (eight in number) are finely coloured. The
more elevated form of their body, and the imperfect ossification of
the capsules of the air-bladder, the divisions of which are not side by
side, but placed in the longitudinal axis of the body, indicate likewise
that this genus is more adapted for still waters of the plains than for
the currents of hill-streams.
Other genera from tropical India are Lepidocephalichthys,
Acanthopsis, Oreonectes (hills near Hong-Kong), Paramisgurnus
(Yan-tse-Kiang), Lepidocephalus, Acanthophthalmus, and Apua.

Fourth Family—Kneriidæ.
Body scaly, head naked. Margin of the upper jaw formed by the
intermaxillaries. Dorsal and anal fins short, the former belonging to
the abdominal portion of the vertebral column. Teeth none, either in
the mouth or pharynx. Barbels none. Stomach siphonal; no pyloric