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Studies in Systems, Decision and Control 200
2 0 0 t h Vo l u m e o f S S D C · 2 0 0 t h Vo l u m e o f S S D C · 2 0 0 t h Vo l u m e o f S S D C
Frank T. Smith
Hemen Dutta
John N. Mordeson Editors
Mathematics
Applied to
Engineering,
Modelling, and
Social Issues
Studies in Systems, Decision and Control
Volume 200
Series editor
Janusz Kacprzyk, Systems Research Institute, Polish Academy of Sciences,
Warsaw, Poland
The series “Studies in Systems, Decision and Control” (SSDC) covers both new
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More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/13304

Frank T. Smith Hemen Dutta
• •
John N. Mordeson
Editors
Mathematics Applied
to Engineering, Modelling,
and Social Issues
123
Editors
Frank T. Smith Hemen Dutta
Department of Mathematics Department of Mathematics
University College London Gauhati University
London, UK Guwahati, Assam, India
John N. Mordeson
Department of Mathematics
Center for Mathematics of Uncertainty
Creighton University
Omaha, NE, USA
ISSN 2198-4182 ISSN 2198-4190 (electronic)

Studies in Systems, Decision and Control
ISBN 978-3-030-12231-7 ISBN 978-3-030-12232-4 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-12232-4
Library of Congress Control Number: 2018968112
© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019

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Preface
This book contains several aspects of current researches in mathematics having

significant applications in engineering, modelling and social issues. This book is
primarily designed for researchers, graduate students and educators interested in
mathematics having diverse uses and applications. The book should also be useful
and interesting for several other readers interested in current developments of
mathematics having uses and applications in engineering science and modelling of
natural phenomena including certain social issues having current research signifi-
cance. There are 22 chapters in this book, and they are organized as follows:
The Chap. “On the Reynolds Equation and the Load Problem in Lubrication:
Literature Review and Mathematical Modelling” reviews the theory of hydrody-
namic lubrication. It presents some mathematical models of lubrication with an
emphasis on the load or equilibrium problems. It also presents the derivation of the
most used equation in lubrication, i.e. the Reynolds equation as well as the equa-
tions of equilibrium in certain cases. Different models of cavitation and the gene-
ralized Reynolds equation are also presented.
The Chap. “On Dynamic Interactions Between Body Motion and Fluid Motion”
deals with dynamic fluid-body interactions, concentrating on applying mathematical/
analytical ideas to complement direct numerical studies. It also presents a review of
ideas developed over the last decade for cases of high flow rates. The chapter first
addresses inviscid approaches to one or more bodies free to move within a channel
flow, a skimming sharp-edged body on a free surface, the sinking of a body in water
and the rocking or rolling of a body on a solid surface, before moving on to more recent
viscous-inviscid approaches for channel flows and boundary layers. The chapter also
outlines the beginnings of certain current research projects.
The Chap. “Certain Aspects of Problems with Non Homogeneous Reactions”
reviews certain aspects of systems with reaction terms which are nonhomogeneous
reactions. These types of reactions are frequent in problems arise in various models
of physical processes, in particular, in those where the temperature is the main
variable. Also, it discusses both stationary and evolution problems.
v
vi Preface
The Chap. “A Survey on the Melnikov Theory for Implicit Ordinary Differential
Equations with Applications to RLC Circuits” deals with the development of the
Melnikov theory in studying implicit ordinary differential equations with small
amplitude perturbations, and in particular, the persistence of orbits connecting sin-
gularities in finite time provided that certain Melnikov like conditions hold. Further, it
considered the achievements on reversible implicit ordinary differential equations.
Some applications to nonlinear systems of RLC circuits are also presented.
The Chap. “Numerical Solution of Space-Time-Fractional Reaction-Diffusion
Equations via the Caputo and Riesz Derivatives” considered the numerical solution
of space-time-fractional reaction-diffusion problems used to model complex phe-
nomena that are governed by dynamic of anomalous diffusion. The time- and
space-fractional reaction-diffusion equation is modelled by replacing the first-order
derivative in time and the second-order derivative in space, respectively, with the
Caputo and Riesz operators. It proposed some numerical approximation schemes
such as the matrix method, average central difference operator and L2 method. It
applied the Laplace transform technique in time and the Fourier transform method
in space to give a general two-dimensional representation of the analytical solution
in terms of the Mittag-Leffler function. The proposed methods are tested for
applicability on a range of practical problems.
In the Chap. “An Extended Langhaar’s Solution for Two-Dimensional Entry
Microchannel Flows with High-Order Slip”, Langhaar’s assumptions for the
entrance region of two-dimensional micro-channels (micro-tube, slit channel and
concentric annular micro-channel) have been implemented using high-order slip
models. Different slip models have been used, and velocity profile, entrance length
and apparent friction factor have been obtained in an integral form. The advances in
micro-fabrication technology have brought numerous applications to the field of
micro-scale science, and engineering and micro-channels are inseparable part of
microfluidic technology.
The Chap. “Dynamics of Solitons in High-Order Nonlinear Schrödinger Equations
in Fiber Optics” aims to construct kink, bright and dark solitons of a generalized
higher-order nonlinear Schrödinger equation in a cubic-quintic non-Kerr medium by
applying a modified extended mapping method. It also presented the formation
conditions on solitary wave parameters in which kink, dark and bright solitons can
exist, and graphically illustrated the collision of the constructed soliton solutions that
help realizing the physical phenomena of nonlinear Schrödinger equation. Further, it
outlined descriptions of various issues on integrability. The stability of the model in
normal dispersion and anomalous regime are discussed by using the modulation
instability analysis.
The Chap. “MHD Mass Transfer Flow Past an Impulsively Started Semi-Infinite
Vertical Plate with Soret Effect and Ramped Wall Temperature” presents an exact
solution to the problem of a hydromagnetic natural convective mass transfer flow of
an incompressible viscous electrically conducting non-Gray optically thin fluid past
an impulsively started semi-infinite vertical plate with ramped wall temperature in
Preface vii
presence of appreciable radiation, thermal diffusion and uniform transverse mag-

netic field. It also studied graphically the influences of thermal radiation, ramped
parameter, magnetic field, thermal diffusion and time on the flow and transport
characteristics.
The Chap. “Secure Communication Systems Based on the Synchronization of
Chaotic Systems” aims at giving an overview of secure communications and chaos. It
summarizes the latest advancements made in the field of chaos-based communica-
tions. A case study is also considered assuming antipodal chaos shift keying mod-
ulation and described the complete communication system. Simulation results are
further incorporated highlighting the performance of chaotic modulation systems.
The Chap. “Numerical Techniques for Fractional Competition Dynamics with
Power-, Exponential- and Mittag-Leffler Laws” deals with modelling and analysing
fractional competition system with power law, exponential law and the
Mittag-Leffler law in which the standard derivative in time is replaced with the
Caputo, Caputo-Fabrizio and Atangana-Baleanu fractional derivatives. Further, it
formulates a fractional version of the Adams-Bashforth scheme for the approxi-
mation of these derivatives and justifies the usability of these derivatives by
drawing comparison through an application of them to solve certain problems. It
also considers a number of fractional competition dynamics arising in applied
science and engineering in the simulation framework.
The Chap. “Existence of Periodic Solutions for First Order Differential Equations
with Applications” used a fixed point theorem in cones in a Banach space to present
different sufficient conditions for the existence of at least two positive periodic
solutions of first-order functional differential equations. The results obtained are also
applied to the Nicholson’s Blowflies model and the generalized Michaelis-
Menton-type single-species growth model.
The Chap. “Dynamic Programming Viscosity Solution Approach and Its
Applications to Optimal Control Problems” is concerned with optimal control
problems of dynamical systems described by partial differential equations. First, by
the Dubovitskii-Milyutin functional analytical approach, it studies the Pontryagin
maximum principle of an age-structured population dynamics for spread of uni-
versally fatal diseases. Then an optimal control problem of a McKendrick-type
age-structured population dynamics is solved by the dynamic programming vis-
cosity solution, and its corresponding numerical solutions of optimal feedback
control are constructed. Finally, it proves the convergence of a well-adapted upwind
finite-difference numerical scheme for the HJB equation solution.
The Chap. “A Simple Model of Periodic Reproduction: Selection of Prime Periods”
studies a discrete-time model of periodic reproduction with inter- and intra-specific
competition as a tool to investigate the selection of prime reproduction cycle lengths
observed in certain species of cicadas. It also proposed an approximation for the
average populations and analysed for the case of 2 and 13 populations. It observed that
prime periods have an advantage when compared with composite ones suggesting that
the prime periods displayed by cicada species in nature might arise by the process of
natural selection of adaptive values and not as a random result of evolutionary
constraints.
viii Preface
The Chap. “Transport on Networks—A Playground of Continuous and Discrete

Mathematics in Population Dynamics” studied structured population models in
which the population is subdivided into states according to certain feature of the
individuals. It considered various rules allowing individuals to move between the
states. It observed that depending on the type of the migration rule, the models can
vary from a system of coupled McKendrick equations to a system of transport
equations on a graph. The chapter aims also to address the well-posedness of such
problems.
The Chap. “Augmenting and Decreasing Systems” deals with cooperative games
in which there exists a feasible coalition structure. Augmenting and decreasing
systems are set systems specially introduced for analysing certain situations of partial
cooperation, and they are dual structures. The chapter studied the core and the Weber
set for games on augmenting systems. Two known classical solutions for games are
also defined on augmenting systems: the Shapley value and the Banzhaf one. It also
uses the duality relationship to analyse the values for decreasing systems.
The Chap. “Spatiotemporal Dynamics of a Class of Models Describing
Infectious Diseases” proposed and analysed a class of three spatiotemporal mod-
els describing infectious diseases caused by viruses such as the human immuno-
deficiency virus and the hepatitis B virus. The qualitative analysis of the models,
such as positive invariance, boundedness and global stabilities of steady states, has
also been studied. Biological findings of the analytical results are incorporated, and
further extended and generalized some mathematical virus models and previous
results.
The Chap. “Approximation of Short-Run Equilibrium of the N-region Core-
Periphery Model in an Urban Setting” aims to give an approximation of short-run
equilibrium of the N-region core-periphery model in an urban setting. The
approximation is claimed to be sufficiently accurate, which is expressed explicitly
in terms of the distribution of workers that is contained as known function in the
model. It further argued that the approximation can be used to analyse the beha-
viour of short-run equilibrium.
The Chap. “New Phase-Field Models with Applications to Materials Genome
Initiative” reviews some types of phase-field models formulated by Alber and Zhu.
These models may be used to describe important phenomena, such as solid-solid
phase transitions occurring in, e.g. smart materials like shape memory alloys and
interface motion by interface diffusion. The first chapter presents the background
of these models. Then, mathematical and numerical investigations of these models
are presented as well as some open problems related to the models are also listed.
Further, it introduces phase-field crystal method which can be regarded as an
extension of phase-field approach.
The Chap. “Optimal Control Measures for Tuberculosis in a Population Affected
with Insurgency” applied optimal control theory to a mathematical model
describing the population dynamics of tuberculosis with variability in susceptibility
due to difference in awareness level. Aiming at minimize the number of high-risk
Preface ix
susceptible individuals with low level of tuberculosis awareness and maximizing

the number of isolated actively-infected individuals placed under Directly Observed
Treatment Short-Course, it incorporated time-dependent control functions that
represent educational campaign programmes in the midst of insurgency, and case
finding techniques for chronic tuberculosis cases. It also characterized the optimal
controls in terms of the optimality systems and solved numerically. Further,
numerical simulations are performed to illustrate the effect of the controls on the
population dynamics of the disease in a population.
The Chap. “Insurance Model to Estimate the Financial Risk Due to Direct
Medical Cost on Dengue Outbreaks” attempts to build a bridge between epi-
demiological and insurance modelling and set up an actuarial based tool that pro-
vides financial arrangements to cover the future medical expenses resulting from the
medical treatments of dengue disease. It converted classical SIR model into
probability model and then developed the insurance plan to cover the future
financial burden due to direct medical expenses. The premium, the present financial
burden due to future expenses is defined by means of the equivalence principle and
discussed the sensitivity with respect to model parameters and external variables. It
introduced several control measures and discussed the variability of the present
financial burden with respect to such measures. Further, it analysed the efficiency
of the controls and discussed necessary and sufficient criterion for the existence of
insurance plans.
The Chap. “Dynamics of Zika Virus Epidemic in Random Environment”
developed a mathematical model for Zika virus dynamics under randomly varying
environmental conditions, in which the birth and loss rates for mosquitoes and
environmental influence are modelled as random processes. It studied the system of
random ordinary differential equations by the theory of random dynamical systems
and dynamical analysis. It first discussed the existence, uniqueness, positiveness
and boundedness of solutions, and then investigated the long-term dynamics in
terms of existence and geometric structures of random attractors and forward omega
limit sets. Finally, it proved some conditions ensuring that the prevalence of Zika
virus among human beings decreases monotonically to zero, and also established
some conditions under which an epidemic may happen.
The Chap. “Incidence Graph Models for the Analysis of Active Illegal
Immigration Routes and Human Loss” studied connectivity in fuzzy incidence
graphs. Different connectivity aspects of fuzzy incidence graphs are discussed. It
introduced the notions like incidence connectivity and incidence connectivity of pairs
and presented results similar to Whitney’s Theorem. It also investigated the notion of
t-connected fuzzy incidence graphs as well as obtained some characterizations. An
application in connection with illegal migration is presented and evaluated certain
risks focusing on some vulnerable routes.
The editors wish to thank the contributors for their timely contribution and
cooperation while the chapters were being reviewed and processed. The reviewers
also deserve sincere thanks for their great efforts and time voluntarily offered
x Preface
towards the successful completion of this book project. The editors are indebted to
several well-wishers, colleagues, editors and supporting staff at Springer for timely
and efficient cooperation which helped in executing this project smoothly.
London, UK Frank T. Smith

Guwahati, India Hemen Dutta
Omaha, USA John N. Mordeson
February, 2019
Contents
On the Reynolds Equation and the Load Problem in Lubrication:

Literature Review and Mathematical Modelling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Hassán Lombera Rodríguez and J. Ignacio Tello
On Dynamic Interactions Between Body Motion and Fluid Motion . . . . 45
Frank T. Smith, Samire Balta, Kevin Liu and Edward R. Johnson
Certain Aspects of Problems with Non Homogeneous Reactions . . . . . . 91
Alejandro Omón Arancibia
A Survey on the Melnikov Theory for Implicit Ordinary Differential
Equations with Applications to RLC Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
Michal Fečkan
Numerical Solution of Space-Time-Fractional Reaction-Diffusion
Equations via the Caputo and Riesz Derivatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
Kolade M. Owolabi and Hemen Dutta
An Extended Langhaar’s Solution for Two-Dimensional Entry
Microchannel Flows with High-Order Slip . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
R. Rasooli and B. Çetin
Dynamics of Solitons in High-Order Nonlinear Schrödinger
Equations in Fiber Optics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
Gholam-Ali Zakeri
MHD Mass Transfer Flow Past an Impulsively Started Semi-Infinite
Vertical Plate with Soret Effect and Ramped Wall Temperature . . . . . . 245
N. Ahmed
Secure Communication Systems Based on the Synchronization
of Chaotic Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
Samir Bendoukha, Salem Abdelmalek and Adel Ouannas
xi
xii Contents
Numerical Techniques for Fractional Competition Dynamics

with Power-, Exponential- and Mittag-Leffler Laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
Kolade M. Owolabi and Hemen Dutta
Existence of Periodic Solutions for First Order Differential
Equations with Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
Smita Pati
Dynamic Programming Viscosity Solution Approach
and Its Applications to Optimal Control Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363
Bing Sun, Zhen-Zhen Tao and Yang-Yang Wang
A Simple Model of Periodic Reproduction: Selection
of Prime Periods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421
Raul Abreu de Assis and Mazílio Coronel Malavazi
Transport on Networks—A Playground of Continuous
and Discrete Mathematics in Population Dynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 439
Jacek Banasiak and Aleksandra Puchalska
Augmenting and Decreasing Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 489
J. M. Bilbao, A. Jiménez-Losada and M. Ordóñez
Spatiotemporal Dynamics of a Class of Models Describing
Infectious Diseases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 529
Khalid Hattaf and Noura Yousfi
Approximation of Short-Run Equilibrium of the N-Region
Core-Periphery Model in an Urban Setting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 551
Minoru Tabata and Nobuoki Eshima
New Phase-Field Models with Applications to Materials
Genome Initiative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 569
Peicheng Zhu, Yangxin Tang and Yeping Li
Optimal Control Measures for Tuberculosis in a Population
Affected with Insurgency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 599
A. O. Egonmwan and D. Okuonghae
Insurance Model to Estimate the Financial Risk Due to Direct
Medical Cost on Dengue Outbreaks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 629
S. S. N. Perera
Dynamics of Zika Virus Epidemic in Random Environment . . . . . . . . . 665
Yusuke Asai, Xiaoying Han and Peter E. Kloeden
Incidence Graph Models for the Analysis of Active Illegal
Immigration Routes and Human Loss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 685
Sunil Mathew and John N. Mordeson
Contributors
Salem Abdelmalek Department of Mathematics, University of Tebessa, Tebessa,

Algeria
N. Ahmed Department of Mathematics, Gauhati University, Guwahati, India
Yusuke Asai Department of Hygiene, Graduate School of Medicine, Hokkaido
University, Sapporo, Japan
Samire Balta University College London, London, UK
Jacek Banasiak Department of Mathematics and Applied Mathematics,
University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa;
Institute of Mathematics, Łódź University of Technology, Łódź, Poland
Samir Bendoukha Department of Electrical Engineering, Taibah University,
Yanbu, Saudi Arabia
J. M. Bilbao Department of Applied Mathematics II, University of Seville,
Escuela Superior de Ingenieros, Camino de los Descubrimientos, Sevilla, Spain
B. Çetin Microfluidics and Lab-on-a-chip Research Group, Mechanical
Engineering Department, İ.D. Bilkent University, Ankara, Turkey
Raul Abreu de Assis Departamento de Matemática, UNEMAT, Sinop, MT,
Brazil
Hemen Dutta Department of Mathematics, Gauhati University, Guwahati, India
A. O. Egonmwan Department of Mathematics, University of Benin, Benin City,
Nigeria
Nobuoki Eshima Center for Educational Outreach and Admissions, Kyoto
University, Kyoto, Japan
xiii
xiv Contributors
Michal Fečkan Department of Mathematical Analysis and Numerical

Mathematics, Faculty of Mathematics, Physics and Informatics, Comenius
University in Bratislava, Bratislava, Slovakia;
Mathematical Institute, Slovak Academy of Sciences, Bratislava, Slovakia
Xiaoying Han Department of Mathematics and Statistics, 221 Parker Hall Auburn
University, Auburn, AL, USA
Khalid Hattaf Centre Régional des Métiers de l’Education et de la Formation
(CRMEF), Casablanca, Morocco;
Laboratory of Analysis, Modeling and Simulation (LAMS), Faculty of Sciences
Ben M’sik, Hassan II University, Sidi Othman, Casablanca, Morocco
A. Jiménez-Losada Department of Applied Mathematics II, University of Seville,
Edward R. Johnson University College London, London, UK
Peter E. Kloeden Department of Mathematics and Statistics, 221 Parker Hall
Auburn University, Auburn, AL, USA
Yeping Li Department of Mathematics, East China University of Science and
Technology, Shanghai, People’s Republic of China
Kevin Liu University College London, London, UK
Hassán Lombera Rodríguez Centro de Informática Industrial, Universidad de las
Ciencias Informáticas, La Habana, Cuba
Mazílio Coronel Malavazi Instituto de Ciências Naturais, Humanas e Sociais
(ICNHS)—UFMT, Sinop, MT, Brazil
Sunil Mathew Department of Mathematics, National Institute of Technology
Calicut, Calicut, India
John N. Mordeson Department of Mathematics, Center for Mathematics of
Uncertainty, Creighton University, Omaha, NE, USA
D. Okuonghae Department of Mathematics, University of Benin, Benin City,
Nigeria
Alejandro Omón Arancibia Departamento de Ingeniería Matemática,
Universidad de La Frontera, Temuco, Chile
M. Ordóñez Department of Applied Mathematics II, University of Seville,
Adel Ouannas Laboratory of Mathematics, Informatics and Systems (LAMIS),
University of Larbi Tebessi, Tebessa, Algeria
Contributors xv
Kolade M. Owolabi Faculty of Natural and Agricultural Sciences, Institute for

Groundwater Studies, University of the Free State, Bloemfontein, South Africa;
Department of Mathematical Sciences, Federal University of Technology, Akure,
Ondo State, Nigeria
Smita Pati Department of Mathematics, Amity School of Engineering and
Technology, Amity University Jharkhand, Ranchi, Jharkhand, India
S. S. N. Perera Research and Development Centre for Mathematical Modeling,
Faculty of Science, University of Colombo, Colombo, Sri Lanka
Aleksandra Puchalska Institute of Applied Mathematics and Mechanics,
University of Warsaw, Warsaw, Poland
R. Rasooli Microfluidics and Lab-on-a-chip Research Group, Mechanical
Engineering Department, İ.D. Bilkent University, Ankara, Turkey
Frank T. Smith University College London, London, UK
Bing Sun School of Mathematics and Statistics, Beijing Institute of Technology,
Beijing, China;
Beijing Key Laboratory on MCAACI, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing,
China
Minoru Tabata Department of Mathematical Sciences, Osaka Prefecture
University, Osaka, Japan
Yangxin Tang Department of Mathematics, Shanghai University, Shanghai,
People’s Republic of China;
Institute of Statistics and Applied Mathematics, Anhui University of Finance and
Economics, Bengbu, Anhui Province, People’s Republic of China
Zhen-Zhen Tao School of Mathematics and Statistics, Beijing Institute of
Technology, Beijing, China
J. Ignacio Tello Depto Matemática Aplicada a las TIC. ETSIS Sistemas
Informáticos, UPM, Madrid, Spain
Yang-Yang Wang School of Mathematics and Statistics, Beijing Institute of
Technology, Beijing, China
Noura Yousfi Laboratory of Analysis, Modeling and Simulation (LAMS), Faculty
of Sciences Ben M’sik, Hassan II University, Sidi Othman, Casablanca, Morocco
Gholam-Ali Zakeri Department of Mathematics, and Interdisciplinary Research
Institute for the Sciences (IRIS), California State University - Northridge,
Northridge, CA, USA
Peicheng Zhu Materials Genome Institute and Department of Mathematics,
Shanghai University, Shanghai, People’s Republic of China
On the Reynolds Equation and the Load
Problem in Lubrication: Literature
Review and Mathematical Modelling
Hassán Lombera Rodríguez and J. Ignacio Tello
Abstract In this chapter, we provide a literature review concerning the theory of

hydrodynamic lubrication, especially applied to journal bearings. The device consists
of an external cylinder surrounding a rotating shaft, both separated by a lubricant to
prevent contact. In particular, we derive the fluid film thickness model for journal
bearings, considering both the parallel and the misaligned case. The hydrodynamic
Reynolds equation with cavitation phenomenon, through both Reynolds and Elrod-
Adams models are fully derived in this chapter. Subsequently, we pose two suitable
variational formulations for the hydrodynamic problem considering both cavitation
models. In addition, we present the admissible range of misalignment angle projec-
tions for prescribed values of the shaft eccentricity and angular coordinate. Finally,
we properly state the problem of a loaded misaligned journal bearing for stationary
regime, considering the balance of force and torque components involved.
Keywords Reynolds equation · Hydrodynamic lubrication · Journal bearing ·

Misalignment · Cavitation · Inverse problem
1 On the Beginning of the Theory of Hydrodynamic

Lubrication
Hydrodynamic lubrication is a phenomenon characterized by a lubricant flowing

in the narrow gap between two closely spaced surfaces in relative motion. Impor-
tant and well-known scientists, engineers and tribologists investigated in the past
H. Lombera Rodríguez
Centro de Informática Industrial, Universidad de las Ciencias Informáticas,
19370 La Habana, Cuba
e-mail: hlombera@uci.cu
J. I. Tello (B)
Depto Matemática Aplicada a las TIC. ETSIS Sistemas Informáticos, UPM,
28037 Madrid, Spain
e-mail: j.tello@upm.es
© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019 1

F. T. Smith et al. (eds.), Mathematics Applied to Engineering, Modelling,
and Social Issues, Studies in Systems, Decision and Control 200,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-12232-4_1
2 H. Lombera Rodríguez and J. I. Tello
the relationship between friction, wear and lubrication, especially applied to journal
bearings. Gustave Adolph Hirn (1815–1890), accomplished in 1847 the first exper-
iments on hydrodynamic lubrication and rediscovered the laws of Amontons and of
Coulomb. In 1879, Robert Henry Thurston (1839–1903), published the results of his
study on friction and lubrication. He showed that, with increasing speed, the friction
coefficient of a lubricated bearing diminishes below its static value, passes through
a minimum and then increases. He also specified that the speed corresponding to the
minimum of friction depends on the load applied to the bearing [48].
In 1883, Nikolai Pavlovich Petrov (1836–1920) introduced the results of his stud-
ies and tests on lubricated bearings. He proved that, among the physical characteris-
tics of an oil, the viscosity has a preponderant role in bearing friction. He stipulated
that a fluid film totally separates the surfaces of both shaft and bearing, and that a
constant pressure should be produced in this film. Petrov, also looked through the
work of Hirn and reused the term of mediate friction to characterize hydrodynamic
lubrication [48]. In 1885, a remarkable discovery was the existence of hydrodynamic
pressure in the lubricant film of a bearing by Beauchamp Tower (1845–1904), which
served as a basis for accomplishing the theory of lubrication. Fortunately, Tower’s
discovery results provided experimental confirmation to Reynolds, who was working
on a hydrodynamic theory of lubrication at that time. The result of this was a theory
of hydrodynamic lubrication published in the Proceedings of the Royal Society by
Reynolds; see [82]. In that early work, Reynolds proposed the equation that at present
is named after him and provided the first analytical proof that a viscous liquid can
physically separate two sliding surfaces by hydrodynamic pressure, resulting in low
friction and theoretically zero wear [90]. That work represents the seminal paper
on Lubrication Theory and in fact, most of mathematical models of hydrodynamic
lubrication processes between solid surfaces have the Reynolds Equation (RE) as
their key point. A rigorous approach for the deduction of the classical linear RE from
Navier–Stokes may be found in [4].
It was not until the beginning of the 20th century that Reynolds theory on hydro-
dynamic lubrication was used for calculating thrust and journal bearings. In 1902,
Richard Stribeck confirmed the hydrodynamic effects and performed the original
research into the limits of hydrodynamic lubrication. He proposed the relationship
between friction, load, speed and viscosity that is still used today to present the var-
ious types of lubrication. In most cases, the friction and lubrication relationship is
characterized with basis on μv F
(oil viscosity × sliding velocity/normal load) factor,
in a diagram called Stribeck curve. This diagram summarizes the limits of hydrody-
namic lubrication; see Fig. 1.
Three zones can be identified, each one corresponding to a type of lubrication
depending on the level of pressure established in the contact. For low pressure (0.1
to 50 MPa), zone 1 corresponds to boundary lubrication; surface separation is ensured
by lubricant molecules attached to the surfaces; see Fig. 2a. This type of lubrication is
related to the physico-chemistry of surfaces and of lubricants, for low and moderate
speeds and for relatively low loads. In zone 2, the hydrodynamic effect described by
RE takes some importance and tends to separate the areas still in contact over a part
of their asperities; this type of lubrication is the mixed lubrication; see Fig. 2b. Zone
On the Reynolds Equation and the Load Problem in Lubrication … 3
1 2 3
friction
0 v
F
Fig. 1 Schematic diagram for the limits of hydrodynamic lubrication
(a) Boundary lubrication regime (b) Mixed lubrication regime
(c) Hydrodynamic lubrication regime
Fig. 2 Types of lubrication regimes present on the Stribeck curve
3 corresponds to hydrodynamic lubrication and is described by RE; see Fig. 2c. In

this region a full film separates the surfaces and friction is proportional to the speed
if the lubricant viscosity is constant with temperature [48].
Notice that depending on lubrication regime, different surface interaction mech-
anisms occur, leading to distinct wear and friction responses. Friction behaviour in
Stribeck curve is used to explain rubbing phenomena occurring in lubricated con-
tacts. Transition between zones is explained as follows. For high values of μvF
, friction
coefficient is linearly ascending due to fluid film lubrication. When load increases or
oil viscosity and/or velocity decreases, the μv F
factor falls. It means that the sliding
velocity v and the oil viscosity μ are unable to generate sufficient oil-film pressure p
to support the entire load F [58]. Then, the fluid film becomes thinner and, therefore,
friction coefficient decreases up to a minimum value. Note that for even smaller val-
ues of μvF
, fluid film thickness is further reduced, and contact appears. Then, friction
coefficient increases as the μv F
factor decreases [69]. Such rise in friction coefficient
is also related to oil viscosity increase in some regions at contact area under high
contact pressure. These phenomena characterize the mixed lubrication regime. Addi-
tional reduction in μv F
factor makes contact stronger. Film thickness becomes smaller
than the height of surface asperities and then boundary lubrication regime will occur.
Due to this behaviour, the Stribeck curve is also represented with the film thickness
along the horizontal axis [48].
In 1904, Arnold Johannes Wilhelm Sommerfeld used a change of variables and
succeeded in obtaining an analytical solution of the RE for infinitely long journal
bearings ( ∂∂xp = 0), where p stands for the pressure and x, the geometrical coordinate,
is in the direction of the journal axis [48]. Nevertheless, the used boundary conditions
did not correspond to the physical reality, as they did not take into account the film
rupture in the bearing. In addition, the pressure distribution obtained was negative
in the divergent zone of the film. In 1914, Ludwig Karl Friedrich Gümbel suggested
that only the positive part of the pressure distribution should be included for the
calculation of the bearing load, omitting the negative part. The load calculated was not
exact either. Herbert Walker Swift in 1932, and later W. Stieber in 1933 independently
presented boundary conditions for film exit, representing the reality in an improved
way [91, 95]. With their proposals, the fluid film breaks in its divergent zone along
the boundary, where the pressure has the value of the saturated pressure and its
gradient is zero. Such conditions agree with the continuity of flow at the film exit
and are named the boundary conditions of Reynolds. They are universally used for
calculating bearings with constant loads [48]. This model considers as interface
conditions:
∂p
pc = = 0, (1)
∂n
where pc stands for the cavitation pressure and n stands for the unitary normal
vector to the free boundary. In 1941, a numerical method for solving the RE with
such boundary conditions was proposed in Christopherson [25].
In 1953, Fred William Ocvirk proposed to neglect circumferential pressure gradi-
ent compared to the axial one in the RE. This way he was presenting his approximate
method for short bearing [73]. The solution is analytical and uses Gümbel’s boundary
conditions. The results are almost exact for journal bearings having an L/D ratio
(bearing length over diameter) smaller than 0.25. Calculations are in consequence
considerably simplified [48].
A type of slider, with steps, consisting of two parallel parts, but shifted, was
described by John William Strutt, Lord Rayleigh. He showed that this type of slider
exhibits a load carrying capacity for a given minimum film thickness greater than for
any known slider type [48]. In 1917, Lord Rayleigh was the first one in calculating
the load and the friction torque of a hydrostatic thrust bearing.
The review of all existing papers since the beginning of last century represents
a considerable effort that goes beyond the aims of this chapter. We presented here
only a brief review of major achieved progresses in the beginning of hydrodynamic
lubrication, that will allow us to succeed “standing on the shoulders of giants”.
2 On Misalignment and Cavitation in Journal Bearings
Misalignment
In the case where misalignment is not allowed, the mathematical model assumes
that the clearance normalized film thickness, h̄, only depends on the circumferential
coordinate and is expressed as:
h̄ = 1 + ρ̄ cos(θ − α), (2)
where ρ̄ ∈ [0, 1) stands for the normalized shaft eccentricity, α is the shaft angular
coordinate and θ represents a point on the external circumference. The assumption
posed by Eq. (2) is equivalent to the supposition that both shaft and bearing axes
are perfectly parallel to each other, and that the eccentricity ρ̄ does not depend on
the axial coordinate. Thus, this expression restricts the physical simulating capacity
of the study since in reality it becomes impossible to fully avoid radial and angular
misalignments [51]. The most common causes of misalignment are elastic and ther-
mal deflections of the shaft and bearing misalignment, as a result of assembly errors.
Large misalignment can decrease the bearing clearance and its load capacity. It can
increase the temperature and has the potential to reduce the operating velocity thresh-
old [51]. In addition, misalignment and residual unbalance are the typical causes for
rotor vibration. Both excitations are responsible for most common machine dynamic
problems happening in the field.
One of the first documented researches on journal bearing misalignment is re-
ported by McKee and McKee [70], who experimentally observed that measured
peak pressures move from the bearing mid-plane towards the bearing ends when the
journal is subjected to misalignment. Same result was found by Bouyer and Fillon
[18] in an experimental analysis of misalignment effects on hydrodynamic plain
journal bearing performance. They experimentally studied the hydrodynamic plain
journal bearing submitted to a misalignment torque. The misalignment caused more
significant changes in bearing performance when the rotational speed or load was
low [18]. Piggott showed that a 40% reduction in bearing load capacity was induced
by a 0.0002 rad misalignment. These observations clearly revealed the importance of
misalignment in bearing performance [78]. Subsequently, Dubois et al. [41] showed
that the pressure distribution of a misaligned bearing was not symmetric, and re-
ported that the maximum pressure was located as well at the bearing ends. They
observed that when a bearing is subjected to severe misalignment, the maximum

pressure increases and the bearing performance deteriorates due to the permanent
deformation at bearing ends [41]. In presence of cavitation it has been shown that
the maximum pressure is shifted to the bearing ends as well. The location of the
maximum pressure is influenced by the orientation of the misalignment. Besides,
the maximum pressure is greater than that for the aligned bearing and an increase in
the degree of misalignment could yield two peak values in the pressure, axially near
both ends [56].
Representative numerical studies about loaded misaligned journal bearings by
References [3, 52, 80, 98], suggest that misaligned bearings have a finite load ca-
pacity as the end-plane film thickness goes to zero. Moreover, perfectly aligned
journal bearings have a theoretically infinite load capacity, see [29, 81] for instance.
Conversely, Boedo and Booker [16] suggest (but no prove) that misaligned bearings
have infinite load and moment capacity as the end-plane minimum film thickness
approaches zero under transient journal squeeze motion and under steady load and
speed conditions. These results differ markedly from finite capacity trends reported
in previously mentioned numerical and experimental studies.
Nikolakopoulos and Papadopoulos [71] presented an analysis of misaligned jour-
nal bearing operating, considering both the linear and non-linear plain journal bearing
characteristics. The Finite Element Method (FEM) was used to solve the RE. They
calculated the linear and non-linear dynamic properties for misaligned bearings de-
pending on the developed forces and moments as functions of the displacements and
misalignment angles [71].
An analytical solution for misaligned journal bearing axes (short bearing) at its
steady-state was obtained in [51]. The same approach for modelling misalignment
was used in [52]. The solution is expanded in series over a small parameter a, which
characterizes the non parallelism of journal bearing axes. In our model we character-
ize misalignment using an equivalent derivation procedure, but we do not make that
power series expansion, in order to propose a general characterization for misaligned
journal bearings; see Sect. 5.2 for details.
Thus, as a journal bearing almost always operates with some misalignment be-
tween its shaft and bearing, it is important to include this issue in the analysis.
Cavitation models. Their numerical resolution
Mathematical models that we consider in Lubrication Theory, assume that the un-
known pressure p is constant through the thickness of the fluid film, which allows
one to approximate the three dimensional Navier–Stokes equations by the bidimen-
sional RE; see [4] for details. In presence of cavitation, the RE is no longer valid
and this condition makes the use of cavitation models mandatory. A review on the
mathematical and physical analysis for different cavitation models is presented in
[5]. Also, Álvarez [2] studied two different models for describing the fluid pres-
sure distribution in journal bearings: a stationary model and a transient model. He
considered cavitation and demonstrated uniqueness of the solution.
The common feature of the models lies in the domain decomposition into two
parts: a lubricated region and a cavitated region. In the former the RE is verified
while in the latter the pressure is taken to be a constant [12]. The main difference
between models comes from the way to obtain the free boundary that separates
lubricated and cavitated areas. In Sects. 7 and 10 we give details on the derivation of
both cavitation models.
Several papers have used the theory of variational inequalities taking advantage
that the pressure in the full filled area is greater than the saturation pressure. In
fact, the idea was reinforced when Cryer justified the work of Christopherson [25],
associating that study to an obstacle problem [33]. This is known as the Reynolds
cavitation model [12]. In 1975, Rohde and McAllister presented a variational for-
mulation for hydrodynamic lubrication, from which the associated free boundary
problem arose naturally. The Finite Difference Method (FDM) and the FEM were
discussed as strategies for obtaining approximate solutions [84]. In fact, due to the
nature of the Reynolds cavitation model and easy computational approach, it has
been used in a large list of mathematical works; see [22, 26, 27, 34, 66, 83] for
instance. In general, for the numerical resolution of this model, techniques based
on the FEM have been widely used. The discrete problem has been solved by the
classical Gauss-Seidel method or a point-overrelaxation method, including both a
projection technique to consider cavitation; see [21, 34] for instance. In this work,
we also use the Reynolds cavitation model including a FEM discretization. Never-
theless, we propose to solve the system of linear equations by minimizing a convex
functional, using a Preconditioned Conjugate Gradient Method (PCG) with both pro-
jection and restarting strategies. The choice obeys two major reasons: the fact that
we solve a convex functional and that matrices resulting from the discretization of
Partial Differential Equations (PDE) [e.g. FEM or Finite Volume Method (FVM)], in
addition to be sparse are usually ill-conditioned, for which preconditioning is widely
recommended.
Another model to describe cavitation is the Elrod–Adams model [47]. In that
work, the authors introduce the hypothesis that the cavitation region is a fluid-air
mixture and an additional unknown ϑ appears (the saturation of fluid in the mixture1 ).
This model, which still relies on the RE has been widely used in Tribology [68].
Unlike some other models, such as the Reynolds cavitation model, it does allow the
starvation phenomena to take place. Its interest also relies on the evidence that it
is a mass-preserving model. In [5, 45] comparisons for journal bearings are made,
between their operating parameters computed by the Reynolds and the Elrod–Adams
cavitation models.
Vijayaraghavan and Keith [97] analysed the effect of cavitation on the performance
of a line-grooved misaligned bearing for both flooded and starved inlet conditions.
They used the mass-conserving cavitation algorithm in their analysis. They took into
account the lubricant rupture and the reformation phenomena. One year later, they
showed that at the higher degrees of misalignment, the performance characteristics
of the bearing are significantly different from those for an aligned journal bearing
[98].
1 It represents the lubricant concentration.

Numerical methods for solving the Elrod–Adams model for cavitation in different
devices and conditions were presented in [6, 13, 45, 46], among others. Similarly,
numerical experimentations of various schemes based both on stationary upwind
methods and pseudo-stationary techniques were conducted in [21]. These methods
are mainly based on the characteristics discretization for the non-linear convection
term and a duality method for the multivalued non-linear saturation-pressure relation,
posed by the Heaviside operator. Namely, they use an approach based on the Method
of Characteristics (MC) to discretize a total derivative in the final formulation. This
technique was also used in [42–44, 67] among others, and it is the strategy proposed
to solve our problem as well. Additionally, the first three used a Yosida regularization
for the Heaviside operator as in [14]. In contrast, in [67] it is used a regularization
of this function by a cubic interpolating Hermite polynomial that allowed to express
the solution of the direct problem as a minimum of a convex functional.
3 The Inverse Problem. Its Numerical Resolution
Most of the papers previously mentioned deal with imposed geometry in the asso-
ciated RE, i.e. the gap function h for the journal bearing is a given datum and the
unknown is the pressure p. In real engineering applications the position of the shaft,
that defines the gap function h, is unknown. So, Newton’s second law is introduced
to obtain that position. The problem consists in finding the pressure of the lubricant,
its concentration ϑ in the cavitation area and the shaft position. If misalignment is
considered, two more variables need to be found, which stand for the angular mis-
alignment projections. The problem is considered as an inverse problem where the
coefficient h depends on the unknown p.
Díaz and Tello [36] addressed such a problem, considering the simple case in
which the surfaces are two parallel planes, and assuming prescribed the total force
applied upon one of the surfaces. They provided some sufficient conditions on the
total force in order to solve the inverse problem. Ciuperca et al. [28] also studied
analytically the inverse problem for a more general geometry. Specifically, they
studied the asymptotic behaviour of the position in the evolution problem.
Furthermore, Ciuperca et al. [29] studied the inverse problem for journal bearings
using the Reynolds cavitation model. In that work the inner cylinder is parallel to
the exterior one and misalignment is not allowed. They proved the existence of shaft
equilibrium positions when the hydrodynamic force created by the pressure film
balances an external radial force. The authors proved the non-existence of contact
for any force, even for the case where the shape of the external surface presents
some rugosity. Additionally, Ciuperca and Tello considered the problem for both
cases, a rigid surface moving over a flat plane and the elastohydrodynamic problem;
see [31, 32] for instance. Similarly, Ciuperca, Jai and Tello studied the existence
of equilibrium positions for the load problem in Lubrication Theory. In their work,
considering the Elrod–Adams model, the balance of forces allows to obtain the
unknown position of the surfaces, defined with one degree of freedom [30].
As for the numerical resolution of the inverse problem which entails the balance
between an imposed load on the device and the hydrodynamic load we can mention
the work of [42]. They developed a numerical scheme which combines fixed point
algorithms, the MC, duality techniques and finite element approximations. In [44]
the authors used an implicit Euler method to deal with the dynamical shaft problem
coupled with the fluid hydrodynamic problem. At each time step the resulting non-
linear system is solved by the Broyden method combined with the Armijo–Goldstein
criterion to choose a proper step length in the descent direction. Conversely, in [67]
the authors proposed a different approach to deal with the shaft model. It was based
on first solving the Elrod–Adams equation for a known position by minimizing
a convex and lower semi continuous (l.s.c) functional and then using an iterative
method to reach the equilibrium, namely a trust-region strategy. In general, there
are a lot of gradient based algorithms for continuous optimization that can be used
for solving problems like the one addressed in this work. They allow to find a local
minimum, but the optimized function needs to be continuous and differentiable.
Thus, their usefulness is limited due to such prerequisites. Line search and trust-
region approaches are two of the fundamental strategies in optimization algorithms
that must be mentioned; see [72] for a wide explanation on these approaches.
On the other hand, metaheuristics are a family of optimization techniques, which
have seen increasingly rapid development and application to numerous problems
in computer science and other related fields. Normally, they require the problem to
be partitioned into a set of components to look for the solution in an optimal com-
bination or permutation of them. One of the more recent, prominent and actively
developed metaheuristic is Ant Colony Optimization (ACO) which was inspired by
the ants’ foraging behaviour. It was originally introduced by Dorigo [38], to solve
discrete optimization problems where each decision variable is characterized by a set
of components; see [39, 92] for instance. Many successful implementations of the
ACO metaheuristic have been applied to a number of different discrete optimization
problems [63]. These applications mainly concern NP-hard combinatorial optimiza-
tion problems including problems in routing [49], assembly sequence planning [37],
bioinformatics [15] and many other areas.
ACO was initially designed to solve the Traveling Salesman Problem (TSP),
where a salesman must visit a list of cities exactly once, using the shortest possible
route. The cities and paths between them can be represented as a connected graph,
and the ants move from one city to another following the pheromone trails on the
edges. Let Ti j (t) be the trail intensity on edge (i, j) at time t. Then, each ant chooses
the next city to visit depending on the intensity of the associated trail. When the ants
have completed their city tours, the trail intensity is updated according to:
Ti j (t + 1) = Ti j (t) + Ti j , ∈ [0, 1], (3)
where is a coefficient such that (1 − ) represents the evaporation of trail and


m
Ti j = Ti kj , (4)
k=1
where Ti kj is the pheromone quantity laid by the kth ant on edge (i, j), defined as:

1
, if edge (i, j) is in the trajectory of the kth ant,
Ti kj = Wk (5)
0, otherwise,
with Wk the tour length of the kth ant [38]. The transition probability Pikj from city
i to city j for the kth ant is defined as:
[Ti j ]a [ηi j ]b
Pikj = , (6)
l∈allowedk [Til ] [ηil ]
a b
where ηi j = 1/di j is called visibility and di j is the associated cost to travel from
city i to city j; a and b are parameters that control the relative importance of trail
versus cost, and allowedk is the set of allowed cities the kth ant can move to from city
i [50]. Genetic Algorithm, Simulated Annealing, Tabu Search and Particle Swarm
Optimization are other approaches we find in the literature to deal with combinatorial
optimization problems; see for instance [75, 79, 89, 100] for a detailed explanation
of them.
Since the emergence of these approaches as combinatorial optimization tools, at-
tempts have been made to use them for addressing continuous problems [87]. Now,
these metaheuristics that were originally developed for combinatorial optimization
are adapted to the continuous case. Examples include the Continuous Genetic Al-
gorithm [24], Enhanced Simulated Annealing [86], or Enhanced Continuous Tabu
Search [23]. There are also included some ant related methods. In this sense, Socha
and Dorigo [88], proposed one of the most popular and easy to implement ACO
algorithms for continuous domains, called Ant Colony Optimization for continuous
domain (ACOR ). It uses a solution archive as a form of pheromone model for the
derivation of a probability distribution over the search space. However, its use in
problems with many decision variables have some limitations, reported in Leguiza-
món and Coello [60]. Thus, Leguizamón and Coello [61] proposed an Alternative
Ant Colony Optimization for continuous domain (DACOR )2 which could be more
appropriate for large scale unconstrained continuous optimization problems. Later
on, Liao et al. [62] proposed an Incremental Ant Colony Optimization with Local
Search for continuous domain (IACOR -LS). This algorithm uses a growing solution
archive as an extra search diversification mechanism and a local search to intensify
the search. Subsequently, Liao et al. [64] proposed an ACO algorithm for continu-
ous optimization that combines algorithmic components from ACOR , DACOR and
IACOR -LS. They called it Unified Ant Colony Optimization for continuous domain
(UACOR ). It is unified, because from UACOR , we can instantiate the original ACOR ,
2 “D” stands for diversity.

DACOR and IACOR -LS algorithms by using specific combinations of the available
algorithmic components and parameter settings. Since in our inverse problem, we
only deal with four decision variables and considering that ACOR has proven to be
an efficient, versatile and easy to implement tool for continuous optimization, we
propose its use in our work. However, we do deal with a large scale direct problem
and motivated by the inherent parallelism of the ACOR and possible computation
speed up we suggest an implementation of the algorithm with parallel regions for
time-consuming tasks, using Open Multi-Processing (OpenMP).
4 Other Topics
Moreover, we mention other topics which have also received attention on the subject
of misaligned journal bearings. Literature concerning the topics of thermohydrody-
namic and elastohydrodynamic lubrication can be found in [1, 19, 54, 59, 76, 77, 93,
96, 99]. Besides, lubrication is not the only way to decrease the effect of friction; the
materials used and the quality of polished surfaces are also of major concern. How-
ever, if surfaces are extremely polished, it is probable a contrary trend to decrease
load capacity. It has often been observed in engineering practice that there is a risk of
sudden seizure if the surface is too smooth. In this sense, it is commonly believed that
small asperities play a useful role as a reservoir for the lubricant between asperities
[90]. The effect of surface roughness on the performance characteristics of bearings
can be found in [53, 85]. In general, roughness is one of the challenges of the field;
see [7–11, 68] and references there in, to study its effects in journal bearings for
different scenarios. More recent results on this topic can be found in [93, 94].
The current research on journal bearings also includes the applications of non-
Newtonian fluids to improve performance of modern machines [56]. Such non-
Newtonian fluids have shown that the stress is not directly proportional to the shear
strain, and the formulation of the governing equations needs to be changed. Litera-
ture on non-Newtonian fluids includes the works of [1, 17, 35, 57, 74]. The general
characterization of the behaviour of a misaligned journal bearing considering all
mentioned factors and including the prediction of its final position is very complex.
For that reason most researches focus on specific topics.
5 Fluid Film Thickness
In this section we depict the formulations of the fluid film thickness of a journal
bearing, for the parallel and the misaligned case. Actually, there are similar results
that can be found in the literature; see [48, 51] for instance. However, for making
this chapter self-contained we present their derivations in this section.
5.1 Parallel Case
Figure 3 depicts the cross section of a journal bearing. The inner cylinder, the shaft of
radius R, rotates in counter-clockwise direction at a constant velocity ω, about the X
axis. The film pressure generated by the moving surfaces, forces the lubricant through
a wedge shaped zone of thickness h, which varies according to the angle α. It is
assumed a coordinate system in which “y” represents the circumferential coordinate,
“z” is the coordinate across the fluid film and “x” depicts the journal bearing axial
dimension, orthogonal to the zy-plane. Let Ob and O j be the centres of the bearing
and shaft, respectively. The origin of coordinate “y” is located over the line segment
Ob O j , to place the minimum gap of the device at an angle = π. Moreover, the
reference z = 0 is taken on the bearing surface. The model characterizes the parallel
misalignment, where the shaft is allowed to move with two degrees of freedom.
Let M be a point over the bearing surface, represented by the angular coordinate
= (Ob A, Ob M), where Ob A and Ob M are line segments. The fluid film thickness
is given by:
h = Ob M − Ob M = Rb − Ob M . (7)

Applying the sine rule for the triangle O j M Ob we have:
O j M R R R ρ
= = = = , (8)
sin(O j Ob M ) sin(O j Ob M ) sin(π − ) sin() sin(α)
where
ρ R
sin(α) = sin() and Ob M = sin(Ob O j M ). (9)
R sin()
Fig. 3 Cross section of a Y

journal bearing
Φ
R
O
M’ ˜ R Z
M O
h
Notice that:

ρ
(Ob O j M ) = − α̃ = − arcsin sin() , (10)
R
and therefore:
R ρ
Ob M = sin − arcsin sin() . (11)
sin() R
Taking into account that:

ρ ρ 2 1/2
arcsin sin() = arccos 1 − sin() , (12)
R R
we can calculate the sine of the sum indicated in Eq. (11), from which we obtain:

R ρ 2 1/2

Ob M = sin() cos arccos 1 − sin()
sin() R
ρ
− cos() sin arcsin sin() ,
R
ρ 2 1/2
R ρ
Ob M = sin() 1 − sin() − cos() sin() ,
sin() R R
ρ 2 1/2
Ob M = R 1 − sin() − ρ cos(). (13)
R
Substituting Eq. (13) in (7) we have:

ρ 2 1/2
h = Rb − R 1 − sin() − ρ cos() . (14)
R
Let C = Rb − R be the radial clearance. It must be noticed the relation:
ρ C
< 1. (15)
R Rb
Thus, the term Rρ sin()

2
can be neglected compared to unit [48, p. 116]. The fluid
film thickness becomes:
h ≈ Rb − R + ρ cos(),
h ≈ C + ρ cos(). (16)
In Fig. 3 we can notice the relation = θ − α. Thus, Eq. (16) can be rewritten as:
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And so he came.
From prairie cabin up to Capitol,
One fair Ideal led our chieftain on.
Forevermore he burned to do his deed
With the fine stroke and gesture of a king.
He built the rail-pile as he built the State,
Pouring his splendid strength through every blow,
The conscience of him testing every stroke,
To make his deed the measure of a man.
So came the Captain with the mighty heart:
And when the step of Earthquake shook the house,
Wrenching the rafters from their ancient hold,
He held the ridgepole up, and spiked again
The rafters of the Home. He held his place—
Held the long purpose like a growing tree—
Held on through blame and faltered not at praise.
And when he fell in whirlwind, he went down
As when a kingly cedar green with boughs
Goes down with a great shout upon the hills,
And leaves a lonesome place against the sky.
—Copyright by Doubleday, Page & Co., New York, and used by

kind permission of author and publisher.
HONEST POVERTY
By Robert Burns
Is there for honest poverty

That hings his head, an’ a’ that?
The coward slave, we pass him by—
We dare be poor for a’ that,
The rank is but the guinea’s stamp,
The man’s the gowd for a’ that.
What though on hamely fare we dine,

Wear hoodin’ gray, an’ a’ that?
Gie fools their silks, and knaves their wine—
A man’s a man for a’ that.
For a’ that, an’ a’ that,
Their tinsel show, an’ a’ that,
The honest man, tho’ e’er sae poor,
Is king o’ men for a’ that.
Ye see yon birkie ca’d a lord,

Wha’ struts, an’ stares, an’ a’ that?
Tho’ hundreds worship at his word,
He’s but a cuif for a’ that.
His riband, star an’ a’ that,
The man of independent mind,
He looks an’ laughs at a’ that.
A prince can mak a belted knight,

A marquis, duke, an’ a’ that!
But an honest man’s aboon his might—
Guid faith, he mauna fa’ that!
Their dignities, an’ a’ that,
The pith o’ sense an’ pride o’ worth
Are higher rank than a’ that.
Then let us pray that come it may

(As come it will for a’ that)
That sense and worth o’er a’ the earth
Shall bear the gree an’ a’ that!
It’s comin’ yet for a’ that,
That man to man the world o’er
Shall brithers be for a’ that.
AN INCIDENT OF THE FRENCH CAMP
By Robert Browning
You know, we French stormed Ratisbon:

A mile or so away,
On a little mound, Napoleon
Stood on our storming-day;
With neck outthrust, you fancy how,
Legs wide, arms locked behind,
As if to balance the prone brow,
Oppressive with its mind.
Just as perhaps he mused, “My plans

That soar, to earth may fall,
Let once my army-leader Lannes
Waver at yonder wall,”—
Out ’twixt the battery-smokes there flew
A rider, bound on bound
Full-galloping; nor bridle drew
Until he reached the mound.
Then off there flung in smiling joy,

And held himself erect
By just his horse’s mane, a boy:
You hardly could suspect—
(So tight he kept his lips compressed,
Scarce any blood came through)
You looked twice ere you saw his breast
Was all but shot in two.
“Well,” cried he, “Emperor, by God’s grace

We’ve got you Ratisbon!
The marshal’s in the market-place,
And you’ll be there anon
To see your flag-bird flap his vans
Where I, to heart’s desire,
Perched him!” The chief’s eye flashed; his plans
Soared up again like fire.
The chief’s eye flashed; but presently

Softened itself, as sheathes
A film the mother-eagle’s eye
When her bruised eaglet breathes;
“You’re wounded!” “Nay,” his soldier’s pride
Touched to the quick, he said:
“I’m killed, sire!” And his chief beside,
Smiling the boy fell dead.
THE FOOL’S PRAYER

By Edward Roland Sill
The royal feast was done. The King

Sought some new sport to banish care,
And to his jester cried: “Sir Fool,
Kneel now, and make for us a prayer!”
He bowed his head, and bent his knee

Upon the monarch’s silken stool;
His pleading voice arose: “O Lord,
Be merciful to me, a fool!
“No pity, Lord, could change the heart

From red with wrong to white as wool;
The rod must heal the sin; but, Lord,
Be merciful to me, a fool!
“’Tis not by guilt the onward sweep

Of truth and right, O Lord, we stay;
’Tis by our follies that so long
We hold the earth from heaven away.
“These clumsy feet, still in the mire,

Go crushing blossoms without end;
These hard, well-meaning hands are thrust
Among the heart-strings of a friend.
“The ill-timed truth we might have kept—

Who knows how sharp it pierced and stung?
The word we had not sense to say—
Who knows how grandly it had rung?
“Our faults no tenderness should ask,

The chastening stripes must cleanse them all;
But for our blunders—oh, in shame
Before the eyes of heaven we fall.
“Earth bears no balsam for mistakes;

Men crown the knave and scourge the tool
That did his will; but Thou, O Lord,
Be merciful to me, a fool!”
The room was hushed; in silence rose

The King, and sought his gardens cool,
And walked apart, and murmured low,
“Be merciful to me, a fool!”
IKE WALTON’S PRAYER

By James Whitcomb Riley
I crave, dear Lord,

No boundless hoard
Of gold and gear,
Nor jewels fine,
No lands, nor kine,
Nor treasure-heaps of anything.—
Let but a little hut be mine
Where at the hearthstone I may hear
The cricket sing,
And have the shine
Of one glad woman’s eyes to make,
For my poor sake,
Our simple home a place divine;—
Just the wee cot—the cricket’s chirr—
Love, and the smiling face of her.
I pray not for

Great riches, nor
For vast estates, and castle-halls,—
Give me to hear the bare foot-falls
Of children o’er
An oaken floor,
New-rinsed with sunshine, or bespread
With but the tiny coverlet
And pillow for the baby’s head;
And pray Thou, may
The door stand open and the day
Send ever in a gentle breeze,
With fragrance from the locust-trees,
And drowsy moan of doves, and blur
Of robin-chirps, and drone of bees,
With after hushes of the stir
Of intermingling sounds, and then
The good-wife and the smile of her
Filling the silences again—
The cricket’s call,
And the wee cot,
Dear Lord of all,
Deny me not!
I pray not that

Men tremble at
My power of place,
And lordly sway,—
I only pray for simple grace
To look my neighbor in the face
Full honestly from day to day—
Yield me his horny palm to hold,
And I’ll not pray
For gold;—
The tanned face, garlanded with mirth,
It hath the kingliest smile on earth—
The swart brow, diamonded with sweat,
Hath never need of coronet.
And so I reach,
Dear Lord, to Thee,
And do beseech
Thou givest me
The wee cot, and the cricket’s chirr,
Love, and the glad sweet face of her.
THE LAST TATTOO

(DEDICATED TO THE REMAINING MEMBERS OF THE G. A. R.)
By John Milton Scott
Blow soft and low, O fife, to-day,

For thinner grow our ranks of blue;
The years our priceless heroes slay
Until the fewer grow more few
And dear familiar voices still
As patriot graves with patriots fill.
Beat soft and low, O drum, to-day

As tho’ you were a trembling sigh;
Dear, paling lips their last prayer say
While more and more dear comrades die,
Their feet across the dark door’s sill
Float gently, flag, and droop to-day

As droop the grasses o’er the brook;
They few and fewer grow each May;
For those we love we vainly look,
So many sunny smiles grow chill
O hush, exultant sounds, to-day!
For they are gone, these ranks on ranks
Who loved to hear the shrill fife play
And with their comrades render thanks,—
O Time, how many brave you kill
And patriot graves with patriots fill!
O, silken every sound to-day

And soften every bugle brave!
We can not bid our vision stay
From seeing our last comrade’s grave,—
O dear, last-billowed comrade hill!
Lone, last of graves our patriots fill!
O angel choir, wing low that day

And silken sing a Bethlehem strain
And all your pipes of welcome play!
Altho’ their brothers they have slain,
In brother love their hands grow white,
For what they did they thought was right.
Not into graves, but into skies,

Where love and life eternal are!
God’s reveille has bid them rise
Beyond earth’s sun and morning star
Where all men just love-brothers be
As One once said in Galilee.
LYRIC SELECTIONS IN POETRY
L’ENVOI
By Rudyard Kipling
When Earth’s last picture is painted, and the tubes are twisted and
dry,
When the oldest colors have faded, and the youngest critic has died,
We shall rest, and, faith, we shall need it—lie down for an æon or
two,
Till the Master of All Good Workmen shall put us to work anew!
And those that were good shall be happy: they shall sit in a golden
chair;
They shall splash at a ten-league canvas with brushes of comet’s
hair;
They shall find real saints to draw from—Magdalene, Peter, and
Paul;
They shall work for an age at a sitting and never be tired at all!
And only the Master shall praise us, and only the Master shall blame;
And no one shall work for money, and no one shall work for fame,
But each for the joy of working, and each, in his separate star,
Shall draw the thing as he sees it for the God of Things as They Are!
OUR FLAG
(Written expressly for this work)
’Tis homes make a country and children make homes

Where the heart is held true and the truth never roams,
Where joy is abounding and life overflows,
And love is the rapture which every one knows,
Where the pride of all hearts is the boy at his play,
His eyes like the sun overshining the day,
His cheeks like the roses his grandmother grew,
Shot through with a dimple the size of a dew
Which gives to his smile irresistible grace
As his sister looks down in his uplifted face;
In such bright-shining faces our true eyes may see
The love which shall honor our Flag of the Free.
Whatever they say, however they brag,

’Tis these put the red in our flag,
Not our patriot deaths,
Not our gold nor our lands,
Not our fifes nor our drums,
Not our captains’ commands;
But the homes and the children,
Our country’s true worth,
The grace and the greatness,
The glory of earth,—
The children, the children,
Light-hearted and free
Who play in the sunshine
And pray at our knee,—
O ’tis homes and the children
Where joys never lag,—
’Tis these keep the red in our flag,
Our flag of the red, white and blue
To which home-hearts and child-hearts are true.
’Tis the mothers of men who give us our lives,

Who give us our children, who give us our wives,—
O ’tis woman’s great heart which hallows and trues
And makes the straight line to which our ax hews;
’Tis our wives and our daughters who keep our feet straight
In the paths where God’s honor and man’s honor mate;
Where woman is honored as mother and wife
The war drum throbs never nor screams the shrill fife;
There freedom and justice with honor and truth
Keep our nation alive in the vigor of youth,—
There smile the bright heavens which never wax old,
And there a free flag will forever unfold.

’Tis these put the white in our flag.
But the women, the women,
The women, the women
With hands free to do
Will build a great state
As tender, as true,—
O the free hearts of women,
Unchoked by hate’s slag,
’Tis these keep the white in our flag,
To which our love-honor is true.
’Tis city and country where good neighbors live

And their love and their labors so joyously give,
That bodies be clothed and hungers be fed,
That with love in our heart and truth in our head,
Great thoughts and great dreams together we share
As we meet at the market or kneel at our prayer;
When our feet at one fireside make mellow our speech
As together we plan our ideals to reach,
What visions together we wisely may find
To make our earth friendlier, truer, more kind,
That our flag tell the beauty of man to the world
Wherever in freedom and justice unfurled.
’Tis these put the blue in our flag,—
But our neighbors, good neighbors,
Our neighbors, good neighbors,
Without hurt or hate,
Whose love and whose labors
Have builded our state,—
O, ’tis neighbors, good neighbors
Whose hearts never sag,—
’Tis these keep the blue in our flag,
Which good neighbors ever renew.
“Where the vision is not the people will die,”

Said the word of truth sounding God’s voice from the sky;
As trees draw their vigor from the sun-quickened air,
That they grow globing fruits which make the year fair,
So the dreams and the visions of young men and maids
Show heavens of glory through which our flag wades
Where dreams come awake and visions fulfill
In a world that’s so human no hatreds can kill,—
There the noble ideal forever leads on;
There are stars for our nights and suns for our dawn,
The dreamers and lovers by God justified
In a love-world Christ visioned and for which He died.

’Tis these put the stars in our flag;
But our visions and dreams,
The dreamers, the dreamers,
Love-visioned by God,
Bring the stars to our earth,
To the stars lift our sod;
’Tis the visions and dreams,
Scaling mountain and crag,—
’Tis these keep the stars in our flag,
Which from dream hearts unfolded and flew.
Without a free earth there’s no sky for our flag,

And vainly of rights and of freedom we brag;
There Tyranny still is exploiting its slaves,
And we buy rights to live, and, then, buy our graves;
Such flag of the free our poverty mocks
As the ways of progression the privileged Greed blocks;
But free land and free men make our flag’s holy sky,
And our winds never weary with Poverty’s cry.
Here man to his fellow is never for sale,
And free men to free men give good neighbor hail,
In whose cheery words we ever shall hear
The flap of our flag and our patriots’ cheer.

’Tis these make a sky for our flag.
But free land and free men,
The freemen, the freemen
With brothering palms
Who love one another
And praise God in psalms,—
O ’tis free land and free men,
And no poverty’s rag,—
’Tis these make a sky for our flag,
To which freemen forever are true.
THANKS FOR AMERICA AND ITS FLAG!

Dear God, whose Heart is Freedom’s home,

Whose joy is that Thine earth be free,
We thank Thee for our native land
And for its growing liberty;
We praise Thee for its holy Flag
By precious blood so consecrate,
A banner born of patriot love
And weaving in its folds no hate.
Its glory shines anear, afar

On murk and midnight tyranny,
A streak of Freedom’s blessed dawn
Which tyrant-hating eyes do see,
And, taking heart, they braver toil
Their country’s liberties to gain,
Till some bright day no land is found
But sings great Freedom’s glad refrain.
Our banner’s red speaks patriots’ blood,

Its white a noble faithfulness,
Its blue of truth, and all its stars
Are hopes for grander days to bless;
For it, for all who made it great,
The living ones or sacred dead,
We thank Thee through our smiles and tears
Who love its white and blue and red.
We’ll take it as their sacred trust,

And, as they, keep it true and tried,
To pass it stainless when we die,
That all its love and truth abide.
O may it deeper meanings gain
Through all the changing, growing years,
Fulfilling every liberty,
The rainbow of each captive’s tears.
And may it brother other flags,

Behold in each some human worth,
Till peace divine whites each and all,
A fellowship that fills our earth;
O then no enemy is found
Upon the wide world’s mother-breast,
In every heart Christ-gentleness,
And every flag with Christ-love blest.
THERE WAS A MAN

By David Starr Jordan
There was a man who saw God face to face;

His countenance and vestments evermore
Glowed with a light that never shone before,
Saving from him who saw God face to face.
And men, anear him for a little space,
Were sorely vexed at the unwonted light.
Those whom the light did blind rose angrily;
They bore his body to a mountain height
And nailed it to a tree; then went their way,
And he resisted not nor said them nay,
Because that he had seen God face to face.
There was a man who saw Life face to face;

And ever as he walked from day to day,
The deathless mystery of being lay
Plain as the path he trod in loneliness;
And each deep-hid inscription could he trace;
How men have fought and loved and fought again;
How in lone darkness souls cried out for pain;
How each green foot of sod from sea to sea
Was red with blood of men slain wantonly;
How tears of pity warm as summer rain
Again and ever washed the stains away,
Leaving to Love, at last, the victory.
Above the strife and hate and fever pain,
The squalid talk and walk of sordid men,
He saw the vision changeless as the stars
That shone through temple gates or prison bars,
Or to the body nailed upon the tree,
Through each mean action of the life that is,
The marvel of the Life that yet shall be.
TO A MOCKING-BIRD IN CALIFORNIA
(Written expressly for this Reader)
“Gertie! Gertie! Gertie!” “Peter! Peter! Peter!”

In the morn when wings are fleeter,
In the noon when skies are bright
You call these names in wild delight.
Who is this “Gertie,” who this “Peter”

Who go rapturing through your meter?
Did you hear beneath your tree

These names called in ecstasy,
When your heart caught fire, and flames
In love—calling these dear names?
Did Gertie’s heart go twitter, tweeter

When she heard the call of Peter?
Did Peter’s heart beat wild and hurty
When he heard the call of Gertie?
And who this “Gertie,” who this “Peter”
Teaching you such silk-toned meter?
Mocking-birds have thuswise sang

Since Time’s song of joy upsprang,
And to each your lyric brought
Something that his spirit sought;
Some perfect which the heart still dreams,
Though Sorrow’s sands fill all the streams,
No waters in their olden place,
Nor in your eyes the olden face;
Nor in your ears that olden voice;
Yet something makes us still rejoice
And rapture dreams with mating birds
As if our hearts filled with their words.
“Gertie! Gertie! Gertie!” “Peter! Peter! Peter!”
Who set the mock-bird’s throat to meter?
Maybe Eve called Adam so

In dark days when shadowed woe;
Thus called Adam in the dark
When Eve’s heart in fear called “Hark!”
Or might it be in Abram’s time

Love taught you this sweetheart rhyme,—
Some trembling tones in Haran’s tongue
Ere the world-famed march begun?
Or when Ruth gleaned th’ alien corn,

Maybe, then, your song was born,
’Neath the whisp’ring palms one hour
Where you refuged from a shower?
Or some youth in David’s band

Taught your throat in Israel’s land,—
Maybe David’s self, before
His song-heart the king-cares wore,
When his boy-heart whistled true
As wildly free as now are you?
His psalm of joy you often heard
Which now you sing without his word?
With his maiden, were you there
When his first kiss was like a prayer?
You heard his son, the song-wise king,

In heart-beat, song-beat rapturing
So fine, his songs are scriptures now
In which true lover hearts may bow,
Learning how to rapture speech,
That heart to heart through words may reach?
Maybe Greek, when Helen’s charm

Made old Homer’s heroes arm?
Or some dark-eyed odalisque
When Egyptian lips were kist?
Or did some Roman maiden sigh
When Cæsar’s soldier said Good-by?
Spake some shepherd on that night

Just before the Christmas light
Burst upon the flocks so still,
And the winds with angels fill,—
Spake some shepherd in a tryst
Just before he saw Babe-Christ?
Maybe she, the Magdalene,

Ere the ways of shame were seen,
Heard and said ’neath purpling vine
These sweet, holy words of thine?
Did she find, Christ-cleansed and pure,
Him whose words were thy throat’s lure,
And did they both together then
Tell the Christ’s love for all men?
Or some Christian’s true heart-call

Ere the martyr’s cup of gall
Pressed the lips by love caressed
Which unto death the Christ confessed?
Or later, with the centuries gone,

Your song, in a Castilian dawn,
Raptures to a red, red rose,
And Columbus stronger grows
For his journey far away
Within his heart your brave, bright lay?
Wept black eyes in sun-bright Spain

When dared his crew the unknown main?
Those sorrow-tones you’re calling now,
Your rippling wave-sounds from his prow;
We almost hear the whistling sails
In your wild song which never fails
Of courage which can travel far
To bring a joy back from a star,
Or bring the moon’s remotest beam
To build in joy a Jacob’s dream
O’er which the song-glad angels go

To bring the smiles of heaven below,
That hearts which pillow on hard stone
May have a song for every moan.
Did they hear you in that breeze

Blowing o’er uncharted seas,
Remembering, then, the night-eyed maid
In whose smile all fears were laid?
Perhaps your lure was on the wave,
The first call that the New World gave,
As Fate urged him on and on,
Into that splendid glory drawn
Wherein a New World was his gift
In which our starry flag can lift,
Proclaiming all men equal, free,
A world of brothers,—yet to be?
O ’twere fine, if we but knew

’Twas your song hailed that brave crew,—
Columbus’ ears enraptured by
Your song-flights in this new sky,
By your welcome to this shore
Which welcomes exiles ever more,—
All song-tongues your singings span,
You a true American
With welcome for all alien feet
Who with Freedom here would meet.
Did doe-eyes in joyous France

To such words in rapture dance,
Giving that charmèd land its grace
Where each face, a lover’s face,
Sets the heart to music’s notes
As they thrill from bird-sweet throats?
Did Lafayette from your free wings

Catch the song which Freedom sings;
As he hearkened to your cheer,
Growing dearer and more dear,
Till upon our country’s soil
He nobly wrought in battle-toil,
That our flag might float as free
As your song-flights in his tree?
But my questions lose their way,—

You sing what tender lovers say,—

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Textbook Mathematics Applied To Engineering Modelling and Social Issues Frank T Smith Ebook All Chapter PDF

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Available Formats

Mathematics Applied to Engineering

Modelling and Social Issues Frank T.

Applied Stochastic Modelling, Second Edition Byron J T

Mathematics Applied to Engineering and Management 1st

Applied Engineering Mathematics 1st Edition Brian Vick

Functional Analysis in Applied Mathematics and

Mathematical Methods in Engineering and Applied

Applied mathematics in hydrogeology Lee

Information Technology and Applied Mathematics Peeyush

Graduate Medical Education Issues and Options 1st

More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/13304

ISSN 2198-4182 ISSN 2198-4190 (electronic)

Library of Congress Control Number: 2018968112

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019

This book contains several aspects of current researches in mathematics having

presence of appreciable radiation, thermal diffusion and uniform transverse mag-

The Chap. “Transport on Networks—A Playground of Continuous and Discrete

susceptible individuals with low level of tuberculosis awareness and maximizing

London, UK Frank T. Smith

On the Reynolds Equation and the Load Problem in Lubrication:

Numerical Techniques for Fractional Competition Dynamics

Salem Abdelmalek Department of Mathematics, University of Tebessa, Tebessa,

Michal Fečkan Department of Mathematical Analysis and Numerical

Kolade M. Owolabi Faculty of Natural and Agricultural Sciences, Institute for

Hassán Lombera Rodríguez and J. Ignacio Tello

Abstract In this chapter, we provide a literature review concerning the theory of

Keywords Reynolds equation · Hydrodynamic lubrication · Journal bearing ·

1 On the Beginning of the Theory of Hydrodynamic

Hydrodynamic lubrication is a phenomenon characterized by a lubricant flowing

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019 1

Fig. 1 Schematic diagram for the limits of hydrodynamic lubrication

(a) Boundary lubrication regime (b) Mixed lubrication regime

(c) Hydrodynamic lubrication regime

Fig. 2 Types of lubrication regimes present on the Stribeck curve

3 corresponds to hydrodynamic lubrication and is described by RE; see Fig. 2c. In

2 On Misalignment and Cavitation in Journal Bearings

h̄ = 1 + ρ̄ cos(θ − α), (2)

observed that when a bearing is subjected to severe misalignment, the maximum

1 It represents the lubricant concentration.

3 The Inverse Problem. Its Numerical Resolution

Ti j (t + 1) = Ti j (t) + Ti j ,  ∈ [0, 1], (3)

where  is a coefficient such that (1 − ) represents the evaporation of trail and

2 “D” stands for diversity.

5 Fluid Film Thickness

5.1 Parallel Case

Fig. 3 Cross section of a Y

Taking into account that:

Substituting Eq. (13) in (7) we have:

Let C = Rb − R be the radial clearance. It must be noticed the relation:

Thus, the term Rρ sin()

—Copyright by Doubleday, Page & Co., New York, and used by

Is there for honest poverty

What though on hamely fare we dine,

Ye see yon birkie ca’d a lord,

A prince can mak a belted knight,

Then let us pray that come it may

You know, we French stormed Ratisbon:

Just as perhaps he mused, “My plans

Then off there flung in smiling joy,

“Well,” cried he, “Emperor, by God’s grace

The chief’s eye flashed; but presently

THE FOOL’S PRAYER

The royal feast was done. The King

Ti j (t + 1) = Ti j (t) + Ti j , ∈ [0, 1], (3)

where is a coefficient such that (1 − ) represents the evaporation of trail and